Analysis of the presence of cardiovascular and analgesic/anti-inflammatory/antipyretic pharmaceuticals in river- and drinking-water of the Madrid Region in Spain

Active pharmaceutical contaminants in drinking water: myth or fact?

Global water availability has been affected by a variety of factors, including climate change, water pollution, urbanization, and population growth. These issues have been particularly acute in many parts of the world, where access to clean water remains a significant challenge. In this context, preserving existing water bodies is a critical priority. Numerous studies have demonstrated the inadequacy of conventional water treatment processes in removing active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) from the water. These pharmaceutical active compounds have been detected in treated wastewater, groundwater, and even drinking water sources. The presence of APIs in water resources poses a significant threat not only to aquatic organisms but also to human health. These emerging contaminants have the potential to disrupt endocrine systems, promote the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and bioaccumulate in the food chain, ultimately leading to unacceptable risks to public health. The inability of current conventional treatment methods to effectively remove APIs from water has raised serious concerns about the safety and reliability of water supplies. This issue requires immediate attention and the development of more effective treatment technologies to safeguard the quality of water resources and protect both aquatic ecosystems and human health. Other treatment methods, such as nanotechnology, microalgal treatment, and reverse osmosis, are promising in addressing the issue of API contamination in water resources. These innovative approaches have demonstrated higher removal efficiencies for a wide range of APIs compared to conventional methods, such as activated sludge and chlorination, which have been found to be inadequate in the removal of these emerging contaminants. The potential of these alternative treatment technologies to serve as effective tertiary treatment. To address this critical challenge, governments and policymakers should prioritize investment in research and development to establish effective and scalable solutions for eliminating APIs from various water sources. This should include comprehensive studies to assess the performance, cost-effectiveness, and environmental sustainability of emerging treatment technologies. The emerging contaminants should be included in robust water quality monitoring programs (Aus der Beek et al. in Environ Toxicol Chem 2016;35(4):823-835), with strict regulatory limits enforced to protect public health and the environment. By doing so, the scientific community and regulatory authorities can work together to develop a multi-barrier approach to safeguarding the water resources and ensuring access to safe, clean water for all. This review explores the potential of alternative treatment technologies to serve as viable solutions in the fight against API contamination. Innovative approaches, including nanotechnology, microalgal treatment, and reverse osmosis, have demonstrated remarkable success in addressing this challenge, exhibiting higher removal efficiencies compared to traditional methods.

Chemical profiling of organic contaminants in rural surface waters combining target and non-target LC-HRMS/MS analysis

The pollution of natural waters by contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) is one of the pressing problems due to their global distribution and potential negative effects on the environment and human health. In rural areas with lower population density and limited industrial development, less contamination is expected. However, the lack of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) or their poor removal efficiency can lead to significant input of pollutants. In this context, 11 streams of rural areas in the Guadalquivir River basin, southeast of Spain, were studied over two years to obtain an overview of the origin and distribution of contaminants. A target method using solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) was developed for the analysis of 316 compounds in surface waters. A total of 78 target analytes were detected, comprising pesticides, pharmaceuticals, personal care products (PCPs), transformation products (TPs), and industrial chemicals. The flame retardant tributyl phosphate (16-3572 ng L-1) was detected in all samples, followed by caffeine (30-8090 ng L-1) and the analgesic tramadol (3-1493 ng L-1). The target approach was combined with a non-target analysis (NTA) strategy to obtain an overall perspective of the chemical profile of unexpected or unknown compounds in the samples. Up to 79 contaminants were tentatively identified, and 12 of them were finally confirmed with standards. Most of the contaminants determined by NTA were pharmaceuticals and their TPs. The results indicated that most of CECs have an urban origin despite traditional agriculture is the main economic activity in this region. Moreover, the absence of WWTPs in small towns is significant, as contamination levels at these sites were comparable to or higher than those in larger populations with sewage treatments.

Environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals in wastewaters and reclaimed water from catalan main river basins

Aquatic pollution from pharmaceuticals is a growing environmental concern globally, particularly in Catalonia's primary water bodies, the Llobregat and Besòs rivers. This study investigates pharmaceutical residues in reclaimed water effluents from the Llobregat River and a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in the Besòs River, critical contributors to the region's water resources. Employing LC-MS/MS, 85 pharmaceutical residues were monitored, revealing elevated concentrations of tramadol, losartan, and gemfibrozil, commonly prescribed drugs in Catalonia. Surprisingly, downstream concentrations exceeded upstream levels significantly, indicating the adverse impact of reclaimed water on water quality. Furthermore, evaluation of WWTP efficiency displayed varying removal rates, from 10 % to 99.8 %, highlighting treatment inadequacies for certain compounds. Predictive environmental concentrations (PECs) aligned closely with measured values, affirming the utility of predictive models in early-stage research. Risk assessment via the risk quotient (RQ) method identified atorvastatin and chlorpromazine as surpassing toxicity thresholds. This study underscores the urgent need to address pharmaceutical contamination in urban rivers and reclaimed waters in Catalonia. By highlighting treatment inefficacies and potential ecological risks, it contributes to the development of sustainable water management strategies and environmental conservation efforts in the region. Efforts should focus on continuously monitoring specific compounds, evaluating their individual toxicity, and implementing appropriate remediation techniques in WWTPs to safeguard water quality and aquatic ecosystems.

Developing an Approach for Integrating Chemical Analysis and Transcriptional Changes to Assess Contaminants in Water, Sediment, and Fish

Pharmaceuticals in aquatic environments pose threats to aquatic organisms because of their continuous release and potential accumulation. Monitoring methods for these contaminants are inadequate, with targeted analyses falling short in assessing water quality's impact on biota. The present study advocates for integrated strategies combining suspect and targeted chemical analyses with molecular biomarker approaches to better understand the risks posed by complex chemical mixtures to nontarget organisms. The research aimed to integrate chemical analysis and transcriptome changes in fathead minnows to prioritize contaminants, assess their effects, and apply this strategy in Wascana Creek, Canada. Analysis revealed higher pharmaceutical concentrations downstream of a wastewater-treatment plant, with clozapine being the most abundant in fathead minnows, showing notable bioavailability from water and sediment sources. Considering the importance of bioaccumulation factor and biota-sediment accumulation factor in risk assessment, these coefficients were calculated based on field data collected during spring, summer, and fall seasons in 2021. Bioaccumulation was classified as very bioaccumulative with values >5000 L kg-1, suggesting the ability of pharmaceuticals to accumulate in aquatic organisms. The study highlighted the intricate relationship between nutrient availability, water quality, and key pathways affected by pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and rubber components. Prioritization of these chemicals was done through suspect analysis, supported by identifying perturbed pathways (specifically signaling and cellular processes) using transcriptomic analysis in exposed fish. This strategy not only aids in environmental risk assessment but also serves as a practical model for other watersheds, streamlining risk-assessment processes to identify environmental hazards and work toward reducing risks from contaminants of emerging concern. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:2252-2273. © 2024 SETAC.

