Chemical analysis of Panax quinquefolius (North American ginseng): A review

A systematic review of ginsenoside biosynthesis, spatiotemporal distribution, and response to biotic and abiotic factors in American ginseng

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) has gained recognition as a medicinal and functional food homologous product with several pharmaceutical, nutritional, and industrial applications. However, the key regulators involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis, the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics of ginsenosides, and factors influencing ginsenosides are largely unknown, which make it challenging to enhance the quality and chemical extraction processes of the cultivated American ginseng. This review presents an overview of the pharmacological effects, biosynthesis and spatiotemporal distribution of ginsenosides, with emphasis on the impacts of biotic and abiotic factors on ginsenosides in American ginseng. Modern pharmacological studies have demonstrated that American ginseng has neuroprotective, cardioprotective, antitumor, antidiabetic, and anti-obesity effects. Additionally, most genes involved in the upregulation of ginsenoside biosynthesis have been identified, while downstream regulators (OSCs, CYP450, and UGTs) require further investigation. Futhermore, limited knowledge exists regarding the molecular mechanisms of the impact of biotic and abiotic factors on ginsenosides. Notably, the nonmedicinal parts of American ginseng, particularly its flowers, fibrous roots, and leaves, exhibit higher ginsenoside content than its main roots and account for a considerable amount of weight in the whole plant, representing promising resources for ginsenosides. Herein, the prospects of molecular breeding and metabolic engineering based on multi-omics to improve the unstable quality of cultivated American ginseng and the shortage of ginsenosides are proposed. This review highlights the gaps in the current research on American ginseng and proposes solutions to address these limitations, providing a guide for future investigations into American ginseng ginsenosides.

Mass spectrometry-based ginsenoside profiling: Recent applications, limitations, and perspectives

Ginseng, the roots of Panax species, is an important medicinal herb used as a tonic. As ginsenosides are key bioactive components of ginseng, holistic chemical profiling of them has provided many insights into understanding ginseng. Mass spectrometry has been a major methodology for profiling, which has been applied to realize numerous goals in ginseng research, such as the discrimination of different species, geographical origins, and ages, and the monitoring of processing and biotransformation. This review summarizes the various applications of ginsenoside profiling in ginseng research over the last three decades that have contributed to expanding our understanding of ginseng. However, we also note that most of the studies overlooked a crucial factor that influences the levels of ginsenosides: genetic variation. To highlight the effects of genetic variation on the chemical contents, we present our results of untargeted and targeted ginsenoside profiling of different genotypes cultivated under identical conditions, in addition to data regarding genome-level genetic diversity. Additionally, we analyze the other limitations of previous studies, such as imperfect variable control, deficient metadata, and lack of additional effort to validate causation. We conclude that the values of ginsenoside profiling studies can be enhanced by overcoming such limitations, as well as by integrating with other -omics techniques.

A new ocotillol-type ginsenoside from American ginseng berry

A new ocotillol-type ginsenoside, named pseudoginsenoside F12 (1), was isolated from American ginseng berry, whose structure was elucidated as 6-O-[α-L-2,3-epoxy-rhamnopyranosyl-(1-2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl]-dammar-20S,24R-epoxy-3β, 6α,12β,25-tetraol. In addition, the known alkaloids β-carboline-1-carboxylic acid (2) and anoectochine (3) were isolated for the first time from the Araliaceae family. The new compound 1 was evaluated for cytotoxicity against MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line.

Discrimination for geographical origin of Panax quinquefolius L. using UPLC Q-Orbitrap MS-based metabolomics approach

American ginseng, Panax quinquefolius L., is an important medicinal plant with multiple pharmacological effects and high nutritional value. American ginseng from different geographical origins varies in quality and price. However, there was no approach for discriminating American ginseng from different geographical origins to date. In this study, a metabolomic method based on the UPLC-Orbitrap fusion platform was established to comprehensively determine and analyze metabolites of American ginseng from America and Canada, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, and Shandong provinces in China. A total of 382 metabolites were detected, including 230 saponins, 30 amino acids and derivatives, 27 organic acids and derivatives, 25 lipids, 17 carbohydrates and derivatives, 10 phenols, 8 nucleotides, and derivatives, as well as 35 other metabolites. Metabolite differences between North America and Asia producing areas were more obvious than within Asia. Twenty metabolites, contributed most to the differentiation of producing areas, were identified as potential markers with prediction accuracy higher than 91%. The results provide new insights into the metabolite composition of American ginseng from different origins, which will help discriminate origins and promote quality control of American ginseng.

