Neuroglia and their roles in central respiratory control; an overview

Central respiratory command and microglia: An early-life partnership

Microglia, brain-resident macrophages, are key players in brain development, regulating synapse density, shaping neural circuits, contributing to plasticity, and maintaining nervous tissue homeostasis. These functions are ensured from early prenatal development until maturity, in normal and pathological states of the central nervous system. Microglia dysfunction can be involved in several neurodevelopmental disorders, some of which are associated with respiratory deficits. Breathing is a rhythmic motor behavior generated and controlled by hindbrain neuronal networks. The operation of the central respiratory command relies on the proper development of these rhythmogenic networks, formation of their appropriate interactions, and their lifelong constant adaptation to physiological needs. This review, focusing exclusively on the perinatal period, outlines recent advances obtained in rodents in determining the roles of microglia in the establishment and functioning of the respiratory networks and their involvement in certain pathologies.

Purinergic signaling mediates neuroglial interactions to modulate sighs

Sighs prevent the collapse of alveoli in the lungs, initiate arousal under hypoxic conditions, and are an expression of sadness and relief. Sighs are periodically superimposed on normal breaths, known as eupnea. Implicated in the generation of these rhythmic behaviors is the preBötzinger complex (preBötC). Our experimental evidence suggests that purinergic signaling is necessary to generate spontaneous and hypoxia-induced sighs in a mouse model. Our results demonstrate that driving calcium increases in astrocytes through pharmacological methods robustly increases sigh, but not eupnea, frequency. Calcium imaging of preBötC slices corroborates this finding with an increase in astrocytic calcium upon application of sigh modulators, increasing intracellular calcium through g-protein signaling. Moreover, photo-activation of preBötC astrocytes is sufficient to elicit sigh activity, and this response is blocked with purinergic antagonists. We conclude that sighs are modulated through neuron-glia coupling in the preBötC network, where the distinct modulatory responses of neurons and glia allow for both rhythms to be independently regulated.

The endocannabinoid system and breathing

Recent changes in cannabis accessibility have provided adjunct therapies for patients across numerous disease states and highlights the urgency in understanding how cannabinoids and the endocannabinoid (EC) system interact with other physiological structures. The EC system plays a critical and modulatory role in respiratory homeostasis and pulmonary functionality. Respiratory control begins in the brainstem without peripheral input, and coordinates the preBötzinger complex, a component of the ventral respiratory group that interacts with the dorsal respiratory group to synchronize burstlet activity and drive inspiration. An additional rhythm generator: the retrotrapezoid nucleus/parafacial respiratory group drives active expiration during conditions of exercise or high CO₂. Combined with the feedback information from the periphery: through chemo- and baroreceptors including the carotid bodies, the cranial nerves, stretch of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, lung tissue, and immune cells, and the cranial nerves, our respiratory system can fine tune motor outputs that ensure we have the oxygen necessary to survive and can expel the CO₂ waste we produce, and every aspect of this process can be influenced by the EC system. The expansion in cannabis access and potential therapeutic benefits, it is essential that investigations continue to uncover the underpinnings and mechanistic workings of the EC system. It is imperative to understand the impact cannabis, and exogenous cannabinoids have on these physiological systems, and how some of these compounds can mitigate respiratory depression when combined with opioids or other medicinal therapies. This review highlights the respiratory system from the perspective of central versus peripheral respiratory functionality and how these behaviors can be influenced by the EC system. This review will summarize the literature available on organic and synthetic cannabinoids in breathing and how that has shaped our understanding of the role of the EC system in respiratory homeostasis. Finally, we look at some potential future therapeutic applications the EC system has to offer for the treatment of respiratory diseases and a possible role in expanding the safety profile of opioid therapies while preventing future opioid overdose fatalities that result from respiratory arrest or persistent apnea.

Neuron-Microglia Crosstalk in Neuropsychiatric Disorders

Numerous studies have investigated the causes and mechanisms of psychiatric disorders through postmortem examination of patients with a history of a schizophrenia, mood disorder, or neurocognitive disorder. In addition, the search for specific mechanism-based treatments for psychiatric disorders has been intensified through the use of transgenic animal models involving specific genes tightly associated with psychiatric disorders. As a result, many studies with patients or animal models have reported a close association of neuroglia with major psychiatric disorders. Recently, research has focused on the associations between microglia and major psychiatric disorders and on the role of the immune response and abnormal microglia in the onset and symptoms of psychiatric disorders, in particular. Postmortem studies of brain tissue and animal models recapitulating human mental disorders have also confirmed association between psychiatric disorders and quantitative, structural, or functional abnormalities of neuron-microglia crosstalk. This review aims to describe the relationships between microglia and major psychiatric disorders and to specifically examine studies of gene expression and function of microglia in depression, schizophrenia, and Alzheimer's disease.

