TGF-beta and TNF-alpha: antagonistic cytokines controlling type I collagen gene expression

Reciprocal suppression between TGFβ signaling and TNF stimulation finetunes the macrophage inflammatory response

Inflammation plays a crucial role in the development of various disease conditions or is closely associated with them. Inflammatory cytokines like TNF often engage in interactions with other cytokines and growth factors, including TGFβ, to orchestrate inflammatory process. Basal/endogenous TGFβ signaling is a universal presence, yet the precise way TNF communicates with TGFβ signaling to regulate inflammation and influence inflammatory levels in macrophages has remained elusive. To address this question, this study utilized genetic approaches and a combination of molecular and cellular methods, including conditional TGFβ receptor knockout mice, human cells, RNAseq, ATACseq and Cut & Run-seq. The results reveal that the TGFβ signaling functions as a vital homeostatic pathway, curtailing uncontrolled inflammation in macrophages in response to TNF. Conversely, TNF employs two previously unrecognized mechanisms to suppress the TGFβ signaling. These mechanisms encompass epigenetic inhibition and RBP-J-mediated inhibition of the TGFβ signaling pathway by TNF. These mechanisms empower TNF to diminish the antagonistic influence exerted by the TGFβ signaling pathway, ultimately enhancing TNF's capacity to induce heightened levels of inflammation. This reciprocal suppression dynamic between TNF and the TGFβ signaling pathway holds unique physiopathological significance, as it serves as a crucial "braking" mechanism. The balance between TNF levels and the activity of the endogenous TGFβ signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in determining the overall extent of inflammation. The potential for therapeutically augmenting the TGFβ signaling pathway presents an intriguing avenue for countering the impact of TNF and, consequently, developing innovative strategies for inflammation control.

Oral Administration of Deer Bone Collagen Peptide Can Enhance the Skin Hydration Ability and Antioxidant Ability of Aging Mice Induced by D-Gal, and Regulate the Synthesis and Degradation of Collagen

Skin problems caused by aging have attracted much attention, and marine collagen peptides have been proved to improve these problems, while mammalian collagen peptides are rarely reported. In this study, fermented deer bone collagen peptide (FCP) and non-fermented deer bone collagen peptide (NCP) were extracted from fermented and non-fermented deer bone, respectively, and their peptide sequences and differential proteins were analyzed using LC-MS/MS technology. After they were applied to aging mice induced with D-gal, the skin hydration ability, antioxidant ability, collagen synthesis, and degradation ability of the mice were studied. The results show that FCP and NCP are mainly peptides that constitute type Ⅰ collagen, and their peptide segments are different. In vivo experiments show that FCP and NCP can improve the richness of collagen fibers in the skin of aging mice; improve the hydration ability of skin; promote the activity of antioxidant-related enzymes; and also show that through the TGF-β and MAPK pathways, the synthesis and degradation of collagen in skin are regulated. These results show that deer bone collagen peptide can improve skin problems caused by aging, promote skin hydration and antioxidant capacity of aging mice, and regulate collagen synthesis and degradation through the MAPK pathway.

Ciliary muscles contraction leads to axial length extension--The possible initiating factor for myopia

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the underlying factors driving the onset of myopia, specifically the role of the ciliary muscle's contraction in the elongation of the axial length of the eye.

METHODS

The retrospective study was conducted utilizing data from three ophthalmic centers in Shanghai and Beijing. Both Chinese and Caucasian children were involved. The axial length of the subjects' eyes was measured in both relaxed and contracted state of the ciliary muscle. A comprehensive mechanical model was also developed to observe the influence of ciliary muscle contraction on the axial length.

RESULTS

This study included a sample of 198 right eyes of 198 myopic children. Of these, 97 were male and 101 were female, 126 were of Chinese ethnicity and 72 were Caucasian. The age of onset for myopia ranged from 5.9 to 16.9 years old. The axial length of the eye decreased 0.028 ± 0.007mm following dilation, indicating relaxation of the ciliary muscle (t paired student = 15.16, p = 6.72 x 10-35). In contrast, ciliary muscle contraction resulted in an increase in axial length. Considering proportionality, a significant 90.4% (179 eyes) exhibited a reduced axial length, while a minor 9.6% (19 eyes) demonstrated an increase post-mydriasis. Finite element modeling demonstrated that muscle contraction caused a tension force that transmits towards the posterior pole of the eye, causing it to extend posteriorly.

CONCLUSION

The contraction of the ciliary muscle leads to an extension of the axial length. This could potentially be the initiating factor for myopia.

Role of TGF-β and p38 MAPK in TSG-6 Expression in Adipose Tissue-Derived Stem Cells In Vitro and In Vivo

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) regulate immune cell activity by expressing tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-stimulated gene 6 (TSG-6) in inflammatory environments; however, whether anti-inflammatory responses affect TSG-6 expression in MSCs is not well understood. Therefore, we investigated whether transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) regulates TSG-6 expression in adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ASCs) and whether effective immunosuppression can be achieved using ASCs and TGF-β signaling inhibitor A83-01. TGF-β significantly decreased TSG-6 expression in ASCs, but A83-01 and the p38 inhibitor SB202190 significantly increased it. However, in septic C57BL/6 mice, A83-01 further reduced the survival rate of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated group and ASC transplantation did not improve the severity induced by LPS. ASC transplantation alleviated the severity of sepsis induced by LPS+A83-01. In co-culture of macrophages and ASCs, A83-01 decreased TSG-6 expression whereas A83-01 and SB202190 reduced Cox-2 and IDO-2 expression in ASCs. These results suggest that TSG-6 expression in ASCs can be regulated by high concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines in vitro and in vivo, and that A83-01 and SB202190 can reduce the expression of immunomodulators in ASCs. Therefore, our data suggest that co-treatment of ASCs with TGF-β or p38 inhibitors is not adequate to modulate inflammation.

Human corneal epithelial cell and fibroblast migration and growth factor secretion after rose bengal photodynamic therapy (RB-PDT) and the effect of conditioned medium

PURPOSE

To investigate human corneal epithelial cell and fibroblast migration and growth factor secretion after rose bengal photodynamic therapy (RB-PDT) and the effect of conditioned medium (CM).

METHODS

A human corneal epithelial cell line (HCE-T), human corneal fibroblasts (HCF) and keratoconus fibroblasts (KC-HCF) have been used. Twenty-four hours after RB-PDT (0.001% RB concentration, 565 nm wavelength illumination, 0.17 J/cm2 fluence) cell migration rate using scratch assay and growth factor concentrations in the cell culture supernatant using ELISA have been determined. In addition, the effect of CM has been observed.

RESULTS

RB-PDT significantly reduced migration rate in all cell types, compared to controls (p≤0.02). Migration rate of HCE-T cultures without RB-PDT (untreated) was significantly higher using HCF CM after RB-PDT, than using HCF CM without RB-PDT (p<0.01). Similarly, untreated HCF displayed a significantly increased migration rate with HCE-T CM after RB-PDT, compared to HCE-T CM without treatment (p<0.01). Furthermore, illumination alone and RB-PDT significantly decreased keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) concentration in HCF and KC-HCF supernatant, and RB-PDT significantly decreased soluble N-Cadherin (SN-Cad) concentration in HCF supernatant, compared to controls (p<0.01 for all). In HCE-T CM, RB-PDT increased hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and basic fibroblast growth factor (FGFb) concentration (p≤0.02), while decreasing transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) concentration (p<0.01). FGFb concentration increased (p<0.0001) and TGF-β concentration decreased (p<0.0001) in HCF CM, by RB-PDT. Epidermal growth factor (EGF), HGF, and TGF-β concentration decreased (p≤0.03) and FGFb concentration increased (p<0.01) in KC-HCF CM, using RB-PDT.

CONCLUSIONS

HCE-T, HCF and KC-HCF migration rate is reduced 24 hours after RB-PDT. In contrast, HCE-T migration is enhanced using HCF CM after RB-PDT, and HCF migration rate is increased through HCE-T CM following RB-PDT. Modulation of EGF, KGF, HGF, FGFb, TGF-β and N-Cadherin secretion through RB-PDT may play an important role in corneal wound healing.