Chromatographic and mass spectrometric technologies for chemical analysis of Euodiae fructus: A review

INTRODUCTION

Euodiae fructus, also known as Evodiae fructus, is a popular Chinese herbal medicine derived from the dried, nearly ripe fruits of Tetradium ruticarpum (A. Juss.) T. G. Hartley. The main bioactive constituents of Euodiae fructus are alkaloids, limonoids, flavonoids, and anthraquinones. The contents of these compounds vary greatly between different plant species, geographic locations, and harvest times, which thus affect the therapeutic effects.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to summarize the chromatographic and mass spectrometric technologies applied for chemical analysis and quality evaluation of Euodiae fructus. Moreover, we aimed to emphasize the diverse soft ionization techniques and mass analyzers of LC-MS methods for assessment of Euodiae fructus.

METHODOLOGY

A literature study was carried out by retrieving articles published between January 1988 and December 2021 from well-known databases, including PubMed, ASC, Elsevier, ScienceDirect, J·STAGE, Thieme, Taylor & Francis, Springer Link, Wiley Online Library, and CNKI. The chemical analysis methods were described in several categories in accordance with the used analytical techniques, including thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), capillary electrophoresis (CE), and counter-current chromatography (CCC).

RESULTS

This review systematically summarizes the achievements in chemical analysis and quality evaluation of Euodiae fructus published in over three decades, covering the various chromatographic and mass spectrometric technologies applied for identification and quantification of phytochemical constituents.

CONCLUSION

The summary serves as an important basis for future phytochemical research and implementation of quality control methods in order to ensure the efficacy and safety of Euodiae fructus.

Comparison of Phytochemical Profiles of Wild and Cultivated American Ginseng Using Metabolomics by Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography-High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) has been recognized as a valuable herb medicine, and ginsenosides are the most important components responsible for the health-beneficial effects. This study investigated the secondary metabolites responsible for the differentiation of wild and cultivated American ginsengs with ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS)-based metabolomic approach. An in-house ginsenoside library was developed to facilitate data processing and metabolite identification. Data visualization methods, such as heatmaps and volcano plots, were utilized to extract discriminated ion features. The results suggested that the ginsenoside profiles of wild and cultivated ginsengs were significantly different. The octillol (OT)-type ginsenosides were present in greater abundance and diversity in wild American ginsengs; however, a wider distribution of the protopanaxadiol (PPD)-and oleanolic acid (OA)-type ginsenosides were found in cultivated American ginseng. Based on the tentative identification and semi-quantification, the amounts of five ginsenosides (i.e., notoginsenoside H, glucoginsenoside Rf, notoginsenoside R1, pseudoginsenoside RT2, and ginsenoside Rc) were 2.3-54.5 fold greater in wild ginseng in comparison to those in their cultivated counterparts, and the content of six ginsenosides (chicusetsusaponin IVa, malonylginsenoside Rd, pseudoginsenoside Rc1, malonylfloralginsenoside Rd6, Ginsenoside Rd, and malonylginsenoside Rb1) was 2.6-14.4 fold greater in cultivated ginseng compared to wild ginseng. The results suggested that the in-house metabolite library can significantly reduce the complexity of the data processing for ginseng samples, and UHPLC-HRMS is effective and robust for identifying characteristic components (marker compounds) for distinguishing wild and cultivated American ginseng.

A review for discovering bioactive minor saponins and biotransformative metabolites in Panax quinquefolius L

Panax quinquefolius L. has attracted extensive attention worldwide because of its prominent pharmacological properties on type 2 diabetes, cancers, central nervous system, and cardiovascular diseases. Ginsenosides are active phytochemicals of P. quinquefolius, which can be classified as propanaxdiol (PPD)-type, propanaxtriol (PPT)-type, oleanane-type, and ocotillol-type oligo-glycosides depending on the skeleton of aglycone. Recently, advanced analytical and isolated methods including ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem with mass detector, preparative high-performance liquid chromatography, and high speed counter-current chromatography have been used to isolate and identify minor components in P. quinquefolius, which accelerates the clarification of the material basis. However, the poor bioavailability and undetermined bio-metabolism of most saponins have greatly hindered both the development of medicines and the identification of their real active constituents. Thus, it is essential to consider the bio-metabolism of constituents before and after absorption. In this review, we described the structures of minor ginsenosides in P. quinquefolius, including naturally occurring protype compounds and their in vivo metabolites. The preclinical and clinical pharmacological studies of the ginsenosides in the past few years were also summarized. The review will promote the reacquaint of minor saponins on the growing appreciation of their biological role in P. quinquefolius.