Comprehensive analysis of a widely pharmaceutical, furosemide, and its degradation products in aquatic systems: Occurrence, fate, and ecotoxicity

Many pharmaceutical compounds end up in the environment due to incomplete removal by wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Some compounds are sometimes present in significant concentrations and therefore represent a risk to the aquatic environment. Furosemide is one of the most widely used drugs in the world. Considered as an essential drug by the World Health Organization, this powerful loop diuretic is used extensively to treat hypertension, heart and kidney failure and many other purposes. However, this important consumption also results in a significant release of furosemide in wastewater and in the receiving environment where concentrations of a few hundred ng/L to several thousand have been found in the literature, making furosemide a compound of great concern. Also, during its transport in wastewater systems and WWTPs, furosemide can be degraded by various processes resulting in the production of more than 74 by-products. Furosemide may therefore present a significant risk to ecosystem health due not only to its direct cytotoxic, genotoxic and hepatotoxic effects in animals, but also indirectly through its transformation products, which are poorly characterized. Many articles classify furosemide as a priority pollutant according to its occurrence in the environment, its persistence, its elimination by WWTPs, its toxicity and ecotoxicity. Here, we present a state-of-the-art review of this emerging pollutant of interest, tracking it, from its consumption to its fate in the aquatic environment. Discussion points include the occurrence of furosemide in various matrices, the efficiency of many processes for the degradation of furosemide, the subsequent production of degradation products following these treatments, as well as their toxicity.

Recent advances in remediation strategies for mitigating the impacts of emerging pollutants in water and ensuring environmental sustainability

The proliferation of emerging pollutants (EPs), encompassing a range of substances such as phthalates, phenolics, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, personal care products, surfactants, and disinfection agents, has become a significant global concern due to their potential risks to the environment and human well-being. Over the past two decades, numerous research studies have investigated the presence of EPs in wastewater and aquatic ecosystems, with the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) categorizing these newly introduced chemical compounds as emerging contaminants due to their poorly understood impact. EPs have been linked to adverse health effects in humans, including genotoxic and cytotoxic effects, as well as conditions such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and reproductive abnormalities, often associated with their estrogenic action. Microalgae have shown promise in the detoxification of both inorganic and organic contaminants, and several large-scale microalgal systems for wastewater treatment have been developed. However, the progress of algal bioremediation can be influenced by accidental contaminations and operational challenges encountered in pilot-scale research. Microalgae employ various processes, such as bioadsorption, biouptake, and biodegradation, to effectively remediate EPs. During microalgal biodegradation, complex chemical compounds are transformed into simpler substances through catalytic metabolic degradation. Integrating algal bioremediation with existing treatment methodologies offers a viable approach for efficiently eliminating EPs from wastewater. This review focuses on the use of algal-based biological remediation processes for wastewater treatment, the environmental impacts of EPs, and the challenges associated with implementing algal bioremediation systems to effectively remove emerging pollutants.

Efficient Removal of Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Drugs from Sewage Treatment Plant Effluents Using Magnetite Nanoparticles Synthesized Red Mud

Due to the COVID-19 epidemic, the consumption of pharmaceuticals, especially paracetamol, has sharply increased on a global scale. The increasing concentration of analgesic and anti-inflammatory drugs (AAIDs) in the aquatic medium is a global problem for human and aquatic life. Therefore, simple and effective treatment options for removing AAIDs from wastewater after the COVID-19 pandemic are needed. The removal of AAIDs (acetaminophen, acetylsalicylic acid, codeine, diclofenac, ibuprofen, indomethacin, ketoprofen, mefenamic acid, naproxen, and phenylbutazone) from sewage treatment plant (STP) effluents by the prepared magnetite nanoparticles synthesized from red mud (mNPs-RM) is presented for the first time in this study. The removal efficiencies of AAIDs onto mNPs-RM were determined to be between 90% (diclofenac) and 100% (naproxen, codeine, and indomethacin). Acetaminophen (paracetamol) was used as a model compound in kinetic and isotherm model studies. The adsorption of acetaminophen was matched well with the pseudo second order kinetic model. Film diffusion governed its rate mechanism. The Freundlich isotherm model preferably fitted the adsorption data with an adsorption capacity of 370 mg/g at 120 min contact time at pH 7.0 at 25 °C. Furthermore, the regenerated mNPs-RM were used four times without affecting the adsorption capacity and the magnetic separability. mNPs-RM can be used as a simple, inexpensive and effective adsorbent for removing AAIDs from STP effluents. Also, low cost adsorbent obtained from industrial waste could be employed to replace the high cost activated carbons for the adsorption of other micro pollutants in STP effluents.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11270-023-06404-7.

Functional characterization of an efficient ibuprofen-mineralizing bacterial consortium

Ibuprofen (IBU) is a widely used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), which has attracted widespread attention due to its high frequency of environmental detection, non-degradability and potential ecological risks. However, little is known about the functional characterization of the highly efficient IBU-mineralizing consortium. In this study, an IBU-mineralizing consortium C6 was obtained by continuous enrichment of the original consortium C1 accumulated the metabolite of 2-Hydroxyibuprofen (2HIBU). Methylobacter, Pseudomonas, and Dokdonella spp. were significantly enriched in the consortium C6. Streptomyces sp. had a relative abundance of about 0.01 % in the consortium C1 but extremely low (< 0.001 %) in the consortium C6. Subsequently, two IBU degraders, Streptomyces sp. D218 and Pseudomonas sp. M20 with detection of 2HIBU or not, were isolated from the consortia C1 and C6, respectively. These results imply that the degradation of IBU in the consortia C1 and C6 may be mainly mediated by key players of Streptomyces and Pseudomonas, respectively. This study showed that the composition of the core functional strains of the bacterial community structure was changed by continuous enrichment, which affected the degradation process of IBU. These findings provide new insights into our understanding of the biotransformation process of NSAIDs and provide valuable strain resources for bioremediation.

Biodegradation of emerging organic pollutant gemfibrozil: Mechanism, kinetics and pathway modelling

The increasing population has raised the demand for pharmaceutical and personal care products to maintain a good health. Gemfibrozil (GEM), is extensively used as a lipid regulator and is frequently detected in wastewater treatment systems and poses deleterious health and ecological effects. Hence, the current study employing Bacillus sp. N2 reports the degradation of gemfibrozil via co-metabolism in 15 days. The study reported 86 % degradation with GEM (20 mgL^-1) using sucrose (150 mgL^-1) as a co-substrate; as compared to 42 % without a co-substrate. Further, time-profiling studies of metabolites revealed significant demethylation and decarboxylation reactions during degradation that leads to formation of six (M1, M2, M3, M4, M5, M6) metabolites as by-products. Based on the LC-MS analysis a potential degradation pathway for GEM by Bacillus sp. N2 was proposed. The degradation of GEM has not been reported so far and the study envisages eco-friendly approach to tackle pharmaceutical- active- compounds.

Evaluating chemicals of emerging concern in the Ganga River at the two major cities Prayagraj and Varanasi through validated analytical approaches

Evaluating environmental water quality means to assess and protect the environment against unfriendly impacts from various organic impurities emerging from industrial emissions and those released during harvesting. Potential risks related with release of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pesticides and pharmaceuticals (PhAcs), and personal care products (PCPs) into the environment have turned into an increasingly serious issue in ecological safety. Monitoring helps in control of chemicals and ecological status compliance to safeguard specific water uses, for example, drinking water abstraction. A longitudinal review was carried out for 55 different persistent organic pollutants (POPs) for the Ganga River which passes through the urban areas of Prayagraj and Varanasi, India, through validated analytical approaches and measurement uncertainty (MU) estimation to assess their potential use for routine analysis. Furthermore, environmental risk assessment (ERA) carried out in the present study has revealed risk quotient (RQ) higher than 1 in a portion of the aquatic bodies. Using a conservative RQ strategy, POPs were assessed for having extensive risks under acute and chronic exposure, proposing that there is currently critical ecological risk identified with these compounds present in the Ganga River. In general, these outcomes demonstrate a significant contribution for focusing on measures and feasible techniques to minimize the unfavorable effects of contaminants on the aquatic environment.