Activation of Astrocytes in the Persistence of Post-hypoxic Respiratory Augmentation

Acute hypoxia increases ventilation. After cessation of hypoxia loading, ventilation decreases but remains above the pre-exposure baseline level for a time. However, the mechanism of this post-hypoxic persistent respiratory augmentation (PHRA), which is a short-term potentiation of breathing, has not been elucidated. We aimed to test the hypothesis that astrocytes are involved in PHRA. To this end, we investigated hypoxic ventilatory responses by whole-body plethysmography in unanesthetized adult mice. The animals breathed room air, hypoxic gas mixture (7% O₂, 93% N₂) for 2min, and again room air for 10min before and after i.p. administration of low (100mg/kg) and high (300mg/kg) doses of arundic acid (AA), an astrocyte inhibitor. AA suppressed PHRA, with the high dose decreasing ventilation below the pre-hypoxic level. Further, we investigated the role of the astrocytic TRPA1 channel, a putative ventilatory hypoxia sensor, in PHRA using astrocyte-specific Trpa1 knockout (asTrpa1^−/−) and floxed Trpa1 (Trpa1^f/f) mice. In both Trpa1^f/f and asTrpa1^−/− mice, PHRA was noticeable, indicating that the astrocyte TRPA1 channel was not directly involved in PHRA. Taken together, these results indicate that astrocytes mediate the PHRA by mechanisms other than TRPA1 channels that are engaged in hypoxia sensing.

The lamprey respiratory network: Some evolutionary aspects

Breathing is a complex behaviour that involves rhythm generating networks. In this review, we examine the main characteristics of respiratory rhythm generation in vertebrates and, in particular, we describe the main results of our studies on the role of neural mechanisms involved in the neuromodulation of the lamprey respiration. The lamprey respiratory rhythm generator is located in the paratrigeminal respiratory group (pTRG) and shows similarities with the mammalian preBötzinger complex. In fact, within the pTRG a major role is played by glutamate, but also GABA and glycine display important contributions. In addition, neuromodulatory influences are exerted by opioids, substance P, acetylcholine and serotonin. Both structures respond to exogenous ATP with a biphasic response and astrocytes there located strongly contribute to the modulation of the respiratory pattern. The results emphasize that some important characteristics of the respiratory rhythm generating network are, to a great extent, maintained throughout evolution.

Astrocytic contribution to glutamate-related central respiratory chemoreception in vertebrates

Central respiratory chemoreceptors play a key role in the respiratory homeostasis by sensing CO₂ and H⁺ in brain and activating the respiratory neural network. This ability of specific brain regions to respond to acidosis and hypercapnia is based on neuronal and glial mechanisms. Several decades ago, glutamatergic transmission was proposed to be involved as a main mechanism in central chemoreception. However, a complete identification of mechanism has been elusive. At the rostral medulla, chemosensitive neurons of the retrotrapezoid nucleus (RTN) are glutamatergic and they are stimulated by ATP released by RTN astrocytes in response to hypercapnia. In addition, recent findings show that caudal medullary astrocytes in brainstem can also contribute as CO₂ and H⁺ sensors that release D-serine and glutamate, both gliotransmitters able to activate the respiratory neural network. In this review, we describe the mammalian astrocytic glutamatergic contribution to the central respiratory chemoreception trying to trace in vertebrates the emergence of several components involved in this process.

Neuron-astrocyte networking: astrocytes orchestrate and respond to changes in neuronal network activity across brain states and behaviors

Astrocytes are known to play many important roles in brain function. However, research underscoring the extent to which astrocytes modulate neuronal activity is still underway. Here we review the latest evidence regarding the contribution of astrocytes to neuronal oscillations across the brain, with a specific focus on how astrocytes respond to changes in brain state (e.g., sleep, arousal, stress). We then discuss the general mechanisms by which astrocytes signal to neurons to modulate neuronal activity, ultimately driving changes in behavior, followed by a discussion of how astrocytes contribute to respiratory rhythms in the medulla. Finally, we contemplate the possibility that brain stem astrocytes could modulate brainwide oscillations by communicating the status of oxygenation to higher cortical areas.