Efficacy of ginseng supplements on disease-related fatigue: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Ginseng has been believed to provide energy, physical health, and well-being to patients for hundreds of years. Fatigue is a multidimensional symptom with unknown etiology and varying severity, and lots of patients suffer from fatigue.

METHODS

We search for research of ginseng treatment of disease-related fatigue in adult patients in Pubmed, Embase, Medline, and Cochrane library. Two independent reviewers assessed included studies and met to develop consensus on included studies. And we used Review Manager 5.3 software to evaluate the risk of bias.

RESULTS

The present meta-analysis included 12 randomized controlled trial containing 1298 patients. In the fixed-effect meta-analysis of 12 randomized controlled trial, ginseng supplements had a statistically significant efficacy on disease-related fatigue reduction (standardized mean difference = 0.33, 95% confidence interval = 0.44-0.22).

CONCLUSIONS

The use of ginseng supplements is benefit for patients to reduce disease-related fatigue.

Dynamic changes of ginsenosides in Panax quinquefolium fruit at different development stages measured using UHPLC-Orbitrap MS

RATIONALE

Some studies have shown that Panax quinquefolium fruit (PQF) could also be used as a potential medicinal resource. However, little is known about the composition of ginsenosides and their dynamic changes at different development stages of PQF. Therefore, this study is of great significance for the metabolomics and rational utilization of PQF.

METHODS

The samples were analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography combined with an Orbitrap mass spectrometer (UHPLC-Orbitrap MS), and the method of metabonomics was applied to profile the dynamic changes of ginsenosides in PQF at different development stages.

RESULTS

A total of 109 ginsenosides were identified or tentatively characterized. Samples collected from different development stages were significantly discriminated according to ginsenoside contents. A total of 25 potential chemical markers enabling the differentiation were discovered.

CONCLUSIONS

For the first time, the study developed an UHPLC-Orbitrap MS-based approach to detect ginsenoside in PQF at different development stages using a non-targeted mode. This comprehensive phytochemical profile study revealed the structural diversity and discrimination of ginsenosides in PQF at different development stages, which could provide the basis for the metabolomics and rational application of PQF.

Characterization and quantification of ginsenosides from the root of Panax quinquefolius L. by integrating untargeted metabolites and targeted analysis using UPLC-Triple TOF-MS coupled with UFLC-ESI-MS/MS

The root of Panax quinquefolius L. (RPQ) is considered as an important functional food and rich in bioactive components, ginsenosides. To comprehensively characterize ginsenosides and evaluate the quality of RPQ from different sources, UPLC-Triple TOF-MS coupled with UFLC-ESI-MS/MS was applied to untargeted metabolites and targeted analysis for the first time. In untargeted metabolites analysis, a total of 225 ginsenosides were identified from RPQ using UPLC-Triple TOF-MS combined with SWATH data-independent strategy. Furthermore, the contents of 39 targeted ginsenoside markers in 14 RPQ samples were analyzed by a rapid and sensitive UFLC-ESI-MS/MS method. In addition, the results of chemometric analysis showed the quality of American RPQ was distinguished from that of Chinese RPQ according to the amount of targeted ginsenosides. This newly developed approach provides a powerful tool for enriching the diversity of saponins database and assessing the quality of RPQ, which can be further extended to other ginseng products and functional foods.

Effects of Panax ginseng and ginsenosides on oxidative stress and cardiovascular diseases: pharmacological and therapeutic roles

Traditionally, Asian ginseng or Korean ginseng, Panax ginseng has long been used in Korea and China to treat various diseases. The main active components of Panax ginseng is ginsenoside, which is known to have various pharmacological treatment effects such as antioxidant, vascular easing, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetes, and anticancer. Most reactive oxygen species (ROS) cause chronic diseases such as myocardial symptoms and cause fatal oxidative damage to cell membrane lipids and proteins. Therefore, many studies that inhibit the production of oxidative stress have been conducted in various fields of physiology, pathophysiology, medicine and health, and disease. Recently, ginseng or ginsenosides have been known to act as antioxidants in vitro and in vivo results, which have a beneficial effect on preventing cardiovascular disease. The current review aims to provide mechanisms and inform precious information on the effects of ginseng and ginsenosides on the prevention of oxidative stress and cardiovascular disease in animals and clinical trials.