MARCH8 downregulation modulates profibrotic responses including myofibroblast differentiation

Interstitial lung diseases can result in poor patient outcomes, especially in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), a severe interstitial lung disease with unknown causes. The lack of treatment options requires further understanding of the pathological process/mediators. Membrane-associated RING-CH 8 (MARCH8) has been implicated in immune function regulation and inflammation, however, its role in the development of pulmonary fibrosis and particularly the fibroblast to myofibroblast transition (FMT) remains a gap in existing knowledge. In this study, we demonstrated decreased MARCH8 expression in patients with IPF compared with non-PF controls and in bleomycin-induced PF. TGF-β dose- and time-dependently decreased MARCH8 expression in normal and IPF human lung fibroblast (HLFs), along with induction of FMT markers α-SMA, collagen type I (Col-1), and fibronectin (FN). Interestingly, overexpression of MARCH8 significantly suppressed TGF-β-induced expression of α-SMA, Col-1, and FN. By contrast, the knockdown of MARCH8 using siRNA upregulated basal expression of α-SMA/Col-1/FN. Moreover, MARCH8 knockdown enhanced TGF-β-induced FMT marker expression. These data clearly show that MARCH8 is a critical "brake" for FMT and potentially affects PF. We further found that TGF-β suppressed MARCH8 mRNA expression and the proteasome inhibitor MG132 failed to block MARCH8 decrease induced by TGF-β. Conversely, TGF-β decreases mRNA levels of MARCH8 in a dose- and time-dependent manner, suggesting the transcriptional regulation of MARCH8 by TGF-β. Mechanistically, MARCH8 overexpression suppressed TGF-β-induced Smad2/3 phosphorylation, which may account for the observed effects. Taken together, this study demonstrated an unrecognized role of MARCH8 in negatively regulating FMT and profibrogenic responses relevant to interstitial lung diseases.NEW & NOTEWORTHY MARCH8 is an important modulator of inflammation, immunity, and other cellular processes. We found that MARCH8 expression is downregulated in the lungs of patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and experimental models of pulmonary fibrosis. Furthermore, TGF-β1 decreases MARCH8 transcriptionally in human lung fibroblasts (HLFs). MARCH8 overexpression blunts TGF-β1-induced fibroblast to myofibroblast transition while knockdown of MARCH8 drives this profibrotic change in HLFs. The findings support further exploration of MARCH8 as a novel target in IPF.

Cyclopamine targeting hedgehog modulates nuclear control of the osteoblast activity

It is known that cellular events underlying the processes of bone maintenance, remodeling, and repair have their basis in the embryonic production of bone. Shh signaling is widely described developing important morphogenetic control in bone by modifying the activity of osteoblast. Furthermore, identifying whether it is associated with the modulation of nuclear control is very important to be the basis for further applications. Experimentally, osteoblasts were exposed with cyclopamine (CICLOP) considering up to 1 day and 7 days, here considered an acute and chronic responses respectively. Firstly, we have validated the osteogenic model in vitro by exposing the osteoblasts to classical differentiating solution up to 7 days to allow the analysis of alkaline phosphatase and mineralization. Conversely, our data shows that differentiating osteoblasts present higher activity of inflammasome-related genes, while Shh signaling members were lower, suggesting a negative feedback between them. Thereafter, to better know about the role of Shh signaling on this manner, functional assays using CICLOP (5 μM) were performed and the data validates the previously hypothesis that Shh represses inflammasome related genes activities. Altogether, our data supports the anti-inflammatory effect of Shh signaling by suppressing Tnfα, Tgfβ and inflammasome related genes during osteoblast differentiation, and this comprehension might support the understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms related in bone regeneration by reporting molecular-related osteoblast differentiation.

Unique ligand and kinase-independent roles of the insulin receptor in regulation of cell cycle, senescence and apoptosis

Insulin acts through the insulin receptor (IR) tyrosine kinase to exert its classical metabolic and mitogenic actions. Here, using receptors with either short or long deletion of the β-subunit or mutation of the kinase active site (K1030R), we have uncovered a second, previously unrecognized IR signaling pathway that is intracellular domain-dependent, but ligand and tyrosine kinase-independent (LYK-I). These LYK-I actions of the IR are linked to changes in phosphorylation of a network of proteins involved in the regulation of extracellular matrix organization, cell cycle, ATM signaling and cellular senescence; and result in upregulation of expression of multiple extracellular matrix-related genes and proteins, down-regulation of immune/interferon-related genes and proteins, and increased sensitivity to apoptosis. Thus, in addition to classical ligand and tyrosine kinase-dependent (LYK-D) signaling, the IR regulates a second, ligand and tyrosine kinase-independent (LYK-I) pathway, which regulates the cellular machinery involved in senescence, matrix interaction and response to extrinsic challenges.

Key signalling pathways underlying the aetiology of polycystic ovary syndrome

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrine condition characterised by a range of reproductive, endocrine, metabolic and psychological abnormalities. Reports estimate that around 10% of women of reproductive age are affected by PCOS, representing a significant prevalence worldwide, which poses a high economic health burden. As the origin of PCOS remains largely unknown, there is neither a cure nor mechanism-based treatments leaving patient management suboptimal and focused solely on symptomatic treatment. However, if the underlying mechanisms underpinning the development of PCOS were uncovered then this would pave the way for the development of new interventions for PCOS. Recently, there have been significant advances in our understanding of the underlying pathways likely involved in PCOS pathogenesis. Key insights include the potential involvement of androgens, insulin, anti-Müllerian hormone and transforming growth factor beta in the development of PCOS. This review will summarise the significant scientific discoveries on these factors that have enhanced our knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the development of PCOS and discuss the impact these insights may have in shaping the future development of effective strategies for women with PCOS.

Exendin-4 inhibits small intestinal glucose sensing and absorption through repression of T1R2/T1R3 sweet taste receptor signalling in streptozotocin diabetic mice

The small intestine, which is the area where sugars are absorbed, should be considered in the approaches developed for the treatment of diabetes. However, studies on small intestine damage in diabetic individuals, and the effects of current treatments on the small intestine are very limited. This is the first study to investigate the effects of exendin-4, a GLP-1 receptor agonist, on small intestine injury in diabetic mice. BALB/c male mice were divided into 4 groups for this study. The first group was given citrate buffer, the second group was given exendin-4, the third group was given streptozotocin (STZ), and the fourth group was given both exendin-4, and STZ. As the results, we determined a decrease in the edema and deterioration in the integrity of the villi, disruption in continuity of the brush border, fibrosis and enterocyte apoptosis, while the TNFα level and crypt cell proliferation were increased in the small intestinal tissue of exendin-4 treated STZ diabetic mice. Furthermore, the levels of duodenal tissue glucose, SGLT1, and GLUT2 were decreased, whereas there was an increase in GIP level in diabetic mice administered with exendin-4. Moreover, we determined that the sweet taste receptors T1R2/T1R3, downstream molecules PLCβ2, α-gustducin and associated secondary messengers IP3, cAMP, which were increased in the duodenal tissue of STZ-diabetic mice, decreased with exendin-4 administration. These findings were evaluated as that exendin-4 reduces glucose absorption by suppressing the T1R2/T1R3 sweet taste signal perception pathway in duodenum of STZ diabetic mice.

Immuno-Modulatory Effects of Intervertebral Disc Cells

Low back pain is a highly prevalent, chronic, and costly medical condition predominantly triggered by intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD). IDD is often caused by structural and biochemical changes in intervertebral discs (IVD) that prompt a pathologic shift from an anabolic to catabolic state, affecting extracellular matrix (ECM) production, enzyme generation, cytokine and chemokine production, neurotrophic and angiogenic factor production. The IVD is an immune-privileged organ. However, during degeneration immune cells and inflammatory factors can infiltrate through defects in the cartilage endplate and annulus fibrosus fissures, further accelerating the catabolic environment. Remarkably, though, catabolic ECM disruption also occurs in the absence of immune cell infiltration, largely due to native disc cell production of catabolic enzymes and cytokines. An unbalanced metabolism could be induced by many different factors, including a harsh microenvironment, biomechanical cues, genetics, and infection. The complex, multifactorial nature of IDD brings the challenge of identifying key factors which initiate the degenerative cascade, eventually leading to back pain. These factors are often investigated through methods including animal models, 3D cell culture, bioreactors, and computational models. However, the crosstalk between the IVD, immune system, and shifted metabolism is frequently misconstrued, often with the assumption that the presence of cytokines and chemokines is synonymous to inflammation or an immune response, which is not true for the intact disc. Therefore, this review will tackle immunomodulatory and IVD cell roles in IDD, clarifying the differences between cellular involvements and implications for therapeutic development and assessing models used to explore inflammatory or catabolic IVD environments.