Expression of nischarin, an imidazoline 1 receptor candidate protein, in the ventrolateral medulla of newborn rats

The activation of imidazoline 1 (I₁) receptors is suggested to stimulate the respiratory drive in newborn rats. Here, we immunohistochemically examined whether nischarin, an I₁ receptor candidate protein, is expressed in the ventrolateral medulla, where cardiorespiratory centers are located. Newborn rats (age, 3-5 days) were deeply anesthetized with isoflurane; the brainstem was dissected, sectioned sagittally, and labeled with nischarin. Nischarin-associated signals were observed broadly throughout the newborn rat brainstem, including at motor nuclei (motor trigeminal nucleus and facial nucleus), sensory nuclei (lateral superior olive, medial and spinal vestibular nuclei, cuneate nucleus, spinal trigeminal nucleus, and solitary nucleus), and the rostral and caudal ventrolateral medullar regions. In particular, the rostral ventrolateral medulla included a layer of aggregated nischarin expression along the ventral surface, and the layer was in close contact with GFAP-positive processes. In addition, some Phox2b-positive neurons were positive for nischarin in the region. Our results reveal nischarin expression in the newborn rat brainstem and suggest that I₁ receptor activation at the level of the ventrolateral medulla contributes to central chemoreception and respiratory control in newborn rats.

Mechanisms underlying the sensation of dyspnea

Dyspnea is defined as a subjective experience of breathing discomfort that consists of qualitatively distinct sensations that vary in intensity. It is a common symptom among patients with respiratory diseases that reduces daily activities, induces deconditioning, and is self-perpetuating. Although clinical interventions are needed to reduce dyspnea, its underlying mechanism is poorly understood depending on the intertwined peripheral and central neural mechanisms as well as emotional factors. Nonetheless, experimental and clinical observations suggest that dyspnea results from dissociation or a mismatch between the intended respiratory motor output set caused by the respiratory neuronal network in the lower brainstem and the ventilatory output accomplished. The brain regions responsible for detecting the mismatch between the two are not established. The mechanism underlying the transmission of neural signals for dyspnea to higher sensory brain centers is not known. Further, information from central and peripheral chemoreceptors that control the milieu of body fluids is summated at higher brain centers, which modify dyspneic sensations. The mental status also affects the sensitivity to and the threshold of dyspnea perception. The currently used methods for relieving dyspnea are not necessarily fully effective. The search for more effective therapy requires further insights into the pathophysiology of dyspnea.

Caffeine prevents prostaglandin E1-induced disturbances in respiratory control in neonatal rats: implications for infants with critical congenital heart disease

Continuous infusion of prostaglandin E1 (PGE₁) is used to maintain ductus arteriosus patency in infants with critical congenital heart disease, but it can also cause central apnea suggesting an effect on respiratory neural control. In this study, we investigated whether 1) PGE₁ inhibits the various phases of the acute hypoxic ventilatory response (HVR; an index of respiratory control dysfunction) and increases apnea incidence in neonatal rats; and 2) whether these changes would be reversible with caffeine pretreatment. Whole body plethysmography was used to assess the HVR and apnea incidence in neonatal rats 2 h following a single bolus intraperitoneal injection of PGE₁ with and without prior caffeine treatment. Untreated rats exhibited a biphasic HVR characterized by an initial increase in minute ventilation followed by a ventilatory decline of the late phase (~5th minute) of the HVR. PGE₁ had a dose-dependent effect on the HVR. Contrary to our hypothesis, the lowest dose (1 µg/kg) of PGE₁ prevented the ventilatory decline of the late phase of the HVR. However, PGE₁ tended to increase postsigh apnea incidence and the coefficient of variability (CV) of breathing frequency, suggesting increased respiratory instability. PGE₁ also decreased brainstem microglia mRNA and increased neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and platelet-derived growth factor-β (PDGF-β) gene expression. Caffeine pretreatment prevented these effects of PGE₁, and the adenosine A_2A receptor inhibitor MSX-3 had similar preventative effects. Prostaglandin appears to have deleterious effects on brainstem respiratory control regions, possibly involving a microglial-dependent mechanism. The compensatory effects of caffeine or MSX-3 treatment raises the question of whether prostaglandin may also operate on an adenosine-dependent pathway.