Current Status and Research Trends of Panax Between 1900-2019: A Bibliometric Analysis

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the current status and further development of Panax genus and 6 important individual species including P. notoginseng, P. quinquefolium, P. vietnamensis, P. japonicus, P. stipuleanatus and P. zingiberensis.

METHODS

The bibliometric analysis was based on the Web of Science core database platform from Thomson Reuters. Totally, 7,574 records of scientific research of Panax species published from 1900-2019 were analyzed. The statistical and visualization analysis was performed by CiteSpace and HistCite software.

RESULTS

The academic research of Panax species increase promptly. Plant science is the main research field while research and experimental medicine and agricultural engineering will be the further development tendency. Particularly, the discrimination research of P. notoginseng will be the research tendency among Panax species, especially diversity research. In addition, P. vietnamensis deserves more attention in the genus Panax.

CONCLUSION

This research provides a reference for further research of the genus and individual species.

A characterized saponin extract of Panax japonicus suppresses hepatocyte EMT and HSC activation in vitro and CCl4-provoked liver fibrosis in mice: Roles of its modulatory effects on the Akt/GSK3β/Nrf2 cascade

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Liver fibrosis constitutes a pathologic condition resulting in a series of advanced liver diseases. Oleanane-type saponins are distinctive active constituents in the medicinal plant Panax japonicus C. A. Mey (P. japonicus). Herein, we assessed protective effects of a characterized saponin extract of rhizomes of P. japonicus (SEPJ) on hepatocyte EMT and HSC activation in vitro and liver fibrosis in mice. We also investigated molecular mechanisms underlying the hepatoprotective activity of SEPJ.

METHODS

EMT of AML-12 hepatocytes was evaluated by observing morphology of cells and quantifying EMT marker proteins. Activation of LX-2 HSCs was assessed via scratch assay, transwell assay, and EdU-incorporation assay, and by quantifying activation marker proteins. Liver fibrosis in mice was evaluated by HE, SR, and Masson staining, and by measuring related serum indicators. Immunoblotting and RT-PCR were performed to study mechanisms underlying the action of SEPJ.

RESULTS

SEPJ inhibited TGF-β-induced EMT in AML-12 hepatocytes and activation of LX-2 HSCs. SEPJ elevated Akt phosphorylation at Ser473 and GSK3β phosphorylation at Ser9 in these cells, giving rise to a descent of the catalytic activity of GSK3β. These events increased levels of both total and nuclear Nrf2 protein and upregulated expressions of Nrf2-responsive antioxidative genes. In addition, enhanced phosphorylation of Akt and GSK3β acted upstream of SEPJ-mediated activation of Nrf2. Knockdown of Nrf2 or inhibition of Akt diminished the protective activity of SEPJ against TGF-β in both AML-12 and LX-2 cells. Our further in vivo experiments revealed that SEPJ imposed a considerable alleviation on CCl₄-provoked mouse liver fibrosis. Moreover, hepatic Akt/GSK3β/Nrf2 cascade were potentiated by SEPJ. Taken together, our results unveiled that SEPJ exerted protective effects against fibrogenic cytokine TGF-β in vitro and ameliorated liver fibrosis in mice. Mechanistically, SEPJ regulated the Akt/GSK3β/Nrf2 signaling which subsequently enhanced intracellular antioxidative capacity.

CONCLUSIONS

SEPJ inhibits hepatocyte EMT and HSC activation in vitro and alleviates liver fibrosis in mice. Modulation of the Akt/GSK3β/Nrf2 cascade attributes to its hepatoprotective effects. Our findings support a possible application of SEPJ in the control of liver fibrosis.

