1
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Gentry H, Buckner C. Transitional gradation and the distinction between episodic and semantic memory. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20230407. [PMID: 39278251 PMCID: PMC11449154 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 09/18/2024] Open
Abstract
In this article, we explore various arguments against the traditional distinction between episodic and semantic memory based on the metaphysical phenomenon of transitional gradation. Transitional gradation occurs when two candidate kinds A and B grade into one another along a continuum according to their characteristic properties. We review two kinds of arguments-from the gradual semanticization of episodic memories as they are consolidated, and from the composition of episodic memories during storage and recall from semantic memories-that predict the proliferation of such transitional forms. We further explain why the distinction cannot be saved from the challenges of transitional gradation by appealing to distinct underlying memory structures and applying our perspective to the impasse over research into 'episodic-like' memory in non-human animals. On the whole, we recommend replacing the distinction with a dynamic life cycle of memory in which a variety of transitional forms will proliferate, and illustrate the utility of this perspective by tying together recent trends in animal episodic memory research and recommending productive future directions. This article is part of the theme issue 'Elements of episodic memory: lessons from 40 years of research'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hunter Gentry
- Philosophy, Kansas State University , Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Cameron Buckner
- Philosophy, University of Florida , Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
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2
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Cao R, Bright IM, Howard MW. Ramping cells in the rodent medial prefrontal cortex encode time to past and future events via real Laplace transform. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2404169121. [PMID: 39254998 PMCID: PMC11420195 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2404169121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 08/05/2024] [Indexed: 09/11/2024] Open
Abstract
In interval reproduction tasks, animals must remember the event starting the interval and anticipate the time of the planned response to terminate the interval. The interval reproduction task thus allows for studying both memory for the past and anticipation of the future. We analyzed previously published recordings from the rodent medial prefrontal cortex [J. Henke et al., eLife10, e71612 (2021)] during an interval reproduction task and identified two cell groups by modeling their temporal receptive fields using hierarchical Bayesian models. The firing in the "past cells" group peaked at the start of the interval and relaxed exponentially back to baseline. The firing in the "future cells" group increased exponentially and peaked right before the planned action at the end of the interval. Contrary to the previous assumption that timing information in the brain has one or two time scales for a given interval, we found strong evidence for a continuous distribution of the exponential rate constants for both past and future cell populations. The real Laplace transformation of time predicts exponential firing with a continuous distribution of rate constants across the population. Therefore, the firing pattern of the past cells can be identified with the Laplace transform of time since the past event while the firing pattern of the future cells can be identified with the Laplace transform of time until the planned future event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Cao
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA02215
| | - Ian M. Bright
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA02215
| | - Marc W. Howard
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA02215
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3
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Rolls ET, Zhang C, Feng J. Hippocampal storage and recall of neocortical "What"-"Where" representations. Hippocampus 2024. [PMID: 39221708 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.23636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 08/19/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
A key question for understanding the function of the hippocampus in memory is how information is recalled from the hippocampus to the neocortex. This was investigated in a neuronal network model of the hippocampal system in which "What" and "Where" neuronal firing rate vectors were applied to separate neocortical modules, which then activated entorhinal cortex "What" and "Where" modules, then the dentate gyrus, then CA3, then CA1, then the entorhinal cortex, and then the backprojections to the neocortex. A rate model showed that the whole system could be trained to recall "Where" in the neocortex from "What" applied as a retrieval cue to the neocortex, and could in principle be trained up towards the theoretical capacity determined largely by the number of synapses onto any one neuron divided by the sparseness of the representation. The trained synaptic weights were then imported into an integrate-and-fire simulation of the same architecture, which showed that the time from presenting a retrieval cue to a neocortex module to recall the whole memory in the neocortex is approximately 100 ms. This is sufficiently fast for the backprojection synapses to be trained onto the still active neocortical neurons during storage of the episodic memory, and this is needed for recall to operate correctly to the neocortex. These simulations also showed that the long loop neocortex-hippocampus-neocortex that operates continuously in time may contribute to complete recall in the neocortex; but that this positive feedback long loop makes the whole dynamical system inherently liable to a pathological increase in neuronal activity. Important factors that contributed to stability included increased inhibition in CA3 and CA1 to keep the firing rates low; and temporal adaptation of the neuronal firing and of active synapses, which are proposed to make an important contribution to stabilizing runaway excitation in cortical circuits in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund T Rolls
- Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford, UK
- Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chenfei Zhang
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jianfeng Feng
- Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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4
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Rolls ET, Treves A. A theory of hippocampal function: New developments. Prog Neurobiol 2024; 238:102636. [PMID: 38834132 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2024.102636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2024] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
We develop further here the only quantitative theory of the storage of information in the hippocampal episodic memory system and its recall back to the neocortex. The theory is upgraded to account for a revolution in understanding of spatial representations in the primate, including human, hippocampus, that go beyond the place where the individual is located, to the location being viewed in a scene. This is fundamental to much primate episodic memory and navigation: functions supported in humans by pathways that build 'where' spatial view representations by feature combinations in a ventromedial visual cortical stream, separate from those for 'what' object and face information to the inferior temporal visual cortex, and for reward information from the orbitofrontal cortex. Key new computational developments include the capacity of the CA3 attractor network for storing whole charts of space; how the correlations inherent in self-organizing continuous spatial representations impact the storage capacity; how the CA3 network can combine continuous spatial and discrete object and reward representations; the roles of the rewards that reach the hippocampus in the later consolidation into long-term memory in part via cholinergic pathways from the orbitofrontal cortex; and new ways of analysing neocortical information storage using Potts networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund T Rolls
- Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford, UK; Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK.