Regulation of cancer stem cells in triple negative breast cancer

Triple Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC) is the most lethal subtype of breast cancer. Despite the successes of emerging targeted therapies, relapse, recurrence, and therapy failure rates in TNBC significantly outpace other subtypes of breast cancer. Mounting evidence suggests accumulation of therapy resistant Cancer Stem Cell (CSC) populations within TNBCs contributes to poor clinical outcomes. These CSCs are enriched in TNBC compared to non-TNBC breast cancers. The mechanisms underlying CSC accumulation have been well-characterized and discussed in other reviews. In this review, we focus on TNBC-specific mechanisms that allow the expansion and activity of self-renewing CSCs. We highlight cellular signaling pathways and transcription factors, specifically enriched in TNBC over non-TNBC breast cancer, contributing to stemness. We also analyze publicly available single-cell RNA-seq data from basal breast cancer tumors to highlight the potential of emerging bioinformatic approaches in identifying novel drivers of stemness in TNBC and other cancers.

Resistance to Gemcitabine in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma: A Physiopathologic and Pharmacologic Review

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a very aggressive tumor with a poor prognosis and inadequate response to treatment. Many factors contribute to this therapeutic failure: lack of symptoms until the tumor reaches an advanced stage, leading to late diagnosis; early lymphatic and hematic spread; advanced age of patients; important development of a pro-tumoral and hyperfibrotic stroma; high genetic and metabolic heterogeneity; poor vascular supply; a highly acidic matrix; extreme hypoxia; and early development of resistance to the available therapeutic options. In most cases, the disease is silent for a long time, andwhen it does become symptomatic, it is too late for ablative surgery; this is one of the major reasons explaining the short survival associated with the disease. Even when surgery is possible, relapsesare frequent, andthe causes of this devastating picture are the low efficacy ofand early resistance to all known chemotherapeutic treatments. Thus, it is imperative to analyze the roots of this resistance in order to improve the benefits of therapy. PDAC chemoresistance is the final product of different, but to some extent, interconnected factors. Surgery, being the most adequate treatment for pancreatic cancer and the only one that in a few selected cases can achieve longer survival, is only possible in less than 20% of patients. Thus, the treatment burden relies on chemotherapy in mostcases. While the FOLFIRINOX scheme has a slightly longer overall survival, it also produces many more adverse eventsso that gemcitabine is still considered the first choice for treatment, especially in combination with other compounds/agents. This review discusses the multiple causes of gemcitabine resistance in PDAC.

The Predictive Role of Plasma Biomarkers in the Evolution of Aortopathies Associated with Congenital Heart Malformations

Dilatation of the aorta is a constantly evolving condition that can lead to the ultimate life-threatening event, acute aortic dissection. Recent research has tried to identify quantifiable biomarkers, with both diagnostic and prognostic roles in different aortopathies. Most studies have focused on the bicuspid aortic valve, the most frequent congenital heart disease (CHD), and majorly evolved around matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Other candidate biomarkers, such as asymmetric dimethylarginine, soluble receptor for advanced glycation end-products or transforming growth factor beta have also gained a lot of attention recently. Most of the aortic anomalies and dilatation-related studies have reported expression variation of tissular biomarkers. The ultimate goal remains, though, the identification of biomarkers among the serum plasma, with the upregulation of circulating MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-9, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1), asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA), soluble receptor for advanced glycation end-products (sRAGE) and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) being reported in association to several aortopathies and related complications in recent research. These molecules are apparently quantifiable from the early ages and have been linked to several CHDs and hereditary aortopathies. Pediatric data on the matter is still limited, and further studies are warranted to elucidate the role of plasmatic biomarkers in the long term follow-up of potentially evolving congenital aortopathies.

Duality of Interactions Between TGF-β and TNF-α During Tumor Formation

The tumor microenvironment is essential for the formation and development of tumors. Cytokines in the microenvironment may affect the growth, metastasis and prognosis of tumors, and play different roles in different stages of tumors, of which transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) are critical. The two have synergistic and antagonistic effect on tumor regulation. The inhibition of TGF-β can promote the formation rate of tumor, while TGF-β can promote the malignancy of tumor. TNF-α was initially determined to be a natural immune serum mediator that can induce tumor hemorrhagic necrosis, it has a wide range of biological activities and can be used clinically as a target to immune diseases as well as tumors. However, there are few reports on the interaction between the two in the tumor microenvironment. This paper combs the biological effect of the two in different aspects of different tumors. We summarized the changes and clinical medication rules of the two in different tissue cells, hoping to provide a new idea for the clinical application of the two cytokines.

Chemical Distance Measurement and System Pharmacology Approach Uncover the Novel Protective Effects of Biotransformed Ginsenoside C-Mc against UVB-Irradiated Photoaging

Long-term exposure to ultraviolet light induces photoaging and may eventually increase the risk of skin carcinogenesis. Rare minor ginsenosides isolating from traditional medicine Panax (ginseng) have shown biomedical efficacy as antioxidation and antiphotodamage agents. However, due to the difficulty of component extraction and wide variety of ginsenoside, the identification of active antiphotoaging ginsenoside remains a huge challenge. In this study, we proposed a novel in silico approach to identify potential compound against photoaging from 82 ginsenosides. Specifically, we calculated the shortest distance between unknown and known antiphotoaging ginsenoside set in the chemical space and applied chemical structure similarity assessment, drug-likeness screening, and ADMET evaluation for the candidates. We highlighted three rare minor ginsenosides (C-Mc, Mx, and F2) that possess high potential as antiphotoaging agents. Among them, C-Mc deriving from American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) was validated by wet-lab experimental assays and showed significant antioxidant and cytoprotective activity against UVB-induced photodamage in human dermal fibroblasts. Furthermore, system pharmacology analysis was conducted to explore the therapeutic targets and molecular mechanisms through integrating global drug-target network, high quality photoaging-related gene profile from multiomics data, and skin tissue-specific expression protein network. In combination with in vitro assays, we found that C-Mc suppressed MMP production through regulating the MAPK/AP-1/NF-κB pathway and expedited collagen synthesis via the TGF-β/Smad pathway, as well as enhanced the expression of Nrf2/ARE to hold a balance of endogenous oxidation. Overall, this study offers an effective drug discovery framework combining in silico prediction and in vitro validation, uncovering that ginsenoside C-Mc has potential antiphotoaging properties and might be a novel natural agent for use in oral drug, skincare products, or functional food.

Cytokines Studied in Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) in Response to Important Diseases

Cytokines belong to the most widely studied group of intracellular molecules involved in the function of the immune system. Their secretion is induced by various infectious stimuli. Cytokine release by host cells has been extensively used as a powerful tool for studying immune reactions in the early stages of viral and bacterial infections. Recently, research attention has shifted to the investigation of cytokine responses using mRNA expression, an essential mechanism related to pathogenic and nonpathogenic-immune stimulants in fish. This review represents the current knowledge of cytokine responses to infectious diseases in the common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). Given the paucity of literature on cytokine responses to many infections in carp, only select viral diseases, such as koi herpesvirus disease (KHVD), spring viremia of carp (SVC), and carp edema virus disease (CEVD), are discussed. Aeromonas hydrophila is one of the most studied bacterial pathogens associated with cytokine responses in common carp. Therefore, the cytokine-based immunoreactivity raised by this specific bacterial pathogen is also highlighted in this review.

TGF-β1 signaling can worsen NAFLD with liver fibrosis backdrop

Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) is characterized by the accumulation of fats in the liver. Relatively benign NAFLD often progresses to fibrosis, cirrhosis, and liver malignancies. Although NAFLD precedes fibrosis, continuous lipid overload keeps fueling fibrosis and the process of disease progression remains unhindered. It is well known that TGF-β1 plays its part in liver fibrosis, yet its effects on liver lipid overload remain unknown. As TGF-β1 signaling has been increasingly attempted to manage liver fibrosis, its actions on the primary suspect (NAFLD) are easily ignored. The complex interaction of inflammatory stress and lipid accumulation aided by mediators scuh as pro-inflammatory interleukins and TGF-β1 forms the basis of NAFLD progression. Anticipatorily, the inhibition of TGF-β1 signaling during anti-fibrotic treatment should reverse the NAFLD though the data remain scattered on this subject to date. TGF-β1 signaling pathway is an important drug target in liver fibrosis and abundant literature is available on it, but its direct effects on NAFLD are rarely studied. This review aims to cover the pathogenesis of NAFLD focusing on the role of the TGF-β1 in the disease progression, especially in the backdrop of liver fibrosis.