Natural Ingredients from Medicine Food Homology as Chemopreventive Reagents against Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus by Modulating Gut Microbiota Homoeostasis

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a noteworthy worldwide public health problem. It represents a complex metabolic disorder, mainly characterized as hyperglycemia and lipid dysfunction. The gut microbiota dysbiosis has been proposed to play a role in the development of diabetes. Recently, there has been considerable interest in the use of medicine food homology (MFH) and functional food herbs (FF) to ameliorate diabetes and lead to a natural and healthy life. Hence, this review compiles some reports and findings to demonstrate that the practical use of the MFH/FF can modulate the homoeostasis of gut microbiota, thereby ameliorating the development of T2DM. The results provided useful data to support further investigation of the functional basis and application of MFH/FF to treat T2DM through maintaining intestinal homeostasis.

The discovery of pivotal fungus and major determinant factor shaping soil microbial community composition associated with rot root of American ginseng

American ginseng, a valuable medicinal and food plant, is threatened by rot root, which affects its yield and quality. However, limited studies have investigated the changes in soil microbial community and physiochemical properties between healthy and rot root American ginseng. Here, high-throughput sequencing and soil physiochemical properties were used to characterize these changes. The soil physiochemical properties showed significance differences between the soil of healthy and rot root, in which the pH, available potassium, available phosphorus, soil organic carbon and soil organic matter were significantly higher in healthy root soil. Besides, fungal α-diversity was also higher in healthy root soil than that in rot root. Importantly, the dominant fungal genera differed between soils of healthy and rot root of American ginseng, and LEfSe further indicated that six fungal genera (Devriesia, Chrysosporium, Dichotomopilus, Pseudeurotium, Acaulium and Scedosporium) were significantly enriched in the soil of healthy plants, whereas six fungal genera (Gibellulopsis, Fusarium, Plectosphaerella, Tetracladium, Gibberella and Ilyonectri) were significantly enriched in the soil of rot root, suggesting that an increase in the relative abundance of these pathogenic fungi (Fusarium, Plectosphaerella, and Ilyonectri) may be associated with ginseng rot root. Notably, this study is the first to report that an increase in the relative abundances of Gibellulopsis and Gibberella in the rot root soil of American ginseng may be associated with the onset of rot root symptoms in this plant. The functional profile prediction showed that the there was a significantly Pathotrophs increase in the rot root soil compared with healthy root soil and Saprotrophs were more abundant in the healthy root soil. Finally, correlation analyses revealed that soil cation exchange capacity was an important factors affecting the composition of rot root of American ginseng soil microbial communities. This study not only used a new approach to explore the new fungal associated with rot root in American ginseng but also excavated the major soil physiochemical properties affecting the microbiome diversity, providing foundation for developing biocontrol strategies against rot root.

A fluorinated chitosan-based QuEChERS method for simultaneous determination of 20 organophosphorus pesticide residues in ginseng using GC-MS/MS

In this study, a new fluorinated methacrylamide (MACF) was synthesized and evaluated as an adsorbent in the dispersive solid-phase extraction for the effective determination and extraction of 20 organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) from ginseng samples using the QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, safe) method coupled with GC-MS/MS. The properties of MACF were characterized using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, elemental analysis, and high-resolution ¹⁹ F NMR. MACF, chitosan, primary and secondary amine, octadecylsilane, graphitized carbon black, Z-Sep, Z-Sep⁺ , and EMR-Lipid were compared in terms of extraction efficiency. The best results were obtained when MACF was used. Matrix-matched calibration was employed for quantification. All the OPPs exhibited good linearity (r²  > 0.9969) with the concentration at their respective concentration ranges. The limits of detection were 1.5-3.0 μg/kg, and the limits of quantification were 5.0-10.0 μg/kg. The trueness of the 20 pesticides at four spiked levels ranged from 86.1 to 111.1%, and the relative standard deviation was less than 11.3%. The modified QuEChERS method using MACF as the adsorbent was sensitive, reliable, and cost-effective and could be used for the determination of 20 OPP residues in ginseng.