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5
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Rolls ET. The memory systems of the human brain and generative artificial intelligence. Heliyon 2024; 10:e31965. [PMID: 38841455 PMCID: PMC11152951 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Generative Artificial Intelligence foundation models (for example Generative Pre-trained Transformer - GPT - models) can generate the next token given a sequence of tokens. How can this 'generative AI' be compared with the 'real' intelligence of the human brain, when for example a human generates a whole memory in response to an incomplete retrieval cue, and then generates further prospective thoughts? Here these two types of generative intelligence, artificial in machines and real in the human brain are compared, and it is shown how when whole memories are generated by hippocampal recall in response to an incomplete retrieval cue, what the human brain computes, and how it computes it, are very different from generative AI. Key differences are the use of local associative learning rules in the hippocampal memory system, and of non-local backpropagation of error learning in AI. Indeed, it is argued that the whole operation of the human brain is performed computationally very differently to what is implemented in generative AI. Moreover, it is emphasized that the primate including human hippocampal system includes computations about spatial view and where objects and people are in scenes, whereas in rodents the emphasis is on place cells and path integration by movements between places. This comparison with generative memory and processing in the human brain has interesting implications for the further development of generative AI and for neuroscience research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund T. Rolls
- Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford, UK
- Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200403, China
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6
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Choudhary K, Berberich S, Hahn TTG, McFarland JM, Mehta MR. Spontaneous persistent activity and inactivity in vivo reveals differential cortico-entorhinal functional connectivity. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3542. [PMID: 38719802 PMCID: PMC11079062 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47617-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Understanding the functional connectivity between brain regions and its emergent dynamics is a central challenge. Here we present a theory-experiment hybrid approach involving iteration between a minimal computational model and in vivo electrophysiological measurements. Our model not only predicted spontaneous persistent activity (SPA) during Up-Down-State oscillations, but also inactivity (SPI), which has never been reported. These were confirmed in vivo in the membrane potential of neurons, especially from layer 3 of the medial and lateral entorhinal cortices. The data was then used to constrain two free parameters, yielding a unique, experimentally determined model for each neuron. Analytic and computational analysis of the model generated a dozen quantitative predictions about network dynamics, which were all confirmed in vivo to high accuracy. Our technique predicted functional connectivity; e. g. the recurrent excitation is stronger in the medial than lateral entorhinal cortex. This too was confirmed with connectomics data. This technique uncovers how differential cortico-entorhinal dialogue generates SPA and SPI, which could form an energetically efficient working-memory substrate and influence the consolidation of memories during sleep. More broadly, our procedure can reveal the functional connectivity of large networks and a theory of their emergent dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishna Choudhary
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- HRL Laboratories, Malibu, CA, USA
| | - Sven Berberich
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | | | | | - Mayank R Mehta
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
- W. M. Keck Center for Neurophysics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
- Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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7
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Yang Y, Leopold DA, Duyn JH, Liu X. Hippocampal replay sequence governed by spontaneous brain-wide dynamics. PNAS NEXUS 2024; 3:pgae078. [PMID: 38562584 PMCID: PMC10983782 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Neurons in the hippocampus exhibit spontaneous spiking activity during rest that appears to recapitulate previously experienced events. While this replay activity is frequently linked to memory consolidation and learning, the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. Recent large-scale neural recordings in mice have demonstrated that resting-state spontaneous activity is expressed as quasi-periodic cascades of spiking activity that pervade the forebrain, with each cascade engaging a high proportion of recorded neurons. Hippocampal ripples are known to be coordinated with cortical dynamics; however, less is known about the occurrence of replay activity relative to other brain-wide spontaneous events. Here we analyzed responses across the mouse brain to multiple viewings of natural movies, as well as subsequent patterns of neural activity during rest. We found that hippocampal neurons showed time-selectivity, with individual neurons responding consistently during particular moments of the movie. During rest, the population of time-selective hippocampal neurons showed both forward and time-reversed replay activity that matched the sequence observed in the movie. Importantly, these replay events were strongly time-locked to brain-wide spiking cascades, with forward and time-reversed replay activity associated with distinct cascade types. Thus, intrinsic hippocampal replay activity is temporally structured according to large-scale spontaneous physiology affecting areas throughout the forebrain. These findings shed light on the coordination between hippocampal and cortical circuits thought to be critical for memory consolidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifan Yang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - David A Leopold
- Neurophysiology Imaging Facility, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, and National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
- Section on Cognitive Neurophysiology and Imaging, Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jeff H Duyn
- Advanced MRI Section, Laboratory of Functional and Molecular Imaging, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Xiao Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
- Institute for Computational and Data Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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8
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White PA. The perceptual timescape: Perceptual history on the sub-second scale. Cogn Psychol 2024; 149:101643. [PMID: 38452720 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
There is a high-capacity store of brief time span (∼1000 ms) which information enters from perceptual processing, often called iconic memory or sensory memory. It is proposed that a main function of this store is to hold recent perceptual information in a temporally segregated representation, named the perceptual timescape. The perceptual timescape is a continually active representation of change and continuity over time that endows the perceived present with a perceived history. This is accomplished primarily by two kinds of time marking information: time distance information, which marks all items of information in the perceptual timescape according to how far in the past they occurred, and ordinal temporal information, which organises items of information in terms of their temporal order. Added to that is information about connectivity of perceptual objects over time. These kinds of information connect individual items over a brief span of time so as to represent change, persistence, and continuity over time. It is argued that there is a one-way street of information flow from perceptual processing either to the perceived present or directly into the perceptual timescape, and thence to working memory. Consistent with that, the information structure of the perceptual timescape supports postdictive reinterpretations of recent perceptual information. Temporal integration on a time scale of hundreds of milliseconds takes place in perceptual processing and does not draw on information in the perceptual timescape, which is concerned with temporal segregation, not integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter A White
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Tower Building, Park Place, Cardiff, Wales CF10 3YG, United Kingdom.
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9
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Cao R, Bright IM, Howard MW. Ramping cells in rodent mPFC encode time to past and future events via real Laplace transform. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.13.580170. [PMID: 38405896 PMCID: PMC10888827 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.13.580170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
In interval reproduction tasks, animals must remember the event starting the interval and anticipate the time of the planned response to terminate the interval. The interval reproduction task thus allows for studying both memory for the past and anticipation of the future. We analyzed previously published recordings from rodent mPFC (Henke et al., 2021) during an interval reproduction task and identified two cell groups by modeling their temporal receptive fields using hierarchical Bayesian models. The firing in the "past cells" group peaked at the start of the interval and relaxed exponentially back to baseline. The firing in the "future cells" group increased exponentially and peaked right before the planned action at the end of the interval. Contrary to the previous assumption that timing information in the brain has one or two time scales for a given interval, we found strong evidence for a continuous distribution of the exponential rate constants for both past and future cell populations. The real Laplace transformation of time predicts exponential firing with a continuous distribution of rate constants across the population. Therefore, the firing pattern of the past cells can be identified with the Laplace transform of time since the past event while the firing pattern of the future cells can be identified with the Laplace transform of time until the planned future event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Cao
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University
| | - Ian M Bright
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University
| | - Marc W Howard
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University
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10
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M Aghajan Z, Kreiman G, Fried I. Minute-scale periodicity of neuronal firing in the human entorhinal cortex. Cell Rep 2023; 42:113271. [PMID: 37906591 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Grid cells in the entorhinal cortex demonstrate spatially periodic firing, thought to provide a spatial map on behaviorally relevant length scales. Whether such periodicity exists for behaviorally relevant time scales in the human brain remains unclear. We investigate neuronal firing during a temporally continuous experience by presenting 14 neurosurgical patients with a video while recording neuronal activity from multiple brain regions. We report on neurons that modulate their activity in a periodic manner across different time scales-from seconds to many minutes, most prevalently in the entorhinal cortex. These neurons remap their dominant periodicity to shorter time scales during a subsequent recognition memory task. When the video is presented at two different speeds, a significant percentage of these temporally periodic cells (TPCs) maintain their time scales, suggesting a degree of invariance. The TPCs' temporal periodicity might complement the spatial periodicity of grid cells and together provide scalable spatiotemporal metrics for human experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra M Aghajan
- Department of Neurosurgery, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Gabriel Kreiman
- Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Center for Brains, Minds and Machines, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Itzhak Fried
- Department of Neurosurgery, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Jane and Terry Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 69978, Israel.