Impact of inflammation on developing respiratory control networks: rhythm generation, chemoreception and plasticity

The respiratory control network in the central nervous system undergoes critical developmental events early in life to ensure adequate breathing at birth. There are at least three "critical windows" in development of respiratory control networks: 1) in utero, 2) newborn (postnatal day 0-4 in rodents), and 3) neonatal (P10-13 in rodents, 2-4 months in humans). During these critical windows, developmental processes required for normal maturation of the respiratory control network occur, thereby increasing vulnerability of the network to insults, such as inflammation. Early life inflammation (induced by LPS, chronic intermittent hypoxia, sustained hypoxia, or neonatal maternal separation) acutely impairs respiratory rhythm generation, chemoreception and increases neonatal risk of mortality. These early life impairments are also greater in young males, suggesting sex-specific impairments in respiratory control. Further, neonatal inflammation has a lasting impact on respiratory control by impairing adult respiratory plasticity. This review focuses on how inflammation alters respiratory rhythm generation, chemoreception and plasticity during each of the three critical windows. We also highlight the need for additional mechanistic studies and increased investigation into how glia (such as microglia and astrocytes) play a role in impaired respiratory control after inflammation. Understanding how inflammation during critical windows of development disrupt respiratory control networks is essential for developing better treatments for vulnerable neonates and preventing adult ventilatory control disorders.

Circular RNA NF1-419 enhances autophagy to ameliorate senile dementia by binding Dynamin-1 and Adaptor protein 2 B1 in AD-like mice

Recent studies have demonstrated circular RNAs (circRNAs) to be widely expressed and to have important physiological functions. However, the expression, regulation, and function of circRNAs in neuroglial cells are unknown. Herein, we characterized the expression, regulation, and function of circRNAs in astrocytes. Astrocyte circRNAs were identified by computational analysis of newborn SD rat primary astrocytes cultured with 20 g/L D-galactose. In this manner, 7376 circRNAs were identified, among which most circRNAs (5754) were derived from annot_exons, whereas 27 were antisense, 853 were exon/intron, 329 were intergenic, 41 were intronic, and 372 were one exon. Among these, circNF1-419 was demonstrated to regulate autophagy, in over-expressing circNF1-419 transfected astrocytes, through the PI3K-I/Akt-AMPK-mTOR and PI3K-I/Akt-mTOR signaling pathways. An adenovirus associated virus packaging system (virus titer 1 ×10¹²), over-expressing circNF1-419 and injected into mouse cerebral cortex, showed autophagy enhancing activity by binding the proteins Dynamin-1 and Adaptor protein 2 B1 (AP2B1). This binding regulated aging markers (p21, p35/25, and p16) and inflammatory factors (TNF-α and NF-κB), and reduced the expression of Alzheimer’s disease marker proteins (Tau, p-Tau, Aβ_1-42, and APOE), which delayed senile dementia. Transcriptome analysis of the brain showed that circNF1-419 improved other signaling pathways, especially those related to the synapses of SAMP8 mice. These findings provide novel insights into circNF1-419 and its potential usefulness for the diagnosis and treatment of dementia by regulating Dynamin-1 and AP2B1 mediated autophagy.

Mechanistic actions of oxygen and methylxanthines on respiratory neural control and for the treatment of neonatal apnea

Apnea remains one of the most concerning and prevalent respiratory disorders spanning all ages from infants (particularly those born preterm) to adults. Although the pathophysiological consequences of apnea are fairly well described, the neural mechanisms underlying the etiology of the different types of apnea (central, obstructive, and mixed) still remain incompletely understood. From a developmental perspective, however, research into the respiratory neural control system of immature animals has shed light on both central and peripheral neural pathways underlying apnea of prematurity (AOP), a highly prevalent respiratory disorder of preterm infants. Animal studies have also been fundamental in furthering our understanding of how clinical interventions (e.g. pharmacological and mechanical) exert their beneficial effects in the clinical treatment of apnea. Although current clinical interventions such as supplemental O₂ and positive pressure respiratory support are critically important for the infant in respiratory distress, they are not fully effective and can also come with unfortunate, unintended (and long-term) side-effects. In this review, we have chosen AOP as one of the most common clinical scenarios involving apnea to highlight the mechanistic basis behind how some of the interventions could be both beneficial and also deleterious to the respiratory neural control system. We have included a section on infants with critical congenital heart diseases (CCHD), in whom apnea can be a clinical concern due to treatment with prostaglandin, and who may benefit from some of the treatments used for AOP.

Glial Dysfunction in MeCP2 Deficiency Models: Implications for Rett Syndrome

Rett syndrome (RTT) is a rare, X-linked neurodevelopmental disorder typically affecting females, resulting in a range of symptoms including autistic features, intellectual impairment, motor deterioration, and autonomic abnormalities. RTT is primarily caused by the genetic mutation of the Mecp2 gene. Initially considered a neuronal disease, recent research shows that glial dysfunction contributes to the RTT disease phenotype. In the following manuscript, we review the evidence regarding glial dysfunction and its effects on disease etiology.