Ginsenosides in Panax genus and their biosynthesis

Ginsenosides are a series of glycosylated triterpenoids which belong to protopanaxadiol (PPD)-, protopanaxatriol (PPT)-, ocotillol (OCT)- and oleanane (OA)-type saponins known as active compounds of Panax genus. They are accumulated in plant roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. The content and composition of ginsenosides are varied in different ginseng species, and in different parts of a certain plant. In this review, we summarized the representative saponins structures, their distributions and the contents in nearly 20 Panax species, and updated the biosynthetic pathways of ginsenosides focusing on enzymes responsible for structural diversified ginsenoside biosynthesis. We also emphasized the transcription factors in ginsenoside biosynthesis and non-coding RNAs in the growth of Panax genus plants, and highlighted the current three major biotechnological applications for ginsenosides production. This review covered advances in the past four decades, providing more clues for chemical discrimination and assessment on certain ginseng plants, new perspectives for rational evaluation and utilization of ginseng resource, and potential strategies for production of specific ginsenosides.

Transdermal nanotherapeutics: Panax quinquefolium polysaccharide nanoparticles attenuate UVB-induced skin cancer

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is known to cause an imbalance of the endogenous antioxidant system leading to an increase in skin cancer. Panax quinquefolium (American ginseng) polysaccharides (GPS) can inhibit such an imbalance due to its anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. The aim of this study was to investigate the therapeutic effects of topical formulations containing GPS nanoparticles (NPs) to inhibit UVB induced oxidative damage and skin cancer. Photoaging was conducted under UVB irradiation with a dose of 300 mJ/cm2 on SKH1 hairless mice. The treatment groups (n = 5) were as follows: sham control, native GPS, GPS NPs and fluorescent labeled GPS NPs. To compare the photoprotective performance, the topical formulations were applied before and after UVB induction (pre-treatment and post-treatment), followed by sacrificing the animals. Then, skin and blood samples were collected, and inflammatory cytokines production was measured using ELISA. Compared to the sham control, GPS NPs pre-treated mice skin and blood samples exhibited a significant lowering in all cytokine production. In addition, skin histology analysis showed that pre-treatment of GPS NPs prevented epidermal damage and proliferation. The results support that topical formulation containing GPS NPs can inhibit UVB induced oxidative damage and skin cancer.

Ginsenoside Contents in Ginseng: Quality by Design-Coupled Two-Dimensional Liquid Chromatography Technique

Red ginseng and white ginseng, with different chemical constituents, exhibit different antioxidative, anticancer, antiasthmatic and immunomodulatory properties. The aim of this study was to determine the amount of ginsenoside contents (Rg1, Re, Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd and Ro) in red and white ginseng. A rapid and comprehensive method was developed using the quality-by-design (QbD) and heart-cutting two-dimensional liquid chromatography (2D-LC) techniques. The temperature (25°C), mobile phase constituent (0.1%H3PO4), flow rate (0.35 mL/min) and concentrations of the final (45%) and initial (19.5%) organic solvents were optimized to efficient chromatography-based isolation method. The gradient program was optimized by QbD Fusion AE system. A selective column (Thermo Acclaim RSLC Polar Advantage II 2.2 μm, 100 × 2.1 mm) was used for the studies. The ginsenoside Rb1, Rc and Ro exhibiting poor separation resolution were separated using the heart-cutting 2D-LC technique. The average Rb1, Rb2 and Rc contents in red ginseng were significantly higher than the average Rb1, Rb2 and Rc contents in white ginseng. Ginsenoside Ro can be potentially used as a marker to evaluate the qualities of white and red ginseng. This comprehensive and rapid method can be potentially used to screen the quality of the markers in the future.

Comprehensive Investigation on Ginsenosides in Different Parts of a Garden-Cultivated Ginseng Root and Rhizome

Background: Ginseng is widely used as herb or food. Different parts of ginseng have diverse usages. However, the comprehensive analysis on the ginsenosides in different parts of ginseng root is scarce. Methods: An ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS) combined with UNIFI informatics platform and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-charged aerosol detection (UHPLC-CAD) were employed to evaluate the different parts of cultivated ginseng root. Results: 105 ginsenosides including 16 new compounds were identified or tentatively characterized. 22 potential chemical markers were identified, 20, 17, and 19 for main root (MR) and fibrous root (FR), main root (MR) and branch root (BR), and main root (MR) and rhizome (RH), respectively. The relative contents of Re, Rb₁, 20(R)-Rh₁, Rd, and Rf were highest in FR. The relative content of Rg₁ was highest in RH. The total relative content of pharmacopoeia indicators Rg₁, Re, and Rb₁ was highest in FR. Conclusion: The differences among these parts were the compositions and relative contents of ginsenosides. Under our research conditions, the peak area ratio of Rg₁ and Re could distinguish the MR and FR samples. Fibrous roots showed rich ingredients and high ginsenosides contents which should be further utilized.