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11
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Rolls ET. Hippocampal spatial view cells for memory and navigation, and their underlying connectivity in humans. Hippocampus 2023; 33:533-572. [PMID: 36070199 PMCID: PMC10946493 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.23467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Hippocampal and parahippocampal gyrus spatial view neurons in primates respond to the spatial location being looked at. The representation is allocentric, in that the responses are to locations "out there" in the world, and are relatively invariant with respect to retinal position, eye position, head direction, and the place where the individual is located. The underlying connectivity in humans is from ventromedial visual cortical regions to the parahippocampal scene area, leading to the theory that spatial view cells are formed by combinations of overlapping feature inputs self-organized based on their closeness in space. Thus, although spatial view cells represent "where" for episodic memory and navigation, they are formed by ventral visual stream feature inputs in the parahippocampal gyrus in what is the parahippocampal scene area. A second "where" driver of spatial view cells are parietal inputs, which it is proposed provide the idiothetic update for spatial view cells, used for memory recall and navigation when the spatial view details are obscured. Inferior temporal object "what" inputs and orbitofrontal cortex reward inputs connect to the human hippocampal system, and in macaques can be associated in the hippocampus with spatial view cell "where" representations to implement episodic memory. Hippocampal spatial view cells also provide a basis for navigation to a series of viewed landmarks, with the orbitofrontal cortex reward inputs to the hippocampus providing the goals for navigation, which can then be implemented by hippocampal connectivity in humans to parietal cortex regions involved in visuomotor actions in space. The presence of foveate vision and the highly developed temporal lobe for object and scene processing in primates including humans provide a basis for hippocampal spatial view cells to be key to understanding episodic memory in the primate and human hippocampus, and the roles of this system in primate including human navigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund T. Rolls
- Oxford Centre for Computational NeuroscienceOxfordUK
- Department of Computer ScienceUniversity of WarwickCoventryUK
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12
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Sawatani F, Ide K, Takahashi S. The neural representation of time distributed across multiple brain regions differs between implicit and explicit time demands. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2023; 199:107731. [PMID: 36764645 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2023.107731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Revised: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 02/04/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
Abstract
Animals appear to possess an internal timer during action, based on the passage of time. However, the neural underpinnings of the perception of time, ranging from seconds to minutes, remain unclear. Herein, we considered the neural representation of time based on mounting evidence on the neural correlates of time perception. The passage of time in the brain is represented by two types of neural encoding as follows: (i) the modulation of firing rates in single neurons and (ii) the sequential activity in neural ensembles. Time-dependent neural activity reflects the relative time rather than the absolute time, similar to a clock. They emerge in multiple regions, including the hippocampus, medial and lateral entorhinal cortices, medial prefrontal cortex, and dorsal striatum. Moreover, they involve different brain regions, depending on an implicit or explicit event duration. Thus, the two types of internal timers distributed across multiple brain regions simultaneously engage in time perception, in response to implicit or explicit time demands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumiya Sawatani
- Laboratory of Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, Graduate School of Brain Science, Doshisha University, Kyotanabe City, Kyoto 610-0394, Japan.
| | - Kaoru Ide
- Laboratory of Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, Graduate School of Brain Science, Doshisha University, Kyotanabe City, Kyoto 610-0394, Japan
| | - Susumu Takahashi
- Laboratory of Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, Graduate School of Brain Science, Doshisha University, Kyotanabe City, Kyoto 610-0394, Japan.
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13
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White PA. Time marking in perception. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 146:105043. [PMID: 36642288 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Several authors have proposed that perceptual information carries labels that identify temporal features, including time of occurrence, ordinal temporal relations, and brief durations. These labels serve to locate and organise perceptual objects, features, and events in time. In some proposals time marking has local, specific functions such as synchronisation of different features in perceptual processing. In other proposals time marking has general significance and is responsible for rendering perceptual experience temporally coherent, just as various forms of spatial information render the visual environment spatially coherent. These proposals, which all concern time marking on the millisecond time scale, are reviewed. It is concluded that time marking is vital to the construction of a multisensory perceptual world in which things are orderly with respect to both space and time, but that much more research is needed to ascertain its functions in perception and its neurophysiological foundations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter A White
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Tower Building, Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3YG, Wales, UK.
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14
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Rolls ET, Wirth S, Deco G, Huang C, Feng J. The human posterior cingulate, retrosplenial, and medial parietal cortex effective connectome, and implications for memory and navigation. Hum Brain Mapp 2023; 44:629-655. [PMID: 36178249 PMCID: PMC9842927 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.26089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The human posterior cingulate, retrosplenial, and medial parietal cortex are involved in memory and navigation. The functional anatomy underlying these cognitive functions was investigated by measuring the effective connectivity of these Posterior Cingulate Division (PCD) regions in the Human Connectome Project-MMP1 atlas in 171 HCP participants, and complemented with functional connectivity and diffusion tractography. First, the postero-ventral parts of the PCD (31pd, 31pv, 7m, d23ab, and v23ab) have effective connectivity with the temporal pole, inferior temporal visual cortex, cortex in the superior temporal sulcus implicated in auditory and semantic processing, with the reward-related vmPFC and pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, with the inferior parietal cortex, and with the hippocampal system. This connectivity implicates it in hippocampal episodic memory, providing routes for "what," reward and semantic schema-related information to access the hippocampus. Second, the antero-dorsal parts of the PCD (especially 31a and 23d, PCV, and also RSC) have connectivity with early visual cortical areas including those that represent spatial scenes, with the superior parietal cortex, with the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, and with the hippocampal system. This connectivity implicates it in the "where" component for hippocampal episodic memory and for spatial navigation. The dorsal-transitional-visual (DVT) and ProStriate regions where the retrosplenial scene area is located have connectivity from early visual cortical areas to the parahippocampal scene area, providing a ventromedial route for spatial scene information to reach the hippocampus. These connectivities provide important routes for "what," reward, and "where" scene-related information for human hippocampal episodic memory and navigation. The midcingulate cortex provides a route from the anterior dorsal parts of the PCD and the supracallosal part of the anterior cingulate cortex to premotor regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund T. Rolls
- Oxford Centre for Computational NeuroscienceOxfordUK
- Department of Computer ScienceUniversity of WarwickCoventryUK
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired IntelligenceFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
- Key Laboratory of Computational Neuroscience and Brain Inspired IntelligenceFudan University, Ministry of EducationShanghaiChina
- Fudan ISTBI—ZJNU Algorithm Centre for Brain‐Inspired IntelligenceZhejiang Normal UniversityJinhuaChina
| | - Sylvia Wirth
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, UMR 5229CNRS and University of LyonBronFrance
| | - Gustavo Deco
- Center for Brain and Cognition, Computational Neuroscience Group, Department of Information and Communication TechnologiesUniversitat Pompeu FabraBarcelonaSpain