Respiratory frequency plasticity during development

Respiratory frequency plasticity is a long-lasting increase in breathing frequency due to a perturbation. Mechanisms underlying respiratory frequency are poorly understood, and there is little evidence of frequency plasticity in neonates. This hybrid review/research article discusses available literature regarding frequency plasticity and highlights potential research opportunities. Also, we include data demonstrating a model of frequency plasticity using isolated neonatal rat brainstem-spinal cord preparations. Specifically, substance P (SubP) application induced a long-lasting (>60 min) increase in spontaneous respiratory motor burst frequency, particularly in brainstem-spinal cords with the pons attached; there were no male/female differences. SubP-induced frequency plasticity is dependent on the application pattern, such that intermittent (rather than sustained) SubP applications induce more frequency plasticity. SubP-induced frequency plasticity was blocked by a neurokinin-1 receptor antagonist. Thus, the newborn rat respiratory control system has the capacity to express frequency plasticity. Identifying mechanisms that induce frequency plasticity may lead to novel methods to safely treat breathing disorders in premature and newborn infants.

Carotid Bodies and the Integrated Cardiorespiratory Response to Hypoxia

Advances in our understanding of brain mechanisms for the hypoxic ventilatory response, coordinated changes in blood pressure, and the long-term consequences of chronic intermittent hypoxia as in sleep apnea, such as hypertension and heart failure, are giving impetus to the search for therapies to "erase" dysfunctional memories distributed in the carotid bodies and central nervous system. We review current network models, open questions, sex differences, and implications for translational research.

Morphometric analysis of astrocytes in brainstem respiratory regions

Astrocytes, the most abundant and structurally complex glial cells of the central nervous system, are proposed to play an important role in modulating the activities of neuronal networks, including respiratory rhythm‐generating circuits of the preBötzinger complex (preBötC) located in the ventrolateral medulla of the brainstem. However, structural properties of astrocytes residing within different brainstem regions are unknown. In this study astrocytes in the preBötC, an intermediate reticular formation (IRF) region with respiratory‐related function, and a region of the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) in adult rats were reconstructed and their morphological features were compared. Detailed morphological analysis revealed that preBötC astrocytes are structurally more complex than those residing within the functionally distinct neighboring IRF region, or the NTS, located at the dorsal aspect of the medulla oblongata. Structural analyses of the brainstem microvasculature indicated no significant regional differences in vascular properties. We hypothesize that high morphological complexity of preBötC astrocytes reflects their functional role in providing structural/metabolic support and modulation of the key neuronal circuits essential for breathing, as well as constraints imposed by arrangements of associated neurons and/or other local structural features of the brainstem parenchyma.

Advances in cellular and integrative control of oxygen homeostasis within the central nervous system

Mammals must continuously regulate the levels of O2 and CO2 , which is particularly important for the brain. Failure to maintain adequate O2 /CO2 homeostasis has been associated with numerous disorders including sleep apnoea, Rett syndrome and sudden infant death syndrome. But, O2 /CO2 homeostasis poses major regulatory challenges, even in the healthy brain. Neuronal activities change in a differentiated, spatially and temporally complex manner, which is reflected in equally complex changes in O2 demand. This raises important questions: is oxygen sensing an emergent property, locally generated within all active neuronal networks, and/or the property of specialized O2 -sensitive CNS regions? Increasing evidence suggests that the regulation of the brain's redox state involves properties that are intrinsic to many networks, but that specialized regions in the brainstem orchestrate the integrated control of respiratory and cardiovascular functions. Although the levels of O2 in arterial blood and the CNS are very different, neuro-glial interactions and purinergic signalling are critical for both peripheral and CNS chemosensation. Indeed, the specificity of neuroglial interactions seems to determine the differential responses to O2 , CO2 and the changes in pH.