Pharmaceutical residues: One of the significant problems in achieving 'clean water for all' and its solution

With the rapid emergence of various metabolic and multiple-drug-resistant infectious diseases, new pharmaceuticals are continuously being introduced in the market. The excess production and use of pharmaceuticals and their untreated/unmetabolized release in the environment cause the contamination of aquatic ecosystem, and thus, compromise the environment and human-health. The present review provides insights into the classification, sources, occurrence, harmful impacts, and existing technologies to curb these problems. A comprehensive detail of various biological and nanotechnological strategies for the removal of pharmaceutical residues from water is critically discussed focusing on their efficiencies, and current limitations to design improved-technologies for their lab-to-field applications. Furthermore, the review highlights and suggests the scope of integrated bionanotechnological methods for enhanced removal of pharmaceutical residues from water to fulfill the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (UN-SDG) for providing clean potable water for all.

Impact of Voltage Application on Degradation of Biorefractory Pharmaceuticals in an Anaerobic-Aerobic Coupled Upflow Bioelectrochemical Reactor

Diclofenac, ibuprofen, and carbamazepine are frequently detected in the environment, where they pose a threat to organisms and ecosystems. We developed anaerobic-aerobic coupled upflow bioelectrochemical reactors (AO-UBERs) with different voltages, hydraulic retention times (HRTs), and types of electrode conversion, and evaluated the ability of the AO-UBERs to remove the three pharmaceuticals. This study showed that when a voltage of 0.6 V was applied, the removal rate of ibuprofen was slightly higher in the system with aerobic cathodic and anaerobic anodic chambers (60.2 ± 11.0%) with HRT of 48 h than in the control systems, and the removal efficiency reached stability faster. Diclofenac removal was 100% in the 1.2 V system with aerobic anodic and anaerobic cathodic chambers, which was greater than in the control system (65.5 ± 2.0%). The contribution of the aerobic cathodic-anodic chambers to the removal of ibuprofen and diclofenac was higher than that of the anaerobic cathodic-anodic chambers. Electrical stimulation barely facilitated the attenuation of carbamazepine. Furthermore, biodegradation-related species (Methyloversatilis, SM1A02, Sporomusa, and Terrimicrobium) were enriched in the AO-UBERs, enhancing pharmaceutical removal. The current study sheds fresh light on the interactions of bacterial populations with the removal of pharmaceuticals in a coupled system.

Toxic effects of four cardiovascular drugs on the development and epigenetics of zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Due to the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, therapeutic drugs such as atenolol (ATE), metoprolol (MET), atorvastatin (ATO), and bezafibrate (BZB) have been widely used and thus frequently detected in surface water at ng·L^-1-μg·L^-1 level. In this study, the developmental toxicity of these drugs (0.5 μg·L^-1-500 μg·L^-1) to zebrafish, an aquatic model organism, was investigated; and the epigenetic toxicity of BZB was also explored. For all four drugs, the results showed that the drugs exposure could cause sublethal toxic effects on zebrafish larvae, such as decreases in hatching rate, body length, and heart rate. ATO also induced the swelling of the eyes of larvae by 5 %-15 %. Yolk sac edema, pericardial edema, bent spine, and tail malformation were observed in larvae exposed to the drugs, and yolk sac edema was the most common malformation. In addition, the spontaneous movement and free-swimming activity could be inhibited by the drugs. Combined with RNA-seq results, the adverse development of larvae in exposure groups may be caused by the disruption of lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, and the development and function of eye and nervous system. After a 30-day uptake period, the accumulation of BZB and the decrease of global DNA methylation level were observed in the liver, kidneys, gut, gills, and brain of adult zebrafish (4-month-old) exposed to 0.5 μg·L^-1 to 500 μg·L^-1 BZB. The liver was the main organ for BZB accumulation and the occurrence of DNA hypomethylation. In the liver, overexpression (1.5-7.6 times) of genes related to lipid metabolism (PPARα), DNA methylation (Dnmt1), and apoptosis (p53) was also observed. The results of the current study suggest that long-term exposure to low-concentrations of cardiovascular drugs may pose significant threats to aquatic ecosystems.

Investigating the biological degradation of the drug β-blocker atenolol from wastewater using the SBR

Drug compounds are one of the main contributors to the entry of micro-pollutants into the environment, known as a constant threat to environmental stability. Atenolol is a type of beta-blocker extensively used to cure cardiovascular disorders. The residues of this compound have been continuously detected in aquatic environments because it is a polar and poorly biodegradable compound. Thus, removing atenolol from wastewater is essential before discharging into the environment. Biological processes are considered the most important removal process for polar drugs in wastewater treatment plants. Accordingly, for the first time in this study, the SBR performance was investigated in the biodegradation and mineralization of atenolol under different concentrations (50-600 mg/L) and hydraulic retention times (48-32 h). Based on the results, the time required for the acclimation of biomass to atenolol (C: 50 mg/L and the HRT: 48 h) was 80 days. The SBR efficiencies under optimum conditions (C: 400 mg/L and HRT: 40 h) in removing the atenolol and COD were 91% and 87%, respectively. For the first time in this study, one of the main pathways of the atenolol biodegradation was identified. Based on the review and comparison of the results of this study with existing literature showing that the SBR used in this study was able to remove higher concentrations with better efficiencies than other processes. Therefore, it can be concluded that the SBR used in this study could be considered an efficient and promising technique for treating wastewaters containing atenolol and other beta-blocker group drugs.

Shifts of bacterial community and molecular ecological network in activated sludge system under ibuprofen stress

The major objectives of this study were to explore the long-term effects of ibuprofen (IBP) on nutrient removal, community compositions, and microbial interactions of the activated sludge system. The results showed that 1 mg/L IBP had no inhibitory effects on the removal of organic matters and nutrients. IBP significantly reduced the microbial diversity and changed the bacterial community structure. Some denitrifiers (Denitratisoma and Hyphomicrobium) increased significantly, while NOB (Nitrospira) significantly decreased under IBP stress (P < 0.05). Furthermore, molecular ecological network analysis indicated that IBP reduced the overall network size and links, but led to a closer network with more efficient communication, which might be the strategy of microbes to survive under the stress of IBP and further maintain the performance stability. Different phylogenetic populations had different responses to IBP, as a closer subnetwork with more synergistic relations was observed in Chloroflexi and a looser subnetwork with more competitive relationships was detected in Proteobacteria. The topological roles of nodes significantly changed, and the putative keystone species decreased under the stress of IBP. This study broadens our knowledge of the long-term effects of IBP on the microbial community structure and the interactions between species in the activated sludge system.