- Brain and CognitionPompeu Fabra UniversityBarcelonaSpain
- Institució Catalana de la Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA)Universitat Pompeu FabraBarcelonaSpain
| | - Chu‐Chung Huang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (Ministry of Education), School of Psychology and Cognitive ScienceEast China Normal UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Jianfeng Feng
- Department of Computer ScienceUniversity of WarwickCoventryUK
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired IntelligenceFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
- Key Laboratory of Computational Neuroscience and Brain Inspired IntelligenceFudan University, Ministry of EducationShanghaiChina
- Fudan ISTBI—ZJNU Algorithm Centre for Brain‐Inspired IntelligenceZhejiang Normal UniversityJinhuaChina
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15
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Wang J, Tambini A, Lapate RC. The tie that binds: temporal coding and adaptive emotion. Trends Cogn Sci 2022; 26:1103-1118. [PMID: 36302710 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2022.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Emotions are temporally dynamic, but the persistence of emotions outside of their appropriate temporal context is detrimental to health and well-being. Yet, precisely how temporal coding and emotional processing interact remains unclear. Recently unveiled temporal context representations in the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex (EC), and prefrontal cortex (PFC) support memory for what happened when. Here, we discuss how these neural temporal representations may interact with densely interconnected amygdala circuitry to shape emotional functioning. We propose a neuroanatomically informed framework suggesting that high-fidelity temporal representations linked to dynamic experiences promote emotion regulation and adaptive emotional memories. Then, we discuss how newly-identified synaptic and molecular features of amygdala-hippocampal projections suggest that intense, amygdala-dependent emotional responses may distort temporal-coding mechanisms. We conclude by identifying key avenues for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyi Wang
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Arielle Tambini
- Center for Biomedical Imaging and Neuromodulation, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY 10962, USA
| | - Regina C Lapate
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
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16
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Digital computing through randomness and order in neural networks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2115335119. [PMID: 35947616 PMCID: PMC9388095 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2115335119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We propose that coding and decoding in the brain are achieved through digital computation using three principles: relative ordinal coding of inputs, random connections between neurons, and belief voting. Due to randomization and despite the coarseness of the relative codes, we show that these principles are sufficient for coding and decoding sequences with error-free reconstruction. In particular, the number of neurons needed grows linearly with the size of the input repertoire growing exponentially. We illustrate our model by reconstructing sequences with repertoires on the order of a billion items. From this, we derive the Shannon equations for the capacity limit to learn and transfer information in the neural population, which is then generalized to any type of neural network. Following the maximum entropy principle of efficient coding, we show that random connections serve to decorrelate redundant information in incoming signals, creating more compact codes for neurons and therefore, conveying a larger amount of information. Henceforth, despite the unreliability of the relative codes, few neurons become necessary to discriminate the original signal without error. Finally, we discuss the significance of this digital computation model regarding neurobiological findings in the brain and more generally with artificial intelligence algorithms, with a view toward a neural information theory and the design of digital neural networks.
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17
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Rolls ET. The hippocampus, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and episodic and semantic memory. Prog Neurobiol 2022; 217:102334. [PMID: 35870682 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2022.102334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The human ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)/anterior cingulate cortex is implicated in reward and emotion, but also in memory. It is shown how the human orbitofrontal cortex connecting with the vmPFC and anterior cingulate cortex provide a route to the hippocampus for reward and emotional value to be incorporated into episodic memory, enabling memory of where a reward was seen. It is proposed that this value component results in primarily episodic memories with some value component to be repeatedly recalled from the hippocampus so that they are more likely to become incorporated into neocortical semantic and autobiographical memories. The same orbitofrontal and anterior cingulate regions also connect in humans to the septal and basal forebrain cholinergic nuclei, thereby helping to consolidate memory, and helping to account for why damage to the vMPFC impairs memory. The human hippocampus and vmPFC thus contribute in complementary ways to forming episodic and semantic memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund T Rolls
- Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford, UK; University of Warwick, Department of Computer Science, Coventry, UK.
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18
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Takehara-Nishiuchi K. Neuronal Code for Episodic Time in the Lateral Entorhinal Cortex. Front Integr Neurosci 2022; 16:899412. [PMID: 35573446 PMCID: PMC9099416 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2022.899412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kaori Takehara-Nishiuchi
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Neuroscience Program, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- *Correspondence: Kaori Takehara-Nishiuchi
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19
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Liu Y, Levy S, Mau W, Geva N, Rubin A, Ziv Y, Hasselmo M, Howard M. Consistent population activity on the scale of minutes in the mouse hippocampus. Hippocampus 2022; 32:359-372. [PMID: 35225408 PMCID: PMC10085730 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.23409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Neurons in the hippocampus fire in consistent sequence over the timescale of seconds during the delay period of some memory experiments. For longer timescales, the firing of hippocampal neurons also changes slowly over minutes within experimental sessions. It was thought that these slow dynamics are caused by stochastic drift or a continuous change in the representation of the episode, rather than consistent sequences unfolding over minutes. This paper studies the consistency of contextual drift in three chronic calcium imaging recordings from the hippocampus CA1 region in mice. Computational measures of consistency show reliable sequences within experimental trials at the scale of seconds as one would expect from time cells or place cells during the trial, as well as across experimental trials on the scale of minutes within a recording session. Consistent sequences in the hippocampus are observed over a wide range of time scales, from seconds to minutes. The hippocampal activity could reflect a scale-invariant spatiotemporal context as suggested by theories of memory from cognitive psychology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Liu
- Department of Physics, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Center for Memory and Brain, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Samuel Levy
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Center for Memory and Brain, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - William Mau
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Center for Memory and Brain, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nitzan Geva
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Alon Rubin
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yaniv Ziv
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Michael Hasselmo
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Center for Memory and Brain, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Marc Howard
- Department of Physics, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Center for Memory and Brain, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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20