Fate mapping neurons and glia derived from Dbx1-expressing progenitors in mouse preBötzinger complex

The brainstem preBötzinger complex (preBötC) generates the inspiratory breathing rhythm, and its core rhythmogenic interneurons are derived from Dbx1‐expressing progenitors. To study the neural bases of breathing, tamoxifen‐inducible Cre‐driver mice and Cre‐dependent reporters are used to identify, record, and perturb Dbx1 preBötC neurons. However, the relationship between tamoxifen administration and reporter protein expression in preBötC neurons and glia has not been quantified. To address this problem, we crossed mice that express tamoxifen‐inducible Cre recombinase under the control of the Dbx1 gene (Dbx1^CreERT2) with Cre‐dependent fluorescent reporter mice (Rosa26^tdTomato), administered tamoxifen at different times during development, and analyzed tdTomato expression in the preBötC of their offspring. We also crossed Rosa26^tdTomato reporters with mice that constitutively express Cre driven by Dbx1 (Dbx1^Cre) and analyzed tdTomato expression in the preBötC of their offspring for comparison. We show that Dbx1‐expressing progenitors give rise to preBötC neurons and glia. Peak neuronal tdTomato expression occurs when tamoxifen is administered at embryonic day 9.5 (E9.5), whereas tdTomato expression in glia shows no clear relationship with tamoxifen timing. These results can be used to bias reporter protein expression in neurons (or glia). Tamoxifen administration at E9.5 labels 91% of Dbx1‐derived neurons in the preBötC, yet only 48% of Dbx1‐derived glia. By fate mapping Dbx1‐expressing progenitors, this study illustrates the developmental assemblage of Dbx1‐derived cells in preBötC, which can be used to design intersectional Cre/lox experiments that interrogate its cellular composition, structure, and function.

Isolated adult turtle brainstems exhibit central hypoxic chemosensitivity

During hypoxia, red-eared slider turtles increase ventilation and decrease episodic breathing, but whether these responses are due to central mechanisms is not known. To test this question, isolated adult turtle brainstems were exposed to 240 min of hypoxic solution (bath PO₂ = 32.6 ± 1.2 mmHg) and spontaneous respiratory-related motor bursts (respiratory event) were recorded on hypoglossal nerve roots. During hypoxia, burst frequency increased during the first 15 min, and then decreased during the remaining 35-240 min of hypoxia. Burst amplitude was maintained for 120 min, but then decreased during the last 120 min. The number of bursts/respiratory event decreased within 30 min and remained decreased. Pretreatment with either prazosin (α₁-adrenergic antagonist) or MDL7222 (5-HT₃ antagonist) blocked the hypoxia-induced short-term increase and the longer duration decrease in burst frequency. MDL7222, but not prazosin, blocked the hypoxia-induced decrease in bursts/respiratory event. Thus, during bath hypoxia, isolated turtle brainstems continued to produce respiratory motor output, but the frequency and pattern were altered in a manner that required endogenous α₁-adrenergic and serotonin 5-HT₃ receptor activation. This is the first example of isolated reptile brainstems exhibiting central hypoxic chemosensitivity similar to other vertebrate species.

Dbx1 Pre-Bötzinger Complex Interneurons Comprise the Core Inspiratory Oscillator for Breathing in Unanesthetized Adult Mice

The brainstem pre-Bötzinger complex (preBötC) generates inspiratory breathing rhythms, but which neurons comprise its rhythmogenic core? Dbx1-derived neurons may play the preeminent role in rhythm generation, an idea well founded at perinatal stages of development but incompletely evaluated in adulthood. We expressed archaerhodopsin or channelrhodopsin in Dbx1 preBötC neurons in intact adult mice to interrogate their function. Prolonged photoinhibition slowed down or stopped breathing, whereas prolonged photostimulation sped up breathing. Brief inspiratory-phase photoinhibition evoked the next breath earlier than expected, whereas brief expiratory-phase photoinhibition delayed the subsequent breath. Conversely, brief inspiratory-phase photostimulation increased inspiratory duration and delayed the subsequent breath, whereas brief expiratory-phase photostimulation evoked the next breath earlier than expected. Because they govern the frequency and precise timing of breaths in awake adult mice with sensorimotor feedback intact, Dbx1 preBötC neurons constitute an essential core component of the inspiratory oscillator, knowledge directly relevant to human health and physiology.

ATP and astrocytes play a prominent role in the control of the respiratory pattern generator in the lamprey

KEY POINTS

The paratrigeminal respiratory group (pTRG) is responsible for the respiratory pattern generation in the lamprey. The role of ATP and astrocytes, known to control respiratory activity in mammals, was investigated in the lamprey respiratory network. ATP microinjected into the pTRG induces a biphasic response consisting of marked increases in respiratory frequency mediated by P2X receptors followed by a decrease in the respiratory motor output due to the ATP metabolite adenosine. We provide evidence that astrocytes are involved in the genesis of the normal respiratory pattern, ATP-induced responses and acidification-induced increases of the respiratory activity. The function of astrocytes in rhythmic networks appears to be phylogenetically conserved.