Toxicological effects of atenolol and venlafaxine on zebrafish tissues: Bioaccumulation, DNA hypomethylation, and molecular mechanism

The beta-blocker atenolol (ATE), and the selective serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, venlafaxine (VEN) are frequently detected in municipal wastewater effluents, but little is known about their ecotoxicological effect on aquatic animals. Herein, ATE and VEN were selected to explore their accumulation and global DNA methylation (GDM) in zebrafish tissues after a 30-day exposure. Molecular dynamics (MD) stimulation was used to investigate the toxic mechanism of ATE and VEN exposure. The results demonstrated that ATE and VEN could reduce the condition factor of zebrafish. The bioaccumulation capacity for ATE and VEN was in the order of liver > gut > gill > brain and liver > gut > brain > gill, respectively. After a 30-day recovery, ATE and VEN could still be detected in zebrafish tissues when exposure concentrations were ≥10 μg/L. Moreover, ATE and VEN induced global DNA hypomethylation in different tissues with a dose-dependent manner and their main target tissues were liver and brain. When the exposure concentrations of ATE and VEN were increased to 100 μg/L, the global DNA hypomethylation of liver and brain were reduced to 27% and 18%, respectively. In the same tissue exposed to the same concentration, DNA hypomethylation induced by VEN was more serious than that of ATE. After a 30-day recovery, the global DNA hypomethylations caused by the two drugs were still persistent, and the recovery of VEN was slower than that of ATE. The MD simulation results showed that both ATE and VEN could reduce the catalytic activity of DNA Methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1), while the effect of VEN on the 3D conformational changes of the DNMT1 domain was more significant, resulting in a lower DNA methylation rate. The current study shed new light on the toxic mechanism and potential adverse impacts of ATE and VEN on zebrafish, providing essential information to the further ecotoxicological risk assessment of these drugs in the aquatic environment.

Comparison of toxic effects of atorvastatin and gemfibrozil on Daphnia magna

Atorvastatin (ATV) and gemfibrozil (GEM) are two typical lipid-lowering pharmaceuticals with different action modes, which are frequently detected in various water bodies owning to their wide usage. However, there is limited information about their effects on Daphnia magna. The present study addressed and compared the toxic effects of ATV and GEM on D. magna through determining the responses of the stress related genes (including Nrf2, Keap1, HO-1, GCLC, p53 and PIG3) in D. magna for 24 h and 48 h acute exposure and the changes of life history traits and swimming behaviors in a 21 days chronic exposure under different concentrations of ATV and GEM exposure (5 μg L^-1, 50 μg L^-1, 500 μg L^-1 and 5000 μg L^-1). Results showed that the expression of Nrf2, Keap1, HO-1, GCLC, p53 and PIG3 were induced to various degrees under the ATV exposure. There were similar performances for GEM. ATV and GEM caused the delay of first brooding and hatching time and decrease of eggs production number, especially in GEM exposure, reproduction of Daphnia was significantly inhibited, decreasing 38.51% compared to the control. ATV and GEM increased the heart rate of D. magna, and changed swimming behaviors of D. magna. In summary, two lipid-lowering pharmaceuticals caused oxidative stress on D. magna, subsequently brought about alterations in physiological traits. Comparatively, ATV pose more higher risks to D. magna than GEM, but the detailed action mechanisms of ATV and GEM on D. magna needs more investigations in future.

UV/Chlorination of sulfamethazine (SMZ) and other prescription drugs: kinetics, transformation products and insights into the combined toxicological assessment

The UV/chlorination of three prescription drugs, sulfamethazine (SMZ), gemfibrozil (GEM) and antipyrine (ANT) were studied by the investigation of kinetics, transformation products and combined toxicological assessment. The degradation followed pseudo-first-order kinetics, with half-lives significantly affected by chlorine dosage, without being greatly influenced by pH value and bromide concentration. Based on the Frontier Orbital Theory, the structures of products by hydroxylation or chlorine substitution were proposed and the transformation pathways were introduced, with two, two and one never-before-reported products identified for SMZ, GEM and ANT, respectively. Compared to the results of the experiments with artificial water sample, the degradation kinetics of the three prescription drugs was observed with a prolonged half-lives in both Yangtze River and Taihu Lake water, suggesting that aromatic containing transformation products (TPs) may also exist in UV/chlorine treated natural waters. The results of combined toxicity on E. coli showed that the antagonism effect predominated in most binary and ternary combinations. However, the synergistic toxicity of combinations at low concentrations of prescription drugs subjected to UV/chlorine should be cautioned, which was more close to the natural concentration of prescription drugs in waters.

Ultraviolet photolysis of four typical cardiovascular drugs: mechanisms, influencing factors, degradation pathways, and toxicity trends

The cardiovascular drugs (CDDs), such as metoprolol (MET), atenolol (ATE), bezafibrate (BZB), and atorvastatin (ATO), have been frequently detected in the water environment. They can cause potential threats to the ecological environment and human health due to their "pseudo-persistence" effect. In this study, the photolysis kinetics, degradation mechanisms, by-products, influencing factors, and acute toxicity of these four typical CDDs under polychromatic ultraviolet irradiation (200-400 nm) were investigated. The results showed that the photolysis of ATE, BZB, MET, and ATO all followed pseudo-first-order kinetics, and their average photon quantum yields of the wavelength studied were 0.14×10^-2, 0.33×10^-3, 0.78×10^-4, and 0.24×10^-4 mol einstein^-1, respectively. Singlet oxygen (¹O₂), hydroxyl radical (·OH), and the triplet-excited state of the cardiovascular drug (³CDD*) were all involved in the photolysis while ¹O₂ was the dominator. The effects of NO₃^-, Cl^-, HCO₃^-, and humic acid (HA) on the photolysis were the combination of light-shielding, quenching, and excitation of reactive species. Seven, four, four, and nine photolysis products of ATO, BZB, ATE, and MET were identified, respectively, and their possible degradation pathways were proposed. The acute toxicity of ATE was basically unchanged during photolysis; however, ATO, BZB, and MET toxicity all increased due to the generation of ketonization and hydroxylation products.

Simvastatin affects the PPARα signaling pathway and causes oxidative stress and embryonic development interference in Mugilogobius abei

Simvastatin (SV) is a common hypolipidemic drug in clinical medicine that can reduce endogenous cholesterol biosynthesis by inhibiting hydroxyl-methyl-glutaryl coenzyme A reductase. SV took a large market share in the lipid-lowering drugs and it is frequently detected in various water bodies due to its increasing consumption in past years. In the present investigation, we selected a native fish species in the Pearl River Basin in China, Mugilogobius abei (M. abei), to study the effects of SV on non-target aquatic organisms. Results showed that a significant decrease in the volume of adipocytes under SV exposure were observed on oil red O section, and the expression of HMG-CoAR decreased significantly. The mRNA and protein expression of PPARα were significantly up-regulated, the expressions of other genes related to lipid metabolism were up-regulated to varying degrees as well. There was a positive correlation between the concentrations of SV and the protein expressions of plasma phospholipid transfer protein (PLTP) and cholesterolester transfer protein (CETP). In addition, the frozen sections showed that SV led to ROS accumulation in liver in a time and concentration dependent manner. The mRNA and protein expressions of Nrf2 were significantly up-regulated after 24 hours of SV exposure. Some biomarkers associated with antioxidant such as Trx2, TrxR and MDA content were positively correlated with the exposure concentration and time, while the content of GSH decreased sharply. It is noteworthy that the environmentally relevant concentration (0.5 μg/L) of SV exposure caused delayed embryonic development and deformations, decreased hatching rates. We conclude that SV promotes fat metabolism, gives rise to oxidative stress and has significant toxicity on embryo development in M. abei.