Tumor Microenvironment Features and Chemoresistance in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma: Insights into Targeting Physicochemical Barriers and Metabolism as Therapeutic Approaches

Currently, the median overall survival of PDAC patients rarely exceeds 1 year and has an overall 5-year survival rate of about 9%. These numbers are anticipated to worsen in the future due to the lack of understanding of the factors involved in its strong chemoresistance. Chemotherapy remains the only treatment option for most PDAC patients; however, the available therapeutic strategies are insufficient. The factors involved in chemoresistance include the development of a desmoplastic stroma which reprograms cellular metabolism, and both contribute to an impaired response to therapy. PDAC stroma is composed of immune cells, endothelial cells, and cancer-associated fibroblasts embedded in a prominent, dense extracellular matrix associated with areas of hypoxia and acidic extracellular pH. While multiple gene mutations are involved in PDAC initiation, this desmoplastic stroma plays an important role in driving progression, metastasis, and chemoresistance. Elucidating the mechanisms underlying PDAC resistance are a prerequisite for designing novel approaches to increase patient survival. In this review, we provide an overview of the stromal features and how they contribute to the chemoresistance in PDAC treatment. By highlighting new paradigms in the role of the stromal compartment in PDAC therapy, we hope to stimulate new concepts aimed at improving patient outcomes.

Firefighters' occupational exposure: Contribution from biomarkers of effect to assess health risks

Firefighting is physically and physiologically exhausting besides encompassing exposure to toxic fire emissions. Biomonitoring studies from the past five years have been significantly contributing to characterize the occupational-related health effects in this group of professionals and to improve risk assessment. Therefore, this study gathers and critically discusses the most characterized biomarkers of effect (oxidative stress, DNA and protein damage, stress hormones, inflammation, and vascular, lung, and liver injury), including those potentially more promising to be explored in future studies, and their relation with health outcomes. Various studies proved an association between exposures to fire emissions and/or heat and significantly altered values of biomarkers of inflammation (soluble adhesion molecules, tumor necrosis factor, interleukins, and leucocyte count), vascular damage and tissue injury (pentraxin-3, vascular endothelial growth factor, and cardiac troponin T) in firefighting forces. Moreover, preliminary data of DNA damage in blood, urinary mutagenicity and 8-isoprostaglandin in exhaled breath condensate suggest that these biomarkers of oxidative stress should be further explored. However, most of the reported studies are based on cross-sectional designs, which limit full identification and characterization of the risk factors and their association with development of work-related diseases. Broader studies based on longitudinal designs and strongly supported by the analysis of several types of biomarkers in different biological fluids are further required to gain deeper insights into the firefighters occupational related health hazards and contribute to implementation of new or improved surveillance programs.

Biological Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities in Mammographic Density and Breast Cancer Risk

Mammographic density is an important risk factor for breast cancer; women with extremely dense breasts have a four to six fold increased risk of breast cancer compared to women with mostly fatty breasts, when matched with age and body mass index. High mammographic density is characterised by high proportions of stroma, containing fibroblasts, collagen and immune cells that suggest a pro-tumour inflammatory microenvironment. However, the biological mechanisms that drive increased mammographic density and the associated increased risk of breast cancer are not yet understood. Inflammatory factors such as monocyte chemotactic protein 1, peroxidase enzymes, transforming growth factor beta, and tumour necrosis factor alpha have been implicated in breast development as well as breast cancer risk, and also influence functions of stromal fibroblasts. Here, the current knowledge and understanding of the underlying biological mechanisms that lead to high mammographic density and the associated increased risk of breast cancer are reviewed, with particular consideration to potential immune factors that may contribute to this process.

Analysis of the influence of adalimumab to the expression pattern of mRNA and protein of TGF-β1-3 in dermal fibroblast exposed to lipopolysaccharide

Introduction

Psoriasis is a inflammatory illness, where incorrect expression of cytokines and bacteria lipopolysaccharide are observed. In the therapy of moderate to severe psoriasis anti-TNF drugs, i.e. adalimumab are used which have the influence for secreting another cytokines, such as transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β).

Aim

To analyse the expression profile of mRNA TGF-β1-3 and proteins (TGF-β1 and TGF-β2) it codes in normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDF) exposed to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (induction of inflammation) and adalimumab (anti-TNF drug).

Material and methods

NHDFs treated with bacterial lipopolysaccharide at a medium concentration of 1 μg/ml for 8 h, and then added to an adalimumab culture at a concentration of 8 μg/ml and continued exposure of the fibroblasts to it for 2, 8 and 24 h. The molecular analysis included microarray, RTqPCR and ELISA assays.

Results

Treating the skin fibroblast cells with LPS resulted in significant statistical changes in the expression of TGF-β1 (↑) and TGF-β2 (↓) in comparison to the control culture. Likewise, after adding adalimumab to the culture of NHDF treated previously with LPS, significant changes in the expression of TGF-β1 (↑) and TGF-β2 (↓) were noted in comparison to the control culture (p < 0.05). On the protein level it can be determined that LPS and adalimumab cause an increase in the concentration of TGF-β1 and a decrease in the expression of TGF-β2 in comparison to the control culture.

Conclusions

Blocking the signalling dependant on TNF-α using adalimumab causes an increase in the expression of TGF-β1 and a simultaneous decrease in the case of TGF-β2.

Platelets Fuel the Inflammasome Activation of Innate Immune Cells

The inflammasomes control the bioactivity of pro-inflammatory cytokines of the interleukin (IL)-1 family. The inflammasome assembled by NLRP3 has been predominantly studied in homogeneous cell populations in vitro, neglecting the influence of cellular interactions that occur in vivo. Here, we show that platelets boost the inflammasome capacity of human macrophages and neutrophils and are critical for IL-1 production by monocytes. Platelets license NLRP3 transcription, thereby enhancing ASC oligomerization, caspase-1 activity, and IL-1β secretion. Platelets influence IL-1β production in vivo, and blood platelet counts correlate with plasmatic IL-1β levels in malaria. Furthermore, we reveal an enriched platelet gene signature among the highest-expressed transcripts in IL-1β-driven autoinflammatory diseases. The platelet effect is independent of cell-to-cell contact, platelet-derived lipid mediators, purines, nucleic acids, and a host of platelet cytokines, and it involves the triggering of calcium-sensing receptors on macrophages. Hence, platelets provide an additional layer of regulation of inflammasomes and IL-1-driven inflammation.

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Platelets license NLRP3 for inflammasome activattion in innate immune cells

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Platelets are required for optimal monocyte inflammasome activation

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Platelets shape IL-1β in vivo, and platelet counts correlate with IL-1β in plasma

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A constitutive, heat-sensitive soluble platelet-factor boost IL-1β in macrophages

The Roles of Type 2 Cytotoxic T Cells in Inflammation, Tissue Remodeling, and Prostaglandin (PG) D2 Production Are Attenuated by PGD2 Receptor 2 Antagonism

Multiple proinflammatory effects of Tc2 cells are inhibited by DP2 antagonism.

Tissue-remodeling functions of Tc2 cells are attenuated by DP2 antagonism.

Autocrine/paracrine PGD₂ production in Tc2 cells is reduced by DP2 antagonism.

Human type 2 cytotoxic T (Tc2) cells are enriched in severe eosinophilic asthma and can contribute to airway eosinophilia. PGD₂ and its receptor PGD₂ receptor 2 (DP2) play important roles in Tc2 cell activation, including migration, cytokine production, and survival. In this study, we revealed novel, to our knowledge, functions of the PGD₂/DP2 axis in Tc2 cells to induce tissue-remodeling effects and IgE-independent PGD₂ autocrine production. PGD₂ upregulated the expression of tissue-remodeling genes in Tc2 cells that enhanced the fibroblast proliferation and protein production required for tissue repair and myofibroblast differentiation. PGD₂ stimulated Tc2 cells to produce PGD₂ using the routine PGD₂ synthesis pathway, which also contributed to TCR-dependent PGD₂ production in Tc2 cells. Using fevipiprant, a specific DP2 antagonist, we demonstrated that competitive inhibition of DP2 not only completely blocked the cell migration, adhesion, proinflammatory cytokine production, and survival of Tc2 cells triggered by PGD₂ but also attenuated the tissue-remodeling effects and autocrine/paracrine PGD₂ production in Tc2 induced by PGD₂ and other stimulators. These findings further confirmed the anti-inflammatory effect of fevipiprant and provided a better understanding of the role of Tc2 cells in the pathogenesis of asthma.