ABSTRACT

The role of ATP and astrocytes in respiratory rhythm modulation has been recently investigated in neonatal rodents. However, no information on the role of ATP and astrocytes within the respiratory network of the lamprey is available, particularly within the paratrigeminal respiratory group (pTRG), the proposed respiratory central pattern generator. To address these issues, the present study was carried out on isolated brainstems of the adult lamprey. Bath application of ATP caused marked increases in respiratory frequency followed by decreases in the respiratory motor output, mediated by the ATP metabolite adenosine at the level of the pTRG. Bath applications and microinjections of agonists and antagonists of purinergic receptors showed that ATP increased respiratory activity through an action on pTRG P2X receptors. To disclose the respiratory role of astrocytes, we used bath application of the gliotoxin aminoadipic acid, which dramatically depressed the respiratory motor output that, however, promptly recovered following glutamine application. Furthermore, the excitatory responses to ATP-γ-S (a non-hydrolysable ATP analogue), but not to substance P, microinjected into the pTRG, were abolished. Finally, we also demonstrated that acidification-induced increases in respiratory activity were ATP-independent, but mediated by the astrocytes' glutamate-glutamine cycle. The results show for the first time that ATP and especially astrocytes strongly contribute to the modulation of the lamprey respiratory pattern. Their role in the modulation or maintenance of rhythmic neuronal activities appears to be phylogenetically conserved.

Effects of riluzole on spinal seizure-like activity in the brainstem-spinal cord preparation of newborn rat

Riluzole blocks persistent Na⁺ current, inhibits generation of neuronal bursts and decreases glutamate-induced excitotoxicity. In previous studies of respiratory activity, riluzole suppressed inspiratory-related burst generation activity in rat slice or en bloc preparations. We examined riluzole's effects on inspiratory burst generation and drug-induced seizure-like activity in newborn rat en bloc preparations. Medulla-spinal cord preparations from postnatal day 0-3 Wistar rats were isolated under deep isoflurane anesthesia and were superfused with artificial cerebrospinal fluid equilibrated with 95% O₂ and 5% CO₂, pH 7.4, at 25-26°C. Inspiratory activity was monitored from the fourth cervical ventral root. Seizure-like activity was induced by application of 20μM DL-threo-β-benzyloxyasparatate (TBOA, a glutamate uptake blocker preferentially acting on astrocytes) or coadministration of GABA_A antagonist bicuculline (10μM) and glycine antagonist strychnine (10μM). Pretreatment and co-application with 10μM riluzole abolished the seizure-like burst activity induced by TBOA or bicuculline/strychnine. N-methyl-d-aspartic acid receptor antagonist MK801 (10μM) also depressed this activity. Riluzole may attenuate excessive glutamate action involved in pathological hyperexcitability of motor neurons with no major effect on generation of respiratory activity. Riluzole at the optimal dose could be a potential treatment to protect drug-induced epileptic brain tissue from excitotoxic damage without inducing respiratory suppression.

Minocycline blocks glial cell activation and ventilatory acclimatization to hypoxia

Ventilatory acclimatization to hypoxia (VAH) is the time-dependent increase in ventilation, which persists upon return to normoxia and involves plasticity in both central nervous system respiratory centers and peripheral chemoreceptors. We investigated the role of glial cells in VAH in male Sprague-Dawley rats using minocycline, an antibiotic that inhibits microglia activation and has anti-inflammatory properties, and barometric pressure plethysmography to measure ventilation. Rats received either minocycline (45mg/kg ip daily) or saline beginning 1 day before and during 7 days of chronic hypoxia (CH, Pi_O2  = 70 Torr). Minocycline had no effect on normoxic control rats or the hypercapnic ventilatory response in CH rats, but minocycline significantly (P < 0.001) decreased ventilation during acute hypoxia in CH rats. However, minocycline administration during only the last 3 days of CH did not reverse VAH. Microglia and astrocyte activation in the nucleus tractus solitarius was quantified from 30 min to 7 days of CH. Microglia showed an active morphology (shorter and fewer branches) after 1 h of hypoxia and returned to the control state (longer filaments and extensive branching) after 4 h of CH. Astrocytes increased glial fibrillary acidic protein antibody immunofluorescent intensity, indicating activation, at both 4 and 24 h of CH. Minocycline had no effect on glia in normoxia but significantly decreased microglia activation at 1 h of CH and astrocyte activation at 24 h of CH. These results support a role for glial cells, providing an early signal for the induction but not maintenance of neural plasticity underlying ventilatory acclimatization to hypoxia.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The signals for neural plasticity in medullary respiratory centers underlying ventilatory acclimatization to chronic hypoxia are unknown. We show that chronic hypoxia activates microglia and subsequently astrocytes. Minocycline, an antibiotic that blocks microglial activation and has anti-inflammatory properties, also blocks astrocyte activation in respiratory centers during chronic hypoxia and ventilatory acclimatization. However, minocycline cannot reverse ventilatory acclimatization after it is established. Hence, glial cells may provide signals that initiate but do not sustain ventilatory acclimatization.