Assessment of pharmaceutical mixture (ibuprofen, ciprofloxacin and flumequine) effects to the crayfish Procambarus clarkii: A multilevel analysis (biochemical, transcriptional and proteomic approaches)

The knowledge about the effects of pharmaceuticals on aquatic organisms has been increasing in the last decade. However, due to the variety of compounds presents in the aquatic medium, exposure scenarios and exposed organisms, there are still many gaps in the knowledge on how mixtures of such bioactive compounds affect exposed non target organisms. The crayfish Procambarus clarkii was used to analyze the toxicity effects of mixtures of ciprofloxacin, flumequine and ibuprofen at low and high concentrations (10 and 100 μg/L) over 21 days of exposure and to assess the recovery capacity of the organism after a depuration phase following exposure during additional 7 days in clean water. The crayfish accumulated the three compounds throughout the entire exposure in the hepatopancreas. The exposure to the mixture altered the abundance of proteins associated with different cells functions such as biotransformation and detoxification processes (i.e. catalase and glutathione transferase), carbohydrate metabolism and immune responses. Additionally changes in expression of genes encoding antioxidant enzymes and in activity of the corresponding enzymes (i.e. superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione transferase) were reported. Alterations at different levels of biological organization did not run in parallel under all circumstances and can be related to changes in the redox status of the target tissue. No differences were observed between control and exposed organisms for most of selected endpoints after a week of depuration, indicating that exposure to the drug mixture did not produce permanent damage in the hepatopancreas of P. clarkii.

A review of distribution and risk of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the aquatic environment in China

Due to the extensive use and pseudo-persistence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), they are frequently detected in the aqueous environment, which has attracted global attention. In this paper, accumulation data of 81 PPCPs in surface water or sediment in China were reported. In addition, 20 kinds of PPCPs with high frequency were selected and their ecological risk assessment was conducted by risk quotient (RQs). The results indicated that the concentration detected in surface water and sediment ranged from ng/L (ng/kg) to μg/L (μg/kg) in China, which was similar to concentrations reported globally. However, contamination by certain PPCPs, such as caffeine, oxytetracycline, and erythromycin, was relatively high with a maximum concentration of more than 2000 ng/L in surface water. RQs revealed that 14 kinds of PPCPs pose no significant risk or low risk to aquatic organisms, while 6 kinds of PPCPs pose a high risk. Additionally, the pollution characteristics of PPCPs in each watershed are different. The Haihe River watershed and the central and lower Yangtze River were the regions of high concern for erythromycin. Triclosan has potential risks in the Pearl River watershed. This study determined the occurrence and risk of PPCPs in China in the past decade, providing a scientific basis for PPCPs pollution control and risk prevention.

Sensitive Derivative Synchronous and Micellar Enhanced Ecofriendly Spectrofluorimetric Methods for the Determination of Atenolol, Diclofenac, and Triclosan in Drinking Tap Water

BACKGROUND

Nowadays, emergence of unexpected contaminants in drinking water is a challenging environmental problem facing humanity.

OBJECTIVE

Two eco-friendly spectrofluorimetric methods were proposed for the determination of three unexpected contaminants in drinking tap water.

METHODS

The first method is first derivative synchronous spectrofluorimetric method which was developed for simultaneous determination of atenolol (ATN) and diclofenac (DCF) without prior separation at Δλ = 70 nm and at Δλ = 80 nm for ATN and DCF, respectively. The second method was based on using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) as fluorescent enhancer of triclosan (TCS) native fluorescence. TCS exhibits enhanced fluorescence at λ emission = 600 nm upon excitation at λ excitation = 299.4 nm. Solid phase extraction was carried out in both methods.

RESULTS

Linear calibration curves were obtained in concentration range of (4-3000 ng/mL) for ATN and (4-2000 ng/mL) for DCF, by measuring first derivative signal of fluorescence at 300 nm and 375.2 nm, respectively. TCS exhibits linear range (0.1-1 ng/mL) at 600 nm. Mean percentage recoveries were 101.04 ± 0.571, 99.66 ± 1.443, and 99.73 ± 0.566 for ATN, DCF, and TCS, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Validation of both methods were performed according to the International Conference on Harmonization guidelines. Results obtained were statistically compared with published methods and no significant differences were found. The proposed methods' greenness is evaluated using analytical Eco-scale and Green Analytical Procedure Index. A greenness comparison with previously published methods has been performed.

HIGHLIGHTS

Both methods were found to be eco-friendly and were successfully applied for the determination of the emerging contaminants in drinking tap water.

Impact of environmental factors on the sampling rate of β-blockers and sulfonamides from water by a carbon nanotube-passive sampler

Passive techniques are a constantly evolving approach to the long-term monitoring of micropollutants, including pharmaceuticals, in the aquatic environment. This paper presents, for the first time, the calibration results of a new CNTs-PSDs (carbon nanotubes used as a sorbent in passive sampling devices) with an examination of the effect of donor phase salinity, water pH and the concentration of dissolved humic acids (DHAs), using both ultrapure and environmental waters. Sampling rates (R_s) were determined for the developed kinetic samplers. It has been observed that the impact of the examined environmental factors on the R_s values strictly depends on the type of the analytes. In the case of β-blockers, the only environmental parameter affecting their uptake rate was the salinity of water. A certain relationship was noted, namely the higher the salt concentration in water, the lower the R_s values of β-blockers. In the case of sulfonamides, water salinity, water pH 7-9 and DHAs concentration decreased the uptake rate of these compounds by CNTs-PSDs. The determined R_s values differed in particular when the values obtained from the experiments carried out using ultrapure water and environmental waters were compared. The general conclusion is that the calibration of novel CNTs-PSDs should be carried out under physicochemical conditions of the aquatic phase that are similar to the environmental matrix.

Graphene-Based Composites as Catalysts for the Degradation of Pharmaceuticals

The incessant release of pharmaceuticals into the aquatic environment continues to be a subject of increasing concern. This is because of the growing demand for potable water sources and the potential health hazards which these pollutants pose to aquatic animals and humans. The inability of conventional water treatment systems to remove these compounds creates the need for new treatment systems in order to deal with these class of compounds. This review focuses on advanced oxidation processes that employ graphene-based composites as catalysts for the degradation of pharmaceuticals. These composites have been identified to possess enhanced catalytic activity due to increased surface area and reduced charge carrier recombination. The techniques employed in synthesizing these composites have been explored and five different advanced oxidation processes-direct degradation process, chemical oxidation process, photocatalysis, electrocatalyis processes and sonocatalytic/sono-photocatalytic processes-have been studied in terms of their enhanced catalytic activity. Finally, a comparative analysis of the processes that employ graphene-based composites was done in terms of process efficiency, reaction rate, mineralization efficiency and time required to achieve 90% degradation.