Polydatin prevents bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis by inhibiting the TGF-β/Smad/ERK signaling pathway

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic, progressive, irreversible interstitial lung disease, with no effective cure. Polydatin is a resveratrol glucoside with strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties, which is used for treating health-related disorders such as cardiac disabilities, various types of carcinoma, hepatitis and hepatic fibrosis. The present study aimed to investigate the protective effect of polydatin against bleomycin-induced IPF and the possible underlying mechanism. A549 cells were treated with transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and polydatin to observe phenotypic transformation and the related gene expression was detected. Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into seven groups and intratracheally infused with bleomycin to establish a pulmonary fibrosis model (the sham control group received saline). The rats were given pirfenidone (50 mg/kg), resveratrol (40 mg/kg) and polydatin (10, 40 and 160 mg/kg) for 28 days. The results demonstrated that polydatin had low toxicity to A549 cells and inhibited TGF-β1-induced phenotypic transformation as determined by MTS assay or observed using a light microscope. It also decreased the gene expression levels of α-smooth muscle actin and collagen I and increased the gene expression levels of epithelial cell cadherin in vitro and in vivo by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. Furthermore, polydatin ameliorated the pathological damage and fiber production in lung tissues found by hematoxylin and eosin staining and Masson trichrome staining. Polydatin administration markedly reduced the levels of hydroxyproline, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-13, myeloperoxidase and malondialdehyde and promoted total superoxide dismutase activity in lung tissues as determined using ELISA kits or biochemical reagent kits. It inhibited TGF-β1 expression and phosphorylation of Smad 2 and 3 and ERK-1 and -2 in vivo as determined by western blot assays. These results suggest that polydatin protects against IPF via its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antifibrotic activities, and the mechanism may be associated with its regulatory effect on the TGF-β pathway.

Transcriptome analyses of ovarian stroma: tunica albuginea, interstitium and theca interna

The ovary has specialised stromal compartments, including the tunica albuginea, interstitial stroma and theca interna, which develops concurrently with the follicular antrum. To characterise the molecular determinants of these compartments, stroma adjacent to preantral follicles (pre-theca), interstitium and tunica albuginea were laser microdissected (n = 4 per group) and theca interna was dissected from bovine antral follicles (n = 6). RNA microarray analysis showed minimal differences between interstitial stroma and pre-theca, and these were combined for some analyses and referred to as stroma. Genes significantly upregulated in theca interna compared to stroma included INSL3, LHCGR, HSD3B1, CYP17A1, ALDH1A1, OGN, POSTN and ASPN. Quantitative RT-PCR showed significantly greater expression of OGN and LGALS1 in interstitial stroma and theca interna versus tunica and greater expression of ACD in tunica compared to theca interna. PLN was significantly higher in interstitial stroma compared to tunica and theca. Ingenuity pathway, network and upstream regulator analyses were undertaken. Cell survival was also upregulated in theca interna. The tunica albuginea was associated with GPCR and cAMP signalling, suggesting tunica contractility. It was also associated with TGF-β signalling and increased fibrous matrix. Western immunoblotting was positive for OGN, LGALS1, ALDH1A1, ACD and PLN with PLN and OGN highly expressed in tunica and interstitial stroma (each n = 6), but not in theca interna from antral follicles (n = 24). Immunohistochemistry localised LGALS1 and POSTN to extracellular matrix and PLN to smooth muscle cells. These results have identified novel differences between the ovarian stromal compartments.

The Effect of Cyclosporine A on Dermal Fibroblast Cell - Transcriptomic Analysis of Inflammatory Response Pathway

BACKGROUND

The first immunosuppressive drug - cyclosporine A (CsA) has many unquestioned merits in maintaining organ transplants in patients, as well as, in the treatment of many inflammatory diseases, also associated with cutaneous manifestations. The main task of this drug is to suppress the inflammatory response at the sites of action, which is not well known.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of CsA in therapeutic concentration on the expression of genes associated with the inflammatory response pathway in normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDF; CC-2511), and this study attempted to determine the mechanism of its action.

METHODS

The cytotoxicity MTT test was performed. The expression of the inflammatory response pathway genes was determined using HG-U133A_2.0 oligonucleotide microarrays. Statistical analysis was performed by GeneSpring 13.0 software using the PL-Grid platform.

RESULTS

Among the 5,300 mRNA, only 573 were changed significantly in response to CsA compared to the control fibroblasts (P≤0.05). CsA inhibited the expression of most genes associated with the inflammatory response in NHDFs. There were only 19 genes with a fold change (FC) lower than -2.0, among which EGR1, FOS, PBK, CDK1 and TOP2A had the lowest expression, as did CXCL2 which can directly impact inflammation. Furthermore, ZNF451 was strongly induced, and COL1A1, COL3A1, IL33, TNFRSFs were weakly up-regulated (FC lower than 2.0).

CONCLUSION

The CsA in therapeutic concentration influences the genes linked to the inflammatory response (in the transcriptional level) in human dermal fibroblasts. The findings suggest that the potential mechanism of CsA action in this concentration and on these genes can be associated with a profibrotic and proapoptotic, and genotoxic effects.

JNK Signaling as a Key Modulator of Soft Connective Tissue Physiology, Pathology, and Healing

In healthy individuals, the healing of soft tissues such as skin after pathological insult or post injury follows a relatively predictable and defined series of cell and molecular processes to restore tissue architecture and function(s). Healing progresses through the phases of hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, remodeling, and concomitant with re-epithelialization restores barrier function. Soft tissue healing is achieved through the spatiotemporal interplay of multiple different cell types including neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages, fibroblasts, endothelial cells/pericytes, and keratinocytes. Expressed in most cell types, c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK) are signaling molecules associated with the regulation of several cellular processes involved in soft tissue wound healing and in response to cellular stress. A member of the mitogen-activated protein kinase family (MAPK), JNKs have been implicated in the regulation of inflammatory cell phenotype, as well as fibroblast, stem/progenitor cell, and epithelial cell biology. In this review, we discuss our understanding of JNKs in the regulation of cell behaviors related to tissue injury, pathology, and wound healing of soft tissues. Using models as diverse as Drosophila, mice, rats, as well as human tissues, research is now defining important, but sometimes conflicting roles for JNKs in the regulation of multiple molecular processes in multiple different cell types central to wound healing processes. In this review, we focus specifically on the role of JNKs in the regulation of cell behavior in the healing of skin, cornea, tendon, gingiva, and dental pulp tissues. We conclude that while parallels can be drawn between some JNK activities and the control of cell behavior in healing, the roles of JNK can also be very specific modes of action depending on the tissue and the phase of healing.

Morphometric and Molecular Muscle Remodeling after Passive Stretching in Elderly Female Rats

OBJECTIVES

To determine the effects of three sessions of a passive stretching exercise protocol on the muscles of elderly female rats.

METHODS

The effects of the stretching exercises on the soleus muscle were analyzed using immunohistochemistry [tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases (TIMP), the tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and the gene expression levels using real-time PCR of the transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-β1), collagen type 1 (COL1), and collagen type 3 (COL3)]. Fifteen 26-month-old female Wistar rats were randomly divided into two groups, namely, Stretching (SG, n=8) and Control (CG, n=7). The passive mechanical stretching protocol consisted of a set of 4 1-minute repetitions, with 30 seconds between each repetition (total treatment of 4 minutes), three times a week for 1 week.

RESULTS

Immunohistochemical analysis revealed an increase of 71.4% in the TNF-α (p=0.04) gene expression levels for the SG and a 58% decrease in the TGF-β1 gene expression levels (p=0.005) in the SG compared to that in the CG. No significant differences were observed between the groups for the immunostaining of TIMP-1 or the gene expression levels of COL1 and COL3.

CONCLUSION

Three sessions of static stretching reduced the gene expression level of TGF-β1, which, owing to its anti-fibrotic role, might contribute to the remodeling of the intramuscular connective tissue of the aging muscle. In addition, immunostaining revealed that TNF-α levels increased in the aging muscle tissue in response to stretching, indicating its effect on stimulating extracellular matrix degradation. These outcomes have important clinical implications in reinforcing the use of stretching exercises in the elderly, considering that the aging muscle presents an infiltration of connective tissue.

Transcript abundance of stromal and thecal cell related genes during bovine ovarian development

Movement and expansion of mesonephric-derived stroma appears to be very important in the development of the ovary. Here, we examined the expression of 24 genes associated with stroma in fetal ovaries during gestation (n = 17; days 58-274) from Bos taurus cattle. RNA was isolated from ovaries for quantitative RT-PCR. Expression of the majority of genes in TGFβ signalling, stromal transcription factors (NR2F2, AR), and some stromal matrix genes (COL1A1, COL3A1 and FBN1, but not FBN3) showed a positive linear increase with gestational age. Expression of genes associated with follicles (INSL3, CYP17A1, CYP11A1 and HSD3B1), was low until mid-gestation and then increased with gestational age. LHCGR showed an unusual bimodal pattern; high levels in the first and last trimesters. RARRES1 and IGFBP3 also increased with gestational age. To relate changes in gene expression in stromal cells with that in non stromal cells during development of the ovary we combined the data on the stromal genes with another 20 genes from non stromal cells published previously and then performed hierarchical clustering analysis. Three major clusters were identified. Cluster 1 genes (GATA4, FBN3, LHCGR, CYP19A1, ESR2, OCT4, DSG2, TGFB1, CCND2, LGR5, NR5A1) were characterised by high expression only in the first trimester. Cluster 2 genes (FSHR, INSL3, HSD3B1, CYP11A1, CYP17A1, AMH, IGFBP3, INHBA) were highly expressed in the third trimester and largely associated with follicle function. Cluster 3 (COL1A1, COL3A1, FBN1, TGFB2 TGFB3, TGFBR2, TGFBR3, LTBP2, LTBP3, LTBP4, TGFB1I1, ALDH1A1, AR, ESR1, NR2F2) had much low expression in the first trimester rising in the second trimester and remaining at that level during the third trimester. Cluster 3 contained members of two pathways, androgen and TGFβ signalling, including a common member of both pathways namely the androgen receptor cofactor TGFβ1 induced transcript 1 protein (TGFB1I1; hic5). GATA4, FBN3 and LHCGR, were highly correlated with each other and were expressed highly in the first trimester during stromal expansion before follicle formation, suggesting that this could be a critical phase in the development of the ovarian stroma.