The impact of inflammation on respiratory plasticity

Breathing is a vital homeostatic behavior and must be precisely regulated throughout life. Clinical conditions commonly associated with inflammation, undermine respiratory function may involve plasticity in respiratory control circuits to compensate and maintain adequate ventilation. Alternatively, other clinical conditions may evoke maladaptive plasticity. Yet, we have only recently begun to understand the effects of inflammation on respiratory plasticity. Here, we review some of common models used to investigate the effects of inflammation and discuss the impact of inflammation on nociception, chemosensory plasticity, medullary respiratory centers, motor plasticity in motor neurons and respiratory frequency, and adaptation to high altitude. We provide new data suggesting glial cells contribute to CNS inflammatory gene expression after 24h of sustained hypoxia and inflammation induced by 8h of intermittent hypoxia inhibits long-term facilitation of respiratory frequency. We also discuss how inflammation can have opposite effects on the capacity for plasticity, whereby it is necessary for increases in the hypoxic ventilatory response with sustained hypoxia, but inhibits phrenic long term facilitation after intermittent hypoxia. This review highlights gaps in our knowledge about the effects of inflammation on respiratory control (development, age, and sex differences). In summary, data to date suggest plasticity can be either adaptive or maladaptive and understanding how inflammation alters the respiratory system is crucial for development of better therapeutic interventions to promote breathing and for utilization of plasticity as a clinical treatment.

Microcircuits in respiratory rhythm generation: commonalities with other rhythm generating networks and evolutionary perspectives

Rhythmicity is critical for the generation of rhythmic behaviors and higher brain functions. This review discusses common mechanisms of rhythm generation, including the role of synaptic inhibition and excitation, with a focus on the mammalian respiratory network. This network generates three phases of breathing and is highly integrated with brain regions associated with numerous non-ventilatory behaviors. We hypothesize that during evolution multiple rhythmogenic microcircuits were recruited to accommodate the generation of each breathing phase. While these microcircuits relied primarily on excitatory mechanisms, synaptic inhibition became increasingly important to coordinate the different microcircuits and to integrate breathing into a rich behavioral repertoire that links breathing to sensory processing, arousal, and emotions as well as learning and memory.

Functional connectivity in raphé-pontomedullary circuits supports active suppression of breathing during hypocapnic apnea

Hyperventilation is a common feature of disordered breathing. Apnea ensues if CO2 drive is sufficiently reduced. We tested the hypothesis that medullary raphé, ventral respiratory column (VRC), and pontine neurons have functional connectivity and persistent or evoked activities appropriate for roles in the suppression of drive and rhythm during hyperventilation and apnea. Phrenic nerve activity, arterial blood pressure, end-tidal CO2, and other parameters were monitored in 10 decerebrate, vagotomized, neuromuscularly-blocked, and artificially ventilated cats. Multielectrode arrays recorded spiking activity of 649 neurons. Loss and return of rhythmic activity during passive hyperventilation to apnea were identified with the S-transform. Diverse fluctuating activity patterns were recorded in the raphé-pontomedullary respiratory network during the transition to hypocapnic apnea. The firing rates of 160 neurons increased during apnea; the rates of 241 others decreased or stopped. VRC inspiratory neurons were usually the last to cease firing or lose rhythmic activity during the transition to apnea. Mayer wave-related oscillations (0.04-0.1 Hz) in firing rate were also disrupted during apnea. Four-hundred neurons (62%) were elements of pairs with at least one hyperventilation-responsive neuron and a correlational signature of interaction identified by cross-correlation or gravitational clustering. Our results support a model with distinct groups of chemoresponsive raphé neurons contributing to hypocapnic apnea through parallel processes that incorporate disfacilitation and active inhibition of inspiratory motor drive by expiratory neurons. During apnea, carotid chemoreceptors can evoke rhythm reemergence and an inspiratory shift in the balance of reciprocal inhibition via suppression of ongoing tonic expiratory neuron activity.