β-blockers in the environment: Distribution, transformation, and ecotoxicity

β-blockers are a class of medications widely used to treat cardiovascular disorders, including abnormal heart rhythms, high blood pressure, and angina pectoris. The prevalence of β-blockers has generated a widespread concern on their potential chronic toxicity on aquatic organisms, highlighting the necessity of comprehensive studies on their environmental distribution, fate, and toxicity. This review summarizes the up-to-date knowledge on the source, global distribution, analytical methods, transformation, and toxicity of β-blockers. Twelve β-blockers have been detected in various environmental matrices, displaying significant temporal and spatial variations. β-blockers can be reduced by 0-99% at wastewater treatment plants, where secondary processes contribute to the majority of removal. Advanced oxidation processes, e.g., photocatalysis and combined UV/persulfate can transform β-blockers more rapidly and completely than conventional wastewater treatment processes, but the transformation products could be more toxic than the parent compounds. Propranolol, especially its (S)-enantiomer, exhibits the highest toxicity among all β-blockers. Future research towards improved detection methods, more efficient and cost-effective removal techniques, and more accurate toxicity assessment is needed to prioritize β-blockers for environmental monitoring and control worldwide.

Cardiovascular drugs and lipid regulating agents in surface waters at global scale: Occurrence, ecotoxicity and risk assessment

Cardiovascular drugs and lipid regulating agents have emerged as major groups of environmental contaminants over the past decades. However, knowledge about their occurrence in freshwaters and their ecotoxicity is still limited. Here, we critically summarize the presence of 82 cardiovascular drugs and lipid regulating agents at a global-scale and represent their effects on aquatic organisms. Only about 71% of these pharmaceuticals in use have been analyzed for their residues in aquatic ecosystems and only about 24% for their effects. When detected in surface waters, they occurred at concentrations of dozens to hundreds of ng/L. In wastewaters, they reached up to several μg/L. Effects of cardiovascular drugs and lipid regulating agents have been extensively studied in fish and a few in invertebrates, such as Daphnia magna and mussels. These pharmaceuticals affect cardiac physiology, lipid metabolism, growth and reproduction. Besides, effects on spermatogenesis and neurobehavior are observed. Environmental risks are associated with beta-blockers propranolol, metoprolol, and lipid lowering agents bezafibrate and atorvastatin, where adverse effects (biochemical and transcriptional) occurred partially at surface water concentrations. In some cases, reproductive effects occurred at environmentally relevant concentrations. This review summarizes the state of the art on the occurrence of cardiovascular drugs and lipid regulating agents at a global-scale and highlights their risks to fish. Further research is needed to include more subtle changes on heart function and to explore non-investigated drugs. Their occurrence in freshwaters and impact on a diverse array of aquatic organisms are particularly needed to fully assess their environmental hazards and risks.

Simultaneous Analysis of Paracetamol and Diclofenac Using MWCNTs-COOH Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode and Pulsed Potential Accumulation

A differential-pulse adsorptive stripping voltammetric (DPAdSV) procedure with the use of pulsed potential accumulation and carboxyl functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes modified screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE/MWCNTs-COOH) was delineated for simultaneous analysis of paracetamol (PA) and diclofenac (DF). The use of carboxyl functionalized MWCNTs and pulsed potential accumulation improves the analytical signals of PA and DF, and minimizes interferences from surfactants. After optimization of analytical conditions for this sensor, the peak currents of the two compounds were found to increase linearly with the increase in their concentration (5.0 × 10^-9-5.0 × 10^-6 mol L^-1 with a detection limit of 1.4 × 10^-9 mol L^-1 for PA, and 1.0 × 10^-10-2.0 × 10^-8 mol L^-1 with a detection limit of 3.0 × 10^-11 mol L^-1 for DF). For the first time, the electrochemical sensor allows simultaneous determination of PA and DF at concentrations of 24.3 ± 0.5 nmol L^-1 and 3.7 ± 0.7 nmol L^-1, respectively, in wastewater samples purified in a sewage treatment plant.

Garbage in garbage out: the contribution of our industrial advancement to wastewater degeneration

Natural water sources are habitually marred by insidious anthropogenic practices and municipal wastewater discharges that contain either of xenobiotic pollutants and their sometimes more toxic degradation products, or both. Although wastewater is considered as both a resource and a problem, as explained in this review, it is however daunting that, while the global village is still struggling to decipher the mode of proper handling, subsequent discharge and regulation of already established aromatic contaminants in wastewater, there emanates some more aggressive, stealth and sinister groups of compounds. It is quite ironic that majority of these compounds are the 'go through' consumables in our present society and have been suspected to pose several health risks to the aquatic ecosystem, eliciting unfavourable clinical manifestations in aquatic animals and humans, which has heightened the uncertainties conferred on freshwater use and consumption of some aquatic foods. This review therefore serves to give a brief account on the metamorphosis of approach in detection of aromatic pollutants and ultimately their implications along the trophic chains in the community.

Effect of the preparation method and metal content on the synthesis of metal modified titanium oxide used for the removal of salicylic acid under UV light

Titanium dioxide modified with Ag and Fe was synthesized using two preparation methods, characterized and applied to the photocatalytic degradation of salicylic acid in aqueous solution. The modified TiO₂ samples were prepared by the sol-gel and wet impregnation methods starting from titanium(IV) isopropoxide and using AgNO₃ and Fe(NO₃)₃·9H₂O as precursors of the modifiers, with their content varying between 0 and 5 wt.%. Catalysts characterization was based on powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), nitrogen physisorption at 77 K, temperature programmed reduction (H₂-TPR), chemisorption of NH₃ at 343 K and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The photocatalytic degradation of salicylic acid by modified TiO₂ was investigated under ultraviolet irradiation at 298 K considering various concentrations of the catalyst, between 100 and 1000 mg_catalyst/dm³, and of the organic molecule, between 0 and 15 mg/dm³. The catalysts most active in the degradation of salicylic acid were those having the highest Fe content.

First Electrochemical Sensor (Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode Modified with Carboxyl Functionalized Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes) for Ultratrace Determination of Diclofenac

A simple, sensitive and time-saving differential-pulse adsorptive stripping voltammetric (DPAdSV) procedure using a screen-printed carbon electrode modified with carboxyl functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes (SPCE/MWCNTs-COOH) for the determination of diclofenac (DF) is presented. The sensor was characterized using optical profilometry, SEM, and cyclic voltammetry (CV). The use of carboxyl functionalized MWCNTs as a SPCE modifier improved the electron transfer process and the active surface area of sensor. Under optimum conditions, very sensitive results were obtained with a linear range of 0.1–10.0 nmol L⁻¹ and a limit of detection value of 0.028 nmol L⁻¹. The SPCE/MWCNTs-COOH also exhibited satisfactory repeatability, reproducibility, and selectivity towards potential interferences. Moreover, for the first time, the electrochemical sensor allows determining the real concentrations of DF in environmental water samples without sample pretreatment steps.