Collagenous colitis development occurs after long standing mucosal healing in IBD with TNF-α inhibitors, and could be due to exaggerated healing response from excess TNF-α inhibition

Collagenous colitis is a relatively rare disorder affecting mainly middle-aged women where they present with chronic non-bloody diarrhea. Both with lymphocytic colitis they compose microscopic colitis. The exact cause of collagenous colitis is still unknown however; many potential pathophysiologic mechanisms have been proposed but no convincing mechanism has been identified. Collagenous colitis has been linked to medications mainly NSAIDs, SSRIs, and PPIs. It is also believed that collagenous colitis is autoimmune disease and there are weak believe it could have some genetic inheritance. We reported before two cases of collagenous colitis developed in patients with Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis while they were in complete mucosal remission after being treated with tumor necrosis factors-α inhibitors. In this article we will try to explain how collagenous colitis can develop in patients with inflammatory bowel disease especially those on tumor necrosis factors-α inhibitors.

The level of TGF-β in sera of patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome

Objectives

Tumor growth factor β (TGF-β) is a pleiotropic cytokine which controls autoimmune reactions, cell proliferation, and the organ accumulation of lymphocytes. This cytokine has a protective and anti-inflammatory effect in autoimmune processes, but also has a pro-fibrinous activity. Therefore, its importance in the development of systemic sclerosis has been proven. The role of TGF-β in Sjögren’s syndrome is also a valid direction of research. The aim of the presented study is to evaluate the level of TGF-β in sera of primary Sjögren’s syndrome patients and to investigate possible correlations with autoantibodies, cytokines, and cells in biopsy of minor salivary glands active in the pathogenesis of this syndrome.

Material and methods

Thirty-three primary Sjögren’s syndrome patients were included. Routine laboratory tests and immunological assessment (ANA, anti SS-A, anti SS-B antibodies, rheumatoid factor), ophthalmological assessment with ocular staining scoring, chest X-ray, and high-resolution computed tomography (if necessary) were performed. Serum concentrations of cytokines such as TGF-β, BAFF, APRIL, FLT-3L, LT-α, IL-21, and TNF-α were evaluated using standard ELISA assays. The histopathological evaluation (focus score) and the determination of CD3+, CD4+, CD19+, CD21+, CD35+ cells was performed.

Results

There was no significant correlation between TGF-β and other tested cytokines or autoantibodies, other than TNF-α. A negative correlation (ρ = –0.472) between TGF-β and TNF-α was found. There were no correlations between TGF-β and: results of ocular examinations, elements of histopathological variables, or lungs changes.

Conclusions

The authors state that: 1) the results may indicate that TGF-β influences the serum TNF-α activity in pSS patients, 2) our findings suggest that TGF-β may be the strongest inhibitor of TNF-α among cytokines involved in pSS pathogenesis, and 3) the results may explain the ineffectiveness of anti-TNF drugs in the treatment of pSS.

A Hypothesis for the Anti-Inflammatory and Mechanotransduction Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Acupuncture Tendon Healing

A previous study demonstrated that acupuncture increases the synthesis and reorganisation of collagen molecules in rat tendons after injury. Clinical studies have shown that acupuncture improves pain and functional activity in patients with tendinopathy. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying these effects are unknown. Recent studies have shown that acupuncture can modulate both anti-inflammatory (AI) and mechanotransduction (MT) molecular pathways. Moreover, the modulation of these pathways can increase type I collagen synthesis, which is the main factor that influences tendon biomechanical properties. Our hypothesis is that acupuncture increases synthesis and subsequent reorganisation of type I collagen during tendon healing by concomitant modulation of the Toll-like receptor-nuclear factor-κB AI pathway, the mitogen-activated protein kinases pathway and the Rho/Rac-F-actin MT pathway. Increased collagen synthesis and reorganisation requires that at least one acupoint is anatomically connected with the site of the injury because of the local tenoblast MT mechanism. Confirmation of this hypothesis will increase the knowledge of acupuncture modulation of the previously mentioned molecular pathways, and such confirmation may also help to establish the relationships between the different types of acupuncture needle stimulation and the influence of acupuncture stimuli on pathway activity levels. In addition, the downstream therapeutic effects of acupuncture therapy may be established. This hypothesis can be verified in a rat tendon healing model, and subsequent clinical protocols for tendon healing can be developed and evaluated as standalone therapies or as a component of a combination therapy.

Variation in Expression of Inflammation-Related Signaling Molecules with Profibrotic and Antifibrotic Effects in Cutaneous and Oral Mucosa Scars

Wound healing is a complex biologic process evolving in three phases: inflammation, proliferation, and tissue remodeling controlled by numerous growth factors and cytokines. Oral mucosa wounds heal with significantly less important scars with less numerous macrophages and mast cells and more numerous myofibroblasts than cutaneous counterparts. We analyzed 32 cutaneous and 32 oral mucosa scars for TGFbeta1, TGFbeta2, TGFbeta3, TNFalpha, PDGF BB and FGF1 expression in mesenchymal cells, endothelial cells, macrophages, and multinucleated giant cells. We identified differences in the expression of profibrotic and antifibrotic factors in oral mucosa and skin scars; TGFbeta2 was positive in cutaneous multinucleated giant cells, TNFalpha was positive in cutaneous macrophages, and both were negative in oral mucosa while TGFbeta3 was positive in oral macrophages and mostly negative in cutaneous ones. PDGF BB and FGF1 were positive in oral endothelial cells and oral macrophages and negative in macrophages with opposite positivity pattern in cutaneous scars. Based on these findings, macrophage seems to be the key player in modulating pro- and antifibrotic processes in wound regeneration.

IL-32γ attenuates airway fibrosis by modulating the integrin-FAK signaling pathway in fibroblasts

Background

Fibrosis in severe asthma often leads to irreversible organ dysfunction. However, the mechanism that regulates fibrosis remains poorly understood. Interleukin (IL)-32 plays a role in several chronic inflammatory diseases, including severe asthma. In this study, we investigated whether IL-32 is involved in fibrosis progression in the lungs.

Methods

Murine models of chronic airway inflammation induced by ovalbumin and Aspergillus melleus protease and bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis were employed. We evaluated the degree of tissue fibrosis after treatment with recombinant IL-32γ (rIL-32γ). Expression of fibronectin and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) was examined and the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β-related signaling pathways was evaluated in activated human lung fibroblasts (MRC-5 cells) treated with rIL-32γ.

Results

rIL-32γ significantly attenuated collagen deposition and α-SMA production in both mouse models. rIL-32γ inhibited the production of fibronectin and α-SMA in MRC-5 cells stimulated with TGF-β. Additionally, rIL-32γ suppressed activation of the integrin-FAK-paxillin signaling axis but had no effect on the Smad and non-Smad signaling pathways. rIL-32γ localized outside of MRC-5 cells and inhibited the interaction between integrins and the extracellular matrix without directly binding to intracellular FAK and paxillin.