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Rolls ET, Deco G, Huang CC, Feng J. The Effective Connectivity of the Human Hippocampal Memory System. Cereb Cortex 2022; 32:3706-3725. [PMID: 35034120 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Effective connectivity measurements in the human hippocampal memory system based on the resting-state blood oxygenation-level dependent signal were made in 172 participants in the Human Connectome Project to reveal the directionality and strength of the connectivity. A ventral "what" hippocampal stream involves the temporal lobe cortex, perirhinal and parahippocampal TF cortex, and entorhinal cortex. A dorsal "where" hippocampal stream connects parietal cortex with posterior and retrosplenial cingulate cortex, and with parahippocampal TH cortex, which, in turn, project to the presubiculum, which connects to the hippocampus. A third stream involves the orbitofrontal and ventromedial-prefrontal cortex with effective connectivity with the hippocampal, entorhinal, and perirhinal cortex. There is generally stronger forward connectivity to the hippocampus than backward. Thus separate "what," "where," and "reward" streams can converge in the hippocampus, from which back projections return to the sources. However, unlike the simple dual stream hippocampal model, there is a third stream related to reward value; there is some cross-connectivity between these systems before the hippocampus is reached; and the hippocampus has some effective connectivity with earlier stages of processing than the entorhinal cortex and presubiculum. These findings complement diffusion tractography and provide a foundation for new concepts on the operation of the human hippocampal memory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund T Rolls
- Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford, UK
- Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Gustavo Deco
- Department of Information and Communication Technologies, Center for Brain and Cognition, Computational Neuroscience Group, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona 08018, Spain
- Brain and Cognition, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona 08018, Spain
- Institució Catalana de la Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona 08010, Spain
| | - Chu-Chung Huang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (Ministry of Education), School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China
| | - Jianfeng Feng
- Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
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21
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Ma Q, Rolls ET, Huang CC, Cheng W, Feng J. Extensive cortical functional connectivity of the human hippocampal memory system. Cortex 2021; 147:83-101. [PMID: 35026557 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2021.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The cortical connections of the human hippocampal memory system are fundamental to understanding its operation in health and disease, especially in the context of the great development of the human cortex. The functional connectivity of the human hippocampal system was analyzed in 172 participants imaged at 7T in the Human Connectome Project. The human hippocampus has high functional connectivity not only with the entorhinal cortex, but also with areas that are more distant in the ventral 'what' stream including the perirhinal cortex and temporal cortical visual areas. Parahippocampal gyrus TF in humans has connectivity with this ventral 'what' subsystem. Correspondingly for the dorsal stream, the hippocampus has high functional connectivity not only with the presubiculum, but also with areas more distant, the medial parahippocampal cortex TH which includes the parahippocampal place or scene area, the posterior cingulate including retrosplenial cortex, and the parietal cortex. Further, there is considerable cross connectivity between the ventral and dorsal streams with the hippocampus. The findings are supported by anatomical connections, which together provide an unprecedented and quantitative overview of the extensive cortical connectivity of the human hippocampal system that goes beyond hierarchically organised and segregated pathways connecting the hippocampus and neocortex, and leads to new concepts on the operation of the hippocampal memory system in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Ma
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Edmund T Rolls
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK; Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford, UK.
| | - Chu-Chung Huang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (Ministry of Education), School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Cheng
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Computational Neuroscience and Brain-Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200433, China; Fudan ISTBI-ZJNU Algorithm Centre for Brain-inspired Intelligence, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China.
| | - Jianfeng Feng
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK; Key Laboratory of Computational Neuroscience and Brain-Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200433, China; Fudan ISTBI-ZJNU Algorithm Centre for Brain-inspired Intelligence, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China.
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22
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Rolls ET. On pattern separation in the primate, including human, hippocampus. Trends Cogn Sci 2021; 25:920-922. [PMID: 34598879 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2021.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 07/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Edmund T Rolls
- Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford, UK; Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK.
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23
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Sutton NM, Ascoli GA. Spiking Neural Networks and Hippocampal Function: A Web-Accessible Survey of Simulations, Modeling Methods, and Underlying Theories. COGN SYST RES 2021; 70:80-92. [PMID: 34504394 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogsys.2021.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Computational modeling has contributed to hippocampal research in a wide variety of ways and through a large diversity of approaches, reflecting the many advanced cognitive roles of this brain region. The intensively studied neuron type circuitry of the hippocampus is a particularly conducive substrate for spiking neural models. Here we present an online knowledge base of spiking neural network simulations of hippocampal functions. First, we overview theories involving the hippocampal formation in subjects such as spatial representation, learning, and memory. Then we describe an original literature mining process to organize published reports in various key aspects, including: (i) subject area (e.g., navigation, pattern completion, epilepsy); (ii) level of modeling detail (Hodgkin-Huxley, integrate-and-fire, etc.); and (iii) theoretical framework (attractor dynamics, oscillatory interference, self-organizing maps, and others). Moreover, every peer-reviewed publication is also annotated to indicate the specific neuron types represented in the network simulation, establishing a direct link with the Hippocampome.org portal. The web interface of the knowledge base enables dynamic content browsing and advanced searches, and consistently presents evidence supporting every annotation. Moreover, users are given access to several types of statistical reports about the collection, a selection of which is summarized in this paper. This open access resource thus provides an interactive platform to survey spiking neural network models of hippocampal functions, compare available computational methods, and foster ideas for suitable new directions of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nate M Sutton
- Department of Bioengineering, 4400 University Drive, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 22030 (USA)
| | - Giorgio A Ascoli
- Department of Bioengineering, 4400 University Drive, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 22030 (USA).,Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, 4400 University Drive, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 22030 (USA)
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24
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de Sousa AF, Chowdhury A, Silva AJ. Dimensions and mechanisms of memory organization. Neuron 2021; 109:2649-2662. [PMID: 34242564 PMCID: PMC8416710 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2021.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Revised: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Memory formation is dynamic in nature, and acquisition of new information is often influenced by previous experiences. Memories sharing certain attributes are known to interact so that retrieval of one increases the likelihood of retrieving the other, raising the possibility that related memories are organized into associative mnemonic structures of interconnected representations. Although the formation and retrieval of single memories have been studied extensively, very little is known about the brain mechanisms that organize and link related memories. Here we review studies that suggest the existence of mnemonic structures in humans and animal models. These studies suggest three main dimensions of experience that can serve to organize related memories: time, space, and perceptual/conceptual similarities. We propose potential molecular, cellular, and systems mechanisms that might support organization of memories according to these dimensions.