Using a high-throughput zebrafish embryo screening approach to support environmental hazard ranking for cardiovascular agents

Cardiovascular agents are among the most frequently prescribed pharmaceuticals worldwide. They are widely detected in aquatic ecosystems, while their ecotoxicological implications are rarely explored. Here, by the use of a new developed high-throughput zebrafish embryo screening approach, we systematically assessed the cardiovascular disruptive effects of 32 commonly used cardiovascular agents at environmental relevant concentrations and above (0.04, 0.2 and 1 µM). Multiple endpoints, including cardiac output, heart rate and blood flow, were quantified via customized video analysis approaches. Among the 32 agents, simvastatin and lovastatin exhibited the strongest toxicities to fish embryos, and the lethal doses were observed at 0.2 µM and 1 µM. Beta-blockers such as atenolol and metoprolol significantly decreased heart rates by up to 15% and 12% and increased blood flows by up to 14% and 14%, respectively, at concentrations as low as 0.04 µM. Several hypertension/hyperlipidemia medications such as pravastatin and enalapril led to significant inhibition of heart rates (up to 14% and 16% decreases, respectively) as well as slightly decreases of the cardiac outputs and blood flows. In addition, a tentative risk assessment clearly demonstrated that some compounds such as atenolol, metoprolol and bezafibrate pose considerable risks to aquatic organisms at environmental or slightly higher than surface water concentrations. Our results provided novel insights into understanding of the potential risks of cardiovascular agents and contributed to their environmental hazard ranking.

Tolfenamic acid on-line preconcentration strategy on carbon nanotubes minicolumn with fluorimetric detection

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents (NSAIDs) are a group of pharmaceuticals considered one of the most popular drugs used in clinical practice applied to the treatment of acute and chronic conditions. Some pharmaceuticals products are excreted reaching the environment and altering the balance of ecosystems. This work proposes a new fluorimetric flow injection (FI) methodology for the NSAID tolfenamic acid quantification based on the quenching effect of the analyte on fluorescent signal of bovine serum albumin fluorophore. Results put in evidence a mechanism of static quenching, with a Stern Volmer constant value of 1.8 × 10⁷ L mol^-1. To achieve the selective on-line preconcentration of analyte, a carbon nanotubes mini column was introduced in the FI configuration producing a beneficial effect on high sampling frequency, minimum sample and reagents consumption. The experimental factors that influence batch fluorescent signal and FI analysis have been studied and optimized. At optimal experimental conditions, an adequate tolerance to foreign species was shown. With the flow configuration, a LOD of 0.019 μg L^-1, a LOQ of 0.058 μg L^-1 were obtained with a sampling rate of 30 samples h^-1. The new methodology was successfully applied to analyte determination in tap water and pharmaceutical and factory waste samples with recuperation near to 100%.

Occurrence, interactive effects and ecological risk of diclofenac in environmental compartments and biota - a review

Diclofenac, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug has turned into a contaminant of emerging concern; hence, it was included in the previous Watch List of the EU Water Framework Directive. This review paper aims to highlight the metabolism of diclofenac at different trophic levels, its occurrence, ecological risks, and interactive effects in the water cycle and biota over the past two decades. Increased exposure to diclofenac not only raises health concerns for vultures, aquatic organisms, and higher plants but also causes serious threats to mammals. The ubiquitous nature of diclofenac in surface water (river, lake canal, estuary, and sea) is compared with drinking water, groundwater, and wastewater effluent in the environment. This comprehensive survey from previous studies suggests the fate of diclofenac in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and may predict its persistence in the environment. This review offers evidence of fragmentary available data for the water environment, soil, sediment, and biota worldwide and supports the need for further data to address the risks associated with the presence of diclofenac in the environment. Finally, we suggest that the presence of diclofenac and its metabolites in the environment may represent a high risk because of their synergistic interactions with existing contaminants, leading to the development of drug-resistant strains and the formation of newly emerging pollutants.

Theoretical environmental risk assessment of ten used pharmaceuticals in Belo Horizonte, Brazil

An evaluation of the environmental risk assessment (ERA) proposed by European Medicines Agency (EMA) and its applicability in Brazil was performed on ten of Belo Horizonte's most pharmaceuticals by the Brazilian National Health Service (SUS). The predicted environmental concentrations (PECs) was proposed, with some refinements to a better representation of the city of study. All PECs obtained were compared only to measured environmental concentrations around the world, due to the lack available data in the city of study and in Brazil. During the performance of EMA's guideline, the risk quotient (RQ) of impact was established through the ratio of PECs and predicted no-effect concentrations (PNECs). The PECs obtained in more refined phases show the initial evaluation of EMA's guideline, possible subdimensions, and the potential risks. The RQ for all studied pharmaceuticals ranges from clonazepam (1.26) to losartan (5457.45). These results indicate potential risks to the aquatic life present in the streams that receive the wastewater treatment plant's effluent. This risk can be spread since the streams carry these contaminants to other water bodies that undergo to multiple cities of Brazil, and even after dilutions, it can still be potentially toxic to the biotic life. ERA shows that it can be a useful tool for a better understanding and modeling of pharmaceuticals fate in the environment, specifically in water bodies. In addition, the usage of this model shows to be a useful tool that determines which contaminant should follow a more thorough study since the detection and analysis of pharmaceuticals in environmental samples are costly and technically challenging.

Fate of pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) from River Yamuna, India: An ecotoxicological risk assessment approach

The river Yamuna is a major tributary of river Ganges and is a major source of freshwater in the National Capital Territory (NCT) catering 16.8 million people. This is the first report on occurrence, fate and ecotoxicological risk assessment of various pharmaceuticals active compounds (PhACs) in the Yamuna river. In this study, spatial and temporal distribution of nine PhACs "aspirin, ibuprofen, paracetamol, caffeine, ranitidine, diclofenac, carbamazepine, codeine, and diazepam", belonging to different therapeutic groups have been reported. Nine PhACs were analyzed in all the samples collected from the NCT stretch of river Yamuna. No specific trend in the distribution of the pharmaceutical residues was observed, however, the results revealed comparably higher PhACs contamination at YMN-2 (downstream Wazirabad, at this point, Najafgarh drain joins river Yamuna). Ecotoxicological risk assessment was carried out using Hazard quotients (HQ) for normal and worst case scenarios. The HQ showed that the levels of PhACs present in the samples were insufficient to cause acute toxicity to the flora and fauna of the river Yamuna. However, such residues could possibly cause chronic toxicity to the aquatic life and human beings as a huge amount of water of the river Yamuna is used for the drinking purposes in the NCT Delhi, the state capital of India.

Targeted eco-pharmacovigilance for ketoprofen in the environment: Need, strategy and challenge

Implementing "targeted" eco-pharmacovigilance(EPV) which focuses on individual or specific pharmaceuticals on a prioritised basis is a feasible, economical and customized approach to reduce the environmental concentrations and risks of pharmaceuticals. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs(NSAIDs) remaining in environment are a kind of priority hazard substances, due to a notable case that diclofenac residues caused the loss of more than 99% of vultures across the Indian sub-continent. Ketoprofen, as another widely used NSAID with comparable or even higher global consumption than diclofenac, in the environment has been shown to present a potential risk to non-target terrestrial and aquatic species. Based on the review of 85 articles reporting the analyses of ketoprofen residues in environment since 2010, we found that this NSAID frequently present in various environmental compartments around the world. Therefore, it is urgent to implement EPV targeting ketoprofen pollution. Here, we provide some recommendations for implementing the targeted EPV for ketoprofen, including: Closely monitoring ketoprofen in the natural environment; Reducing the residues of ketoprofen through source control; Encouraging urine source separation and treatment; Limiting the application of veterinary ketoprofen; Designing and constituting a framework system of targeted EPV. But some challenges, such as ambiguity in the accountability of the main bodies responsible for continued monitoring of ketoprofen residues, the lack of optimized urine source separation scenarios and procedure, the need for detailed design and application schemes of the framework system of targeted EPV, etc. should be addressed.