Conclusions

These results demonstrate that IL-32γ has anti-fibrotic effects and is a novel target for preventing fibrosis.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12931-018-0863-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

MRTF-A mediates the activation of COL1A1 expression stimulated by multiple signaling pathways in human breast cancer cells

Deposition of type I collage in ECM is an important property of various fibrotic diseases including breast cancer. The excessive expression of type I collagen contributes to the rigidity of cancer tissue and increases the mechanical stresses which facilitate metastasis and proliferation of cancer cells via the activation of TGF-β signaling pathway. The increased mechanical stresses also cause the compression of blood vessels and result in hypoperfusion and impaired drug delivery in cancer tissue. Additionally, type I collage functions as the ligand of α2β1-integrin and DDR1/2 receptors on the membrane of cancer cells to initiate signal transduction leading to metastasis. The expression of type I collage in cancer cells is previously shown to be inducible by TGF-β however the detailed mechanism by which the synthesis of type I collagen is regulated in breast cancer cells remains unclear. Herein, we report that MRTF-A, a co-activator of SRF, is important for the regulation of type I collagen gene COL1A1 in breast cancer cells. MRTF-A physically interacted with the promoter of COL1A1 to facilitate histone acetylation and RNA polymerase II recruitment. The RhoC-ROCK signaling pathway which controls the nuclear localization of MRTF-A regulated the transcription of COL1A1 in human breast cancer cells. TGF-β and Wnt signaling increased the expression of both MRTF-A and COL1A1. Furthermore, depletion of MRTF-A abolished the upregulation of COL1A1 in response to the TGF-β or Wnt signaling, indicating the importance of MRTF-A in the synthesis of type I collagen in breast cancer. Given the crucial roles of type I collagen in the formation of metastasis-prone and hypoperfusion microenvironment, MRTF-A would be a potential target for the development of anti-breast cancer activities.

Silica-induced fibrosis: an ancient response from the early metazoans

Exposure to crystalline silica particles causes silicosis, an occupational disease leading to an overproduction of collagen in the lung. The first step of this pathology is characterized by the release of inflammatory mediators. Tumour necrosis factor (TNF) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine directly involved in silica-induced pulmonary fibrosis. The marine demosponge Chondrosia reniformis is able to incorporate silica grains and partially dissolve the crystalline forms apparently without toxic effects. In the present work, C. reniformis tissue explants were treated with fine quartz dust and the expression level of fibrogenic genes was assayed by qPCR, demonstrating an overexpression of a fibrillar and a non-fibrillar collagen and of prolyl-4-hydroxylase enzyme. The deposition of new collagen could also be documented in quartz-treated sponge explants. Furthermore, TNF pro-inflammatory cytokine overexpression and involvement in silica-induced sponge collagen biosynthesis was demonstrated in quartz-treated explants as compared with controls by means of specific TNF inhibitors affecting the fibrogenic gene response. As no documentable detrimental effect was observed in treated explants, we conclude that the C. reniformis unique quartz engulfment and erosion is physiological and beneficial to the animal, leading to new collagen synthesis and strengthening of the body stiffness. Thus, we put forward the hypothesis that an ancient physiological behaviour from the lowest of the Metazoa, persisting through evolution via the same molecular mediators such as TNF, may have become the cause of disease in the specialized tissues of higher animals such as mammals.

The source of ACE during scar formation is from both bone marrow and skin tissue

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) has been found in the pathogenesis of various fibrosis diseases, and ACE inhibitor (ACEI) may affect wound healing and cutaneous fibrosis. However, there is no scientific evidence as to where the ACE is produced during scar formation. Whether it is from the cutaneous tissue or the bone marrow, or both remains unknown. In this study, we investigated the source of ACE using bone marrow transplantation in genetically modified mice, analyzed the inflammatory milieu and some growth factors in the middle of the wound healing period (4 d after the wound was induced). After having deleted the ACE from bone marrow or skin tissue, the wound/scar width in the low-ACE groups were narrower than those in wild-type (WT) controls. Loosely arranged collagen deposition and reduced vessel density were also detected in ACE-deficient mice. Lower ACE levels during scar formation were also accompanied by lower levels of TGF-β1. In the middle of the wound healing period, ACE levels affected the inflammatory cells significantly. In the mice with a deficiency in ACE, the expression of TGF-β1 and TNF-α decreased, but not that of IL-4. Our findings indicate that both bone marrow and skin tissue release ACE during scar formation. Deleting either of them can affect the inflammatory cells and growth factors and reduce the expression of TGF-β1, resulting in a decreased level of scarring.-Fang, Q.-Q., Wang, X.-F., Zhao, W.-Y., Chen, C.-Y., Zhang, M.-X., Shi, B.-H., Zhang, L.-Y., Tan, W.-Q. The source of ACE during scar formation is from both bone marrow and skin tissue.

Sulfation degree not origin of chondroitin sulfate derivatives modulates keratinocyte response

Chondroitin sulfate (CS) sulfation-dependently binds transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and chronic wounds often accompany with epidermal hyperproliferation due to downregulated TGF-β signaling. However, the impact of CS on keratinocytes is unknown. Especially biotechnological-chemical strategies are promising to replace animal-derived CS. Thus, this study aims to evaluate the effects of CS derivatives on the interaction with vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) and on keratinocyte response. Over-sulfated CS (sCS3) interacts stronger with VEGF-A than CS. Furthermore, collagen coatings with CS variants are prepared by in vitro fibrillogenesis. Stability analyses demonstrate that collagen is firmly integrated, while the fibril diameters decrease with increasing sulfation degree. CS variants sulfation-dependently decelerate keratinocyte (HaCaT) migration and proliferation in a scratch assay. HaCaT cultured on sCS3-containing coatings produced increased amounts of solute active TGF-β1 which could be translated into biomaterials able to decrease epidermal hyperproliferation in chronic wounds. Overall, semi-synthetic and natural CS yield to comparable responses.

Co-culture of human fibroblasts and Borrelia burgdorferi enhances collagen and growth factor mRNA

Skin fibrosis has been reported in Borrelia burgdorferi infection in Europe, but has been questioned by several authors. The objective of the present study was to examine the interaction of skin fibroblasts with B. burgdorferi sensu stricto B31 (BB) and B. afzelii (BA) in vitro by electron microscopy. We also determined the expression of collagen type I, TGF-β, FGF-1, calreticulin (CALR), decorin (DCN), and PDGF-α at the mRNA level in Borrelia/fibroblast co-cultures. Intact Borrelia attach to and transmigrate fibroblasts, and undergo cystic transformation outside the fibroblasts. Fibroblasts preserve their vitality and express a prominent granular endoplasmic reticulum, suggesting activated protein synthesis. On two different semi-quantitative real-time PCR assays, BB- and BA/fibroblast co-cultures showed a significant induction of type I collagen mRNA after 2 days compared to fibroblasts (fourfold for BA and 1.8-fold for BB; p < 0.02). In addition, there was a significant upregulation of mRNA expression of TGF-β, CALR, PDGF-α, and DCN in BA and BB co-cultures compared to control fibroblasts in monolayer cultures after 2 days (p < 0.01). The BA/fibroblast co-culture induced a considerably greater upregulation of collagen and growth factor mRNA compared to BB/fibroblast co-culture. In contrast, a significant down-regulation of FGF-1 (20-fold for BA and 4.5-fold for BB) mRNA expression was detected in co-cultures compared to controls (p < 0.01). The results of the study support the hypothesis that BB sensu lato, and BA in particular, enhances collagen mRNA expression and can stimulate growth factors responsible for increased collagen production.

TGF-β2-induced EMT is dampened by inhibition of autophagy and TNF-α treatment

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) typically develops in a chronic inflammatory setting causal to release of a plethora of growth factors and cytokines. However, the molecular effect of these cytokines on HCC progression is poorly understood. In this study, we exposed HCC cells to TGF-β2 (Transforming Growth Factor-β2), which resulted in a significant elevation of EMT (Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition) like features. Molecular analysis of EMT markers showed an increase at both RNA and protein levels upon TGF-β2 administration along with up-regulation of TGF-β-induced Smad signaling. Induction of EMT was associated with a simultaneous increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cytostasis of TGF-β2-treated cells. Importantly, quenching of ROS resulted in a significant promotion of TGF-β2-induced EMT. Furthermore, cells treated with TGF-β2 also showed an enhanced autophagic flux. Interestingly, inhibition of autophagy by chloroquine-di-phosphate (CQDP) or siRNA-mediated ablation of ATG5 drastically inhibited TGF-β2-induced EMT. Autophagy inhibition significantly increased ROS levels promoting apoptosis. It was further observed that pro-inflammatory cytokine like, TNF-α (Tumor Necrosis Factor-α) can antagonize TGF-β2-induced response by down-regulating autophagy, increasing ROS levels and thus inhibiting EMT in HCC cells. This inhibitory effect of TNF-α is serum-independent. Transcriptomic analysis through RNA sequencing was further performed which validated that TGF-β2-induced autophagic genes are inhibited by TNF-α treatment suppressing EMT. Our study suggests that autophagy plays a pro-metastatic role facilitating EMT by regulating ROS levels in HCC cells and TNF-α can suppress EMT by inhibiting autophagy. We provide unique mechanistic insights into the role of TGF-β2 in HCC cells, along with appropriate cues to effectively control the disease.