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Affiliation(s)
- André F de Sousa
- Departments of Neurobiology, Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, and Psychology, Integrative Center for Learning and Memory, Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Ananya Chowdhury
- Departments of Neurobiology, Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, and Psychology, Integrative Center for Learning and Memory, Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Alcino J Silva
- Departments of Neurobiology, Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, and Psychology, Integrative Center for Learning and Memory, Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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25
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Huang CC, Rolls ET, Hsu CCH, Feng J, Lin CP. Extensive Cortical Connectivity of the Human Hippocampal Memory System: Beyond the "What" and "Where" Dual Stream Model. Cereb Cortex 2021; 31:4652-4669. [PMID: 34013342 PMCID: PMC8866812 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 10/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The human hippocampus is involved in forming new memories: damage impairs memory. The dual stream model suggests that object "what" representations from ventral stream temporal cortex project to the hippocampus via the perirhinal and then lateral entorhinal cortex, and spatial "where" representations from the dorsal parietal stream via the parahippocampal gyrus and then medial entorhinal cortex. The hippocampus can then associate these inputs to form episodic memories of what happened where. Diffusion tractography was used to reveal the direct connections of hippocampal system areas in humans. This provides evidence that the human hippocampus has extensive direct cortical connections, with connections that bypass the entorhinal cortex to connect with the perirhinal and parahippocampal cortex, with the temporal pole, with the posterior and retrosplenial cingulate cortex, and even with early sensory cortical areas. The connections are less hierarchical and segregated than in the dual stream model. This provides a foundation for a conceptualization for how the hippocampal memory system connects with the cerebral cortex and operates in humans. One implication is that prehippocampal cortical areas such as the parahippocampal TF and TH subregions and perirhinal cortices may implement specialized computations that can benefit from inputs from the dorsal and ventral streams.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chu-Chung Huang
- Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (MOE & STCSM), Affiliated Mental Health Center (ECNU), School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China
- Shanghai Changning Mental Health Center, Shanghai 200335, China
| | - Edmund T Rolls
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
- Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
- Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford, UK
| | - Chih-Chin Heather Hsu
- Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Yang-Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
| | - Jianfeng Feng
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
- Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Ching-Po Lin
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
- Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
- Brain Research Center, National Yang-Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
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26
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Bennett MS. What Behavioral Abilities Emerged at Key Milestones in Human Brain Evolution? 13 Hypotheses on the 600-Million-Year Phylogenetic History of Human Intelligence. Front Psychol 2021; 12:685853. [PMID: 34393912 PMCID: PMC8358274 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.685853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper presents 13 hypotheses regarding the specific behavioral abilities that emerged at key milestones during the 600-million-year phylogenetic history from early bilaterians to extant humans. The behavioral, intellectual, and cognitive faculties of humans are complex and varied: we have abilities as diverse as map-based navigation, theory of mind, counterfactual learning, episodic memory, and language. But these faculties, which emerge from the complex human brain, are likely to have evolved from simpler prototypes in the simpler brains of our ancestors. Understanding the order in which behavioral abilities evolved can shed light on how and why our brains evolved. To propose these hypotheses, I review the available data from comparative psychology and evolutionary neuroscience.
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27
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Lan Y, Wang X, Wang Y. Spatio-Temporal Sequential Memory Model With Mini-Column Neural Network. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:650430. [PMID: 34121986 PMCID: PMC8195288 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.650430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Memory is an intricate process involving various faculties of the brain and is a central component in human cognition. However, the exact mechanism that brings about memory in our brain remains elusive and the performance of the existing memory models is not satisfactory. To overcome these problems, this paper puts forward a brain-inspired spatio-temporal sequential memory model based on spiking neural networks (SNNs). Inspired by the structure of the neocortex, the proposed model is structured by many mini-columns composed of biological spiking neurons. Each mini-column represents one memory item, and the firing of different spiking neurons in the mini-column depends on the context of the previous inputs. The Spike-Timing-Dependant Plasticity (STDP) is used to update the connections between excitatory neurons and formulates association between two memory items. In addition, the inhibitory neurons are employed to prevent incorrect prediction, which contributes to improving the retrieval accuracy. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed model can effectively store a huge number of data and accurately retrieve them when sufficient context is provided. This work not only provides a new memory model but also suggests how memory could be formulated with excitatory/inhibitory neurons, spike-based encoding, and mini-column structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yawen Lan
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China.,School of Information Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
| | - Xiaobin Wang
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Yuchen Wang
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
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28
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Crucial role for CA2 inputs in the sequential organization of CA1 time cells supporting memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2020698118. [PMID: 33431691 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2020698118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
There is considerable evidence for hippocampal time cells that briefly activate in succession to represent the temporal structure of memories. Previous studies have shown that time cells can be disrupted while leaving place cells intact, indicating that spatial and temporal information can be coded in parallel. However, the circuits in which spatial and temporal information are coded have not been clearly identified. Here we investigated temporal and spatial coding by dorsal hippocampal CA1 (dCA1) neurons in mice trained on a classic spatial working-memory task. On each trial, the mice approached the same choice point on a maze but were trained to alternate between traversing one of two distinct spatial routes (spatial coding phase). In between trials, there was a 10-s mnemonic delay during which the mouse continuously ran in a fixed location (temporal coding phase). Using cell-type-specific optogenetic methods, we found that inhibiting dorsal CA2 (dCA2) inputs into dCA1 degraded time cell coding during the mnemonic delay and impaired the mouse's subsequent memory-guided choice. Conversely, inhibiting dCA2 inputs during the spatial coding phase had a negligible effect on place cell activity in dCA1 and no effect on behavior. Collectively, our work demonstrates that spatial and temporal coding in dCA1 is largely segregated with respect to the dCA2-dCA1 circuit and suggests that CA2 plays a critical role in representing the flow of time in memory within the hippocampal network.
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29
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Parish G, Michelmann S, Hanslmayr S, Bowman H. The Sync-Fire/deSync model: Modelling the reactivation of dynamic memories from cortical alpha oscillations. Neuropsychologia 2021; 158:107867. [PMID: 33905757 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.107867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We propose a neural network model to explore how humans can learn and accurately retrieve temporal sequences, such as melodies, movies, or other dynamic content. We identify target memories by their neural oscillatory signatures, as shown in recent human episodic memory paradigms. Our model comprises three plausible components for the binding of temporal content, where each component imposes unique limitations on the encoding and representation of that content. A cortical component actively represents sequences through the disruption of an intrinsically generated alpha rhythm, where a desynchronisation marks information-rich operations as the literature predicts. A binding component converts each event into a discrete index, enabling repetitions through a sparse encoding of events. A timing component - consisting of an oscillatory "ticking clock" made up of hierarchical synfire chains - discretely indexes a moment in time. By encoding the absolute timing between discretised events, we show how one can use cortical desynchronisations to dynamically detect unique temporal signatures as they are reactivated in the brain. We validate this model by simulating a series of events where sequences are uniquely identifiable by analysing phasic information, as several recent EEG/MEG studies have shown. As such, we show how one can encode and retrieve complete episodic memories where the quality of such memories is modulated by the following: alpha gate keepers to content representation; binding limitations that induce a blink in temporal perception; and nested oscillations that provide preferential learning phases in order to temporally sequence events.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Parish
- School of Psychology and Centre for Human Brain Health, University of Birmingham, UK.
| | | | - Simon Hanslmayr
- Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology & Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, University of Glasgow, UK
| | - Howard Bowman
- School of Psychology and Centre for Human Brain Health, University of Birmingham, UK; School of Computing, University of Kent, UK
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30
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Shikano Y, Ikegaya Y, Sasaki T. Minute-encoding neurons in hippocampal-striatal circuits. Curr Biol 2021; 31:1438-1449.e6. [PMID: 33545048 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.01.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Animals process temporal information in an ever-changing environment, but the neuronal mechanisms of this process, especially on timescales longer than seconds, remain unresolved. Here, we designed a hippocampus-dependent task in which rats prospectively increased their reward-seeking behavior over a duration of minutes. During this timing behavior, hippocampal and striatal neurons represented successive time points on the order of minutes by gradually changing their firing rates and transiently increasing their firing rates at specific time points. These minute-encoding patterns progressively developed as the rats learned a time-reward relationship, and the patterns underwent flexible scaling in parallel with timing behavior. These observations suggest a neuronal basis in the hippocampal-striatal circuits that enables temporal processing and formation of episodic memory on a timescale of minutes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Shikano
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Yuji Ikegaya
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; Center for Information and Neural Networks, 1-4 Yamadaoka, Suita City, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Institute for AI and Beyond, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Takuya Sasaki
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology (PRESTO), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), 4-1-8 Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan.