Sublethal effects induced by captopril on Cyprinus carpio as determined by oxidative stress biomarkers

To our knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate captopril-induced oxidative stress in fish, and specifically in the common carp Cyprinus carpio. At present, very few studies in the international literature evaluate the sublethal effects of captopril on aquatic organisms such as fish, and available ones focus on determination of median lethal concentration in crustaceans and algae. Also, studies evaluating these effects do not make reference to the mechanism of action of this pharmaceutical or its toxicokinetics. This limits our knowledge of the characterization of the sublethal effects of this medication and of its potential ecological impact. The present study aimed to evaluate the sublethal effects induced by three different concentrations of captopril, on C. carpio), by determination of activity of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), as well as indicators of cellular oxidation: hydroperoxide content (HPC), lipid peroxidation (LPX) and protein carbonyl content (PCC). Specimens were exposed for 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96h to three different captopril concentrations: 1μgL^-1, 1mgL^-1 and 100mgL^-1 (the first one has been detected environmentally, the other two have been associated with diverse toxic effects in aquatic species), and brain, gill, liver, kidney and blood samples were evaluated. Significant increases in HPC and LPX were observed mainly in kidney and gill, while PCC also increased in brain. Modifications were found in the activity of SOD (mostly in kidney, brain and blood), CAT (all organs) and GPx (kidney and gill). In conclusion, captopril induces oxidative stress in C. carpio.

Implementing ecopharmacovigilance (EPV) from a pharmacy perspective: A focus on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

Environmental experts have made great efforts to control pharmaceutical pollution. However, the control of emerged environmental problems caused by medicines should draw more attention of pharmacy and pharmacovigilance researchers. Ecopharmacovigilance (EPV) as a kind of pharmacovigilance for the environment is recognized worldwide as crucial to minimize the environmental risk of pharmaceutical pollutants. But continuing to treat the pollution of pharmaceuticals as a group of substances instead of targeting individual pharmaceuticals on a prioritized basis will lead to a significant waste of resources. Considering vulture population decline caused by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) residues, we presented a global-scale analysis of 139 reports of NSAIDs occurrence across 29 countries, in order to provide a specific context for implementing EPV. We found a heavy regional bias toward research in Europe, Asia and America. The top 5 most frequently studied NSAIDs included ibuprofen, diclofenac, naproxen, acetaminophen and ketoprofen. The profile of NSAIDs was dominated by acetaminophen in wastewater influents and effluents. Ibuprofen was the most abundant NSAID in surface water. Only 9 NSAIDs were reported in groundwater samples. And majority of NSAIDs were detected in solid matrices at below 1μg/g except for ketoprofen, diclofenac and ibuprofen. From a pharmacy perspective, we get some implication and propose some management practice options for EPV implementation. These include: Further popularizing and applying the concept of EPV, together with developing relevant regulatory guidance, is necessary; More attention should be paid to how to implement EPV for the pollution control of older established drugs; Triggering "a dynamic watch-list mechanism" in conjunction with "source control"; Implementing targeted sewage treatment technologies and strengthening multidisciplinary collaboration; Pharmaceutical levels in aquatic organisms as biological indicators for monitoring pharmaceutical pollution within the water environment; Upgrading drinking water treatment plants with the aim of removing pharmaceutical residues; Paying more attention to EPV for pharmaceuticals in solid matrices.

Pharmacopollution and Household Waste Medicine (HWM): how reverse logistics is environmentally important to Brazil

Pharmacopollution is a public health and environmental outcome of some active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) and endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDC) dispersed through water and/or soil. Its most important sources are the pharmaceutical industry, healthcare facilities (e.g., hospitals), livestock, aquaculture, and households (patients' excretion and littering). The last source is the focus of this article. Research questions are "What is the Household Waste Medicine (HWM) phenomenon?", "How HWM and pharmacopollution are related?", and "Why is a reverse logistic system necessary for HWM in Brazil?" This article followed the seven steps proposed by Rother (2007) for a systematic review based on the Cochrane Handbook and the National Health Service (NHS) Center for Reviews Dissemination (CDR) Report. The HWM phenomenon brings many environmental, public health, and, social challenges. The insufficient data is a real challenge to assessing potential human health risks and API concentrations. Therefore, the hazard of long-term exposure to low concentrations of pharmacopollutants and the combined effects of API mixtures is still uncertain. HWM are strongly related to pharmacopollution, as this review shows. The Brazilian HWM case is remarkable because it is the fourth pharmaceutical market (US$ 65,971 billion), with a wide number of private pharmacies and drugstores (3.3: 10,000 pharmacy/inhabitants), self-medication habits, and no national take-back program. The HWM generation is estimated in 56.6 g/per capita, or 10,800 t/year. The absence of a reverse logistics for HWM can lead to serious environmental and public health challenges. The sector agreement for HWM is currently under public consultation.

Occurrence of enrofloxacin in overflows from animal lot and residential sewage lagoons and a receiving-stream

Enrofloxacin (ENRO), a fluoroquinolone, was quantified in overflows from an animal lot and residential sewage lagoons and in a receiving-stream (Gans Creek). The concentrations of ENRO in samples was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry. In total, ninety samples including duplicates were analyzed during several monthly sampling campaigns. The samples collected represented the residential sewage lagoon overflow (RLO), animal lot lagoon overflow (ALLO), the combined overflows (RLO and ALLO), and Gans Creek (upstream, midstream and downstream positions). The frequency of detection of ENRO was 90% for RLO and 100% for both ALLO and Gans Creek. The highest concentration of ENRO (0.44 μg/L) was found in ALLO sample collected during high precipitation. ENRO levels found in RLO samples ranged from < LOQ to 259 ng/L and the highest value observed also coincided with high flow. The levels of ENRO found in Gans Creek ranged from 17-216 ng/L. A preliminary ecotoxicological assessment was conducted through calculation of the risk quotients (RQs) for organisms based on the ratio of the measured environmental concentrations in this study to the predicted-no-effect-concentrations (acute and chronic effect) data. From the RQs, high risks were observed for Microcystis aeruginosa (cyanobacteria; RQ = 4.4); Anabaena flosaquae (cyanobacteria; RQ = 1.3); and Lemna minor (aquatic vascular plant; RQ = 2.0). The long-term effects of mixtures of PHCs on Gans Creek watershed are probable.

Eco-pharmacovigilance of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: Necessity and opportunities

Eco-pharmacovigilance (EPV) is a practical and powerful approach to minimize the potential risks posed by pharmaceutical residues in environment. However, it is impracticable to practise rigorous and unitary EPV process for all the existing and new pharmaceuticals. Here, we focused on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and discussed the necessity and potential opportunities of practising EPV of NSAIDs. We found that the consumption of NSAIDs is huge and ubiquitous across the globe. NSAIDs were worldwidely reported as one of the most dominant and frequently detected groups in environmental matrices including wastewater, surface water, suspended solids, sediments, groundwater, even drinking water. Besides, there is definitive evidence for the adverse impacts of NSAID residues on scavenging birds and aquatic species. These data suggested the necessity of implementing EPV of NSAIDs. From the perspective of drug administration, we identified some things that can be done as management practice options for EPV implementation on NSAIDs.