Recognition of Candida albicans by gingival fibroblasts: The role of TLR2, TLR4/CD14, and MyD88

Recent evidence indicates that nonprofessional immune cells such as epithelial cells, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts also contribute to innate immunity via secretion of cytokines. Fibroblasts are the principal type of cell found in the periodontal connective tissues and they are involved in the immune response during periodontal disease. The role of fibroblasts in the recognition of pathogens via Toll-like receptors (TLRs) has been established; however, few studies have been conducted concerning the involvement of innate immune receptors in the recognition of Candida albicans by gingival fibroblast. In the current study, we investigate the functional activity of TLR2, cluster of differentiation 14 (CD14), and myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88) molecules in the recognition of C. albicans by gingival fibroblast. First, we identified that gingival fibroblasts expressed TLR2, TLR3, and TLR4. Our results showed that TLR agonists had no effect on these receptors' expression by TLR2, MyD88, and CD14-deficient cells. Notably, C. albicans and a synthetic triacylated lipoprotein (Pam3CSK4) induced a remarkable increase of TLR3 expression on MyD88-deficient gingival fibroblasts. TLR4 expression levels were lower than TLR2 and TLR3 levels and remained unchanged after TLR agonist stimulation. Gingival fibroblasts presented morphological similarities; however, TLR2 deficiency on these cells leads to a lower proliferative response, whereas the deficiency on CD14 expression resulted in lower levels of type I collagen by these cells. In addition, the recognition of C. albicans by gingival fibroblasts had an effect on the secretion of cytokines and it was dependent on a specific recognition molecule. Specifically, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) production after the recognition of C. albicans was dependent on MyD88, CD14, and TLR2 molecules, whereas the production of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-13 was dependent on TLR2. These findings are the first to describe a role of gingival fibroblast in the recognition of C. albicans and the pathways involved in this process. An understanding of these pathways may lead to alternative treatments for patients with periodontal disease.

Clinical features of cystatin A expression in patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is the most lethal malignancy known, with an extremely poor prognosis due to the lack of an efficient diagnostic scheme and no radical treatment option, except surgery. Therefore, understanding the pathophysiology of, and finding a novel biomarker to detect, PDAC should be prioritized. We observed an increase in mRNA expression of the cysteine protease inhibitor cystatin A (CSTA) in CD4⁺ T cells in peripheral blood cells of nine patients with PDAC, compared with the expression in seven healthy volunteers. Moreover, we confirmed significantly higher CSTA mRNA expression in a larger cohort of 41 patients with PDAC compared with that in 20 healthy volunteers. Correspondingly, the serum CSTA concentrations in 36 patients with PDAC were higher than those in 37 healthy volunteers, and this increase was correlated with PDAC clinical stage. Furthermore, the expression of CSTA and cathepsin B, which is a lysosomal cysteine protease inhibited by CSTA, was observed in tumor tissues and tumor‐infiltrating immune cells in 20 surgically resected PDAC tissues by immunohistochemical staining. Expression of CSTA was detected in some tumor tissues and many tumor‐infiltrating immune cells. Cathepsin B expression was also observed in most tumor tissues and tumor‐infiltrating immune cells. In conclusion, CSTA and its substrate cathepsin B are involved in PDAC‐related inflammation. The increment of CSTA expression in peripheral blood of patients with PDAC may have a potential role as a PDAC immunopathologic biomarker.

A unique tolerizing dendritic cell phenotype induced by the synthetic triterpenoid CDDO-DFPA (RTA-408) is protective against EAE

Tolerogenic dendritic cells (DCs) have emerged as relevant clinical targets for the treatment of multiple sclerosis and other autoimmune disorders. However, the pathways essential for conferring the tolerizing DC phenotype and optimal methods for their induction remain an intense area of research. Triterpenoids are a class of small molecules with potent immunomodulatory activity linked to activation of Nrf2 target genes, and can also suppress the manifestations of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Here we demonstrate that DCs are a principal target of the immune modulating activity of triterpenoids in the context of EAE. Exposure of DCs to the new class of triterpenoid CDDO-DFPA (RTA-408) results in the induction of HO-1, TGF-β, and IL-10, as well as the repression of NF-κB, EDN-1 and pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-12, and TNFα. CDDO-DFPA exposed DCs retained expression of surface ligands and capacity for antigen uptake but were impaired to induce Th1 and Th17 cells. TGF-β was identified as the factor mediating suppression of T cell proliferation by CDDO-DFPA pretreated DCs, which failed to passively induce EAE. These findings demonstrate the potential therapeutic utility of CDDO-DFPA in the treatment and prevention of autoimmune disorders, and its capacity to induce tolerance via modulation of the DC phenotype.

Biological Differences between Hanwoo longissimus dorsi and semimembranosus Muscles in Collagen Synthesis of Fibroblasts

Variations in physical toughness between muscles and animals are a function of growth rate and extend of collagen type I and III. The current study was designed to investigate the ability of growth rate, collagen concentration, collagen synthesizing and degrading genes on two different fibroblast cells derived from Hanwoo m. longissimus dorsi (LD) and semimembranosus (SM) muscles. Fibroblast cell survival time was determined for understanding about the characteristics of proliferation rate between the two fibroblasts. We examined the collagen concentration and protein expression of collagen type I and III between the two fibroblasts. The mRNA expression of collagen synthesis and collagen degrading genes to elucidate the molecular mechanisms on toughness and tenderness through collagen production between the two fibroblast cells. From our results the growth rate, collagen content and protein expression of collagen type I and III were significantly higher in SM than LD muscle fibroblast. The mRNA expressions of collagen synthesized genes were increased whereas the collagen degrading genes were decreased in SM than LD muscle. Results from confocal microscopical investigation showed increased fluorescence of collagen type I and III appearing stronger in SM than LD muscle fibroblast. These results implied that the locomotion muscle had higher fibroblast growth rate, leads to produce more collagen, and cause tougher than positional muscle. This in vitro study mirrored that background toughness of various muscles in live animal is likely associated with fibroblast growth pattern, collagen synthesis and its gene expression.

The reduction in inflammation and impairment in wound healing by using strontium chloride hexahydrate

BACKGROUND

Numerous growth factors, cytokine, mitogen and chemotactic factors are involved in wound healing. Even though inflammation is important for the stimulation of proliferative phase, excessive inflammation also causes impairment in wound healing. Strontium salts suppress keratinocyte-induced TNF-alpha and interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 in in vitro cultures. This study was conducted to determine the effects of administration of topical strontium chloride hexahydrate on wound healing through TNF-alpha and TGF-beta in surgical wound healing model of in-vivo rat skin.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Twenty-four rats were used in the study. After approximately 2 cm cutaneous-subcutaneous incision was horizontally carried out on the mid-neckline of the rats, the incision was again closed using 2.0 vicryl. The rats were assigned into three groups including eight rats in each group. Placebo emollient ointment and also the ointments, which were containing 5% and 10% strontium chloride hexahydrate and were prepared at the same base with placebo ointment, were administered to the groups by a blind executor twice a day for a week. At the end of seventh day, the rats were sacrificed and cutaneous and subcutaneous tissue of their wound site was resected for histopathological examination. Scoring of histopathological wound healing and scoring of tissue TNF-alpha and TGF-beta level with immunohistochemical staining were performed.

RESULTS

The groups, to which both 5% and 10% strontium chloride hexahydrate was administered, had lower immunohistochemical TNF-alpha levels and histopathological wound scores compared to controls, which was statistically significant (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Strontium chloride hexahydrate can lead to impairment in wound healing by suppressing inflammation through TNF-alpha.

Cell geometry dictates TNFα-induced genome response

Cells in physiology integrate local soluble and mechanical signals to regulate genomic programs. Whereas the individual roles of these signals are well studied, the cellular responses to the combined chemical and physical signals are less explored. Here, we investigated the cross-talk between cellular geometry and TNFα signaling. We stabilized NIH 3T3 fibroblasts into rectangular anisotropic or circular isotropic geometries and stimulated them with TNFα and analyzed nuclear translocation of transcription regulators -NFκB (p65) and MKL and downstream gene-expression patterns. We found that TNFα induces geometry-dependent actin depolymerization, which enhances IκB degradation, p65 nuclear translocation, nuclear exit of MKL, and sequestration of p65 at the RNA-polymerase-II foci. Further, global transcription profile of cells under matrix-TNFα interplay reveals a geometry-dependent gene-expression pattern. At a functional level, we find cell geometry affects TNFα-induced cell proliferation. Our results provide compelling evidence that fibroblasts, depending on their geometries, elicit distinct cellular responses for the same cytokine.