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31
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Rolls ET. Neurons including hippocampal spatial view cells, and navigation in primates including humans. Hippocampus 2021; 31:593-611. [PMID: 33760309 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.23324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
A new theory is proposed of mechanisms of navigation in primates including humans in which spatial view cells found in the primate hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus are used to guide the individual from landmark to landmark. The navigation involves approach to each landmark in turn (taxis), using spatial view cells to identify the next landmark in the sequence, and does not require a topological map. Two other cell types found in primates, whole body motion cells, and head direction cells, can be utilized in the spatial view cell navigational mechanism, but are not essential. If the landmarks become obscured, then the spatial view representations can be updated by self-motion (idiothetic) path integration using spatial coordinate transform mechanisms in the primate dorsal visual system to transform from egocentric to allocentric spatial view coordinates. A continuous attractor network or time cells or working memory is used in this approach to navigation to encode and recall the spatial view sequences involved. I also propose how navigation can be performed using a further type of neuron found in primates, allocentric-bearing-to-a-landmark neurons, in which changes of direction are made when a landmark reaches a particular allocentric bearing. This is useful if a landmark cannot be approached. The theories are made explicit in models of navigation, which are then illustrated by computer simulations. These types of navigation are contrasted with triangulation, which requires a topological map. It is proposed that the first strategy utilizing spatial view cells is used frequently in humans, and is relatively simple because primates have spatial view neurons that respond allocentrically to locations in spatial scenes. An advantage of this approach to navigation is that hippocampal spatial view neurons are also useful for episodic memory, and for imagery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund T Rolls
- Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford, UK.,Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
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32
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Dillingham CM, Milczarek MM, Perry JC, Vann SD. Time to put the mammillothalamic pathway into context. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 121:60-74. [PMID: 33309908 PMCID: PMC8137464 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The medial diencephalon, in particular the mammillary bodies and anterior thalamic nuclei, has long been linked to memory and amnesia. The mammillary bodies provide a dense input into the anterior thalamic nuclei, via the mammillothalamic tract. In both animal models, and in patients, lesions of the mammillary bodies, mammillothalamic tract and anterior thalamic nuclei all produce severe impairments in temporal and contextual memory, yet it is uncertain why these regions are critical. Mounting evidence from electrophysiological and neural imaging studies suggests that mammillothalamic projections exercise considerable distal influence over thalamo-cortical and hippocampo-cortical interactions. Here, we outline how damage to the mammillary body-anterior thalamic axis, in both patients and animal models, disrupts behavioural performance on tasks that relate to contextual ("where") and temporal ("when") processing. Focusing on the medial mammillary nuclei as a possible 'theta-generator' (through their interconnections with the ventral tegmental nucleus of Gudden) we discuss how the mammillary body-anterior thalamic pathway may contribute to the mechanisms via which the hippocampus and neocortex encode representations of experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher M Dillingham
- School of Psychology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, UK
| | - Michal M Milczarek
- School of Psychology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, UK
| | - James C Perry
- School of Psychology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, UK
| | - Seralynne D Vann
- School of Psychology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, UK.
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33
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Rolls ET, Cheng W, Feng J. Brain dynamics: the temporal variability of connectivity, and differences in schizophrenia and ADHD. Transl Psychiatry 2021; 11:70. [PMID: 33479201 PMCID: PMC7820440 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-021-01197-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe advances in the understanding of brain dynamics that are important for understanding the operation of the cerebral cortex in health and disease. In data from 1017 participants from the Human Connectome Project, we show that early visual and connected areas have low temporal variability of their functional connectivity. We show that a low temporal variability of the connectivity of cortical areas is related to high mean functional connectivity between those areas, and provide an account of how these dynamics arise. We then investigate how these concepts help to understand brain dynamics in mental disorders. We find that in both first episode and long-term schizophrenia, reduced functional connectivity of early visual and related temporal cortex areas is associated with increased temporal variability of the functional connectivity, consistent with decreased stability of attractor networks related to sensory processing. In ADHD, we find these functional connectivities are increased and their temporal variability is decreased, and relate this to increased engagement with visual sensory input as manifest in high screen time usage in ADHD. We further show that these differences in the dynamics of the cortex in schizophrenia, and ADHD can be related to differences in the functional connectivity of the specific sensory vs. association thalamic nuclei. These discoveries help to advance our understanding of cortical operation in health, and in some mental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund T Rolls
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain-Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, 200433, Shanghai, PR China.
- Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
- Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford, UK.
| | - Wei Cheng
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain-Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, 200433, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Jianfeng Feng
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain-Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, 200433, Shanghai, PR China.
- Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
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Abstract
The organization of temporal information is critical for the encoding and retrieval of episodic memories. In the rodent hippocampus and entorhinal cortex, evidence accumulated over the last decade suggests that populations of "time cells" in the hippocampus encode temporal information. We identify time cells in humans using intracranial microelectrode recordings obtained from 27 human epilepsy patients who performed an episodic memory task. We show that time cell activity predicts the temporal organization of retrieved memory items. We also uncover evidence of ramping cell activity in humans, which represents a complementary type of temporal information. These findings establish a cellular mechanism for the representation of temporal information in the human brain needed to form episodic memories.
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35
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Time as the fourth dimension in the hippocampus. Prog Neurobiol 2020; 199:101920. [PMID: 33053416 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2020.101920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Experiences of animal and human beings are structured by the continuity of space and time coupled with the uni-directionality of time. In addition to its pivotal position in spatial processing and navigation, the hippocampal system also plays a central, multiform role in several types of temporal processing. These include timing and sequence learning, at scales ranging from meso-scales of seconds to macro-scales of minutes, hours, days and beyond, encompassing the classical functions of short term memory, working memory, long term memory, and episodic memories (comprised of information about when, what, and where). This review article highlights the principal findings and behavioral contexts of experiments in rats showing: 1) timing: tracking time during delays by hippocampal 'time cells' and during free behavior by hippocampal-afferent lateral entorhinal cortex ramping cells; 2) 'online' sequence processing: activity coding sequences of events during active behavior; 3) 'off-line' sequence replay: during quiescence or sleep, orderly reactivation of neuronal assemblies coding awake sequences. Studies in humans show neurophysiological correlates of episodic memory comparable to awake replay. Neural mechanisms are discussed, including ion channel properties, plateau and ramping potentials, oscillations of excitation and inhibition of population activity, bursts of high amplitude discharges (sharp wave ripples), as well as short and long term synaptic modifications among and within cell assemblies. Specifically conceived neural network models will suggest processes supporting the emergence of scalar properties (Weber's law), and include different classes of feedforward and recurrent network models, with intrinsic hippocampal coding for 'transitions' (sequencing of events or places).
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Issa JB, Tocker G, Hasselmo ME, Heys JG, Dombeck DA. Navigating Through Time: A Spatial Navigation Perspective on How the Brain May Encode Time. Annu Rev Neurosci 2020; 43:73-93. [PMID: 31961765 PMCID: PMC7351603 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-101419-011117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Interval timing, which operates on timescales of seconds to minutes, is distributed across multiple brain regions and may use distinct circuit mechanisms as compared to millisecond timing and circadian rhythms. However, its study has proven difficult, as timing on this scale is deeply entangled with other behaviors. Several circuit and cellular mechanisms could generate sequential or ramping activity patterns that carry timing information. Here we propose that a productive approach is to draw parallels between interval timing and spatial navigation, where direct analogies can be made between the variables of interest and the mathematical operations necessitated. Along with designing experiments that isolate or disambiguate timing behavior from other variables, new techniques will facilitate studies that directly address the neural mechanisms that are responsible for interval timing.
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Affiliation(s)
- John B Issa
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA;
| | - Gilad Tocker
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA;
| | - Michael E Hasselmo
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
| | - James G Heys
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA
| | - Daniel A Dombeck
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA;
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Bellmund JLS, Polti I, Doeller CF. Sequence Memory in the Hippocampal-Entorhinal Region. J Cogn Neurosci 2020; 32:2056-2070. [PMID: 32530378 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Episodic memories are constructed from sequences of events. When recalling such a memory, we not only recall individual events, but we also retrieve information about how the sequence of events unfolded. Here, we focus on the role of the hippocampal-entorhinal region in processing and remembering sequences of events, which are thought to be stored in relational networks. We summarize evidence that temporal relations are a central organizational principle for memories in the hippocampus. Importantly, we incorporate novel insights from recent studies about the role of the adjacent entorhinal cortex in sequence memory. In rodents, the lateral entorhinal subregion carries temporal information during ongoing behavior. The human homologue is recruited during memory recall where its representations reflect the temporal relationships between events encountered in a sequence. We further introduce the idea that the hippocampal-entorhinal region might enable temporal scaling of sequence representations. Flexible changes of sequence progression speed could underlie the traversal of episodic memories and mental simulations at different paces. In conclusion, we describe how the entorhinal cortex and hippocampus contribute to remembering event sequences-a core component of episodic memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob L S Bellmund
- Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Ignacio Polti
- Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience, Centre for Neural Computation, The Egil and Pauline Braathen and Fred Kavli Centre for Cortical Microcircuits, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Christian F Doeller
- Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany.,Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience, Centre for Neural Computation, The Egil and Pauline Braathen and Fred Kavli Centre for Cortical Microcircuits, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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Rolls ET. Neural Computations Underlying Phenomenal Consciousness: A Higher Order Syntactic Thought Theory. Front Psychol 2020; 11:655. [PMID: 32318008 PMCID: PMC7154119 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Problems are raised with the global workspace hypothesis of consciousness, for example about exactly how global the workspace needs to be for consciousness to suddenly be present. Problems are also raised with Carruthers's (2019) version that excludes conceptual (categorical or discrete) representations, and in which phenomenal consciousness can be reduced to physical processes, with instead a different levels of explanation approach to the relation between the brain and the mind advocated. A different theory of phenomenal consciousness is described, in which there is a particular computational system involved in which Higher Order Syntactic Thoughts are used to perform credit assignment on first order thoughts of multiple step plans to correct them by manipulating symbols in a syntactic type of working memory. This provides a good evolutionary reason for the evolution of this kind of computational module, with which, it is proposed, phenomenal consciousness is associated. Some advantages of this HOST approach to phenomenal consciousness are then described with reference not only to the global workspace approach, but also to Higher Order Thought (HOT) theories. It is hypothesized that the HOST system which requires the ability to manipulate first order symbols in working memory might utilize parts of the prefrontal cortex implicated in working memory, and especially the left inferior frontal gyrus, which is involved in language and probably syntactical processing. Overall, the approach advocated is to identify the computations that are linked to consciousness, and to analyze the neural bases of those computations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund T Rolls
- Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom.,Institute of Science and Technology for Brain-Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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The spatiotemporal organization of episodic memory and its disruption in a neurodevelopmental disorder. Sci Rep 2019; 9:18447. [PMID: 31804517 PMCID: PMC6895173 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-53823-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent theories of episodic memory (EM) posit that the hippocampus provides a spatiotemporal framework necessary for representing events. If such theories hold true, then does the development of EM in children depend on the ability to first bind spatial and temporal information? And does this ability rely, at least in part, on normal hippocampal function? We investigated the development of EM in children 2–8 years of age (Study 1) and its impairment in Williams Syndrome, a genetic neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by visuospatial deficits and irregular hippocampal function, (Study 2) by implementing a nonverbal object-placement task that dissociates the what, where, and when components of EM. Consistent with the spatiotemporal-framework view of hippocampal EM, our results indicate that the binding of where and when in memory emerges earliest in development, around the age of 3, and is specifically impaired in WS. Space-time binding both preceded and was critical to full EM (what + where + when), and the successful association of objects to spatial locations seemed to mediate this developmental process.
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40
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Rolls ET. Spatial coordinate transforms linking the allocentric hippocampal and egocentric parietal primate brain systems for memory, action in space, and navigation. Hippocampus 2019; 30:332-353. [PMID: 31697002 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.23171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Revised: 10/05/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A theory and model of spatial coordinate transforms in the dorsal visual system through the parietal cortex that enable an interface via posterior cingulate and related retrosplenial cortex to allocentric spatial representations in the primate hippocampus is described. First, a new approach to coordinate transform learning in the brain is proposed, in which the traditional gain modulation is complemented by temporal trace rule competitive network learning. It is shown in a computational model that the new approach works much more precisely than gain modulation alone, by enabling neurons to represent the different combinations of signal and gain modulator more accurately. This understanding may have application to many brain areas where coordinate transforms are learned. Second, a set of coordinate transforms is proposed for the dorsal visual system/parietal areas that enables a representation to be formed in allocentric spatial view coordinates. The input stimulus is merely a stimulus at a given position in retinal space, and the gain modulation signals needed are eye position, head direction, and place, all of which are present in the primate brain. Neurons that encode the bearing to a landmark are involved in the coordinate transforms. Part of the importance here is that the coordinates of the allocentric view produced in this model are the same as those of spatial view cells that respond to allocentric view recorded in the primate hippocampus and parahippocampal cortex. The result is that information from the dorsal visual system can be used to update the spatial input to the hippocampus in the appropriate allocentric coordinate frame, including providing for idiothetic update to allow for self-motion. It is further shown how hippocampal spatial view cells could be useful for the transform from hippocampal allocentric coordinates to egocentric coordinates useful for actions in space and for navigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund T Rolls
- Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford, UK.,Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
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