Korean Red Ginseng suppresses bisphenol A-induced expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and cellular migration of A549 human lung cancer cell through inhibition of reactive oxygen species

BACKGROUND

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a natural product with antiinflammatory and anticarcinogenic effects. We have previously reported that the endocrine-disrupting compound bisphenol A (BPA)-induced cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) via nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase and promoted the migration of A549. Here, in this study, we assessed the protective effect of KRG on the BPA-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and expression of COX-2 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) in A549 cells.

METHODS

The effects of KRG on the upregulation of ROS production and COX-2 and MMP-9 expression by BPA were evaluated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACs) analysis, quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, and western blotting. Antimigration ability by KRG was evaluated by migration assay in A549 cells.

RESULTS

KRG significantly suppressed the BPA-induced COX-2, the activity of NF-κB, the production of ROS, and the migration of A549 cells. These effects led to the downregulation of the expression of MMP-9.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our results suggest that KRG exerts an antiinflammatory effect on BPA-treated A549 cells via the suppression of ROS and downregulation of NF-κB activation and COX-2 expression which leads to a decrease in cellular migration and MMP-9 expression. These results provide a new possible therapeutic application of KRG to protect BPA-induced possible inflammatory disorders.

Immuno-enhancement effects of Korean Red Ginseng in healthy adults: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Background

Most clinical studies of immune responses activated by Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) have been conducted exclusively in patients. However, there is still a lack of clinical research on immune-boosting benefits of KRG for healthy persons. This study aims to confirm how KRG boosts the immune system of healthy subjects.

Methods

A total of 100 healthy adult subjects were randomly divided into two groups that took either a 2 g KRG tablet or a placebo per day for 8 weeks. The primary efficacy evaluation variables included changes in T cells, B cells, and white blood cells (WBCs) before and after eight weeks of KRG ingestion. Cytokines (TNF-α, INF-γ, IL-2 and IL-4), WBC differential count, and incidence of colds were measured in the secondary efficacy evaluation variables. Safety evaluation variables were used to identify changes in laboratory test results that incorporated adverse reactions, vital signs, hematological tests, blood chemistry tests, and urinalysis.

Results

Compared to the placebo group, the KRG intake group showed a significant increase in the number of T cells (CD3) and its subtypes (CD4 and CD8), B cells, and the WBC count before and after eight weeks of the intake. There were no clinically significant adverse reactions or other notable results in the safety evaluation factors observed.

Conclusion

This study has proven through its eight-week intake test and subsequent analysis that KRG boosts the immune system through an increase in T cells, B cells, and WBCs, and that it is safe according to the study's safety evaluation.

Physiological and pharmacological features of the non-saponin components in Korean Red Ginseng

Panax ginseng, a medicinal plant, has been used as a blood-nourishing tonic for thousands of years in Asia, including Korea and China. P. ginseng exhibits adaptogen activity that maintains homeostasis by restoring general biological functions and non-specifically enhancing the body's resistance to external stress. Several P. ginseng effects have been reported. Korean Red Ginseng, in particular, has been reported in both basic and clinical studies to possess diverse effects such as enhanced immunity, fatigue relief, memory, blood circulation, and anti-oxidation. Moreover, it also protects against menopausal symptoms, cancer, cardiac diseases, and neurological disorders. The active components found in most Korean Red Ginseng varieties are known to include ginsenosides, polysaccharides, peptides, alkaloids, polyacetylene, and phenolic compounds. In this review, the identity and bioactivity of the non-saponin components of Korean Red Ginseng discovered to date are evaluated and the components are classified into polysaccharide and nitrogen compounds (protein, peptide, amino acid, nucleic acid, and alkaloid), as well as fat-soluble components such as polyacetylene, phenols, essential oils, and phytosterols. The distinct bioactivity of Korean Red Ginseng was found to originate from both saponin and non-saponin components rather than from only one or two specific components. Therefore, it is important to consider saponin and non-saponin elements together.

Characteristics of Panax ginseng Cultivars in Korea and China

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is one of the most important medicinal herbs in Asia. Its pharmacological activity comes from ginsenosides, and its roots are produced commercially for traditional and Oriental medicine. Though 17 Panax species are available around the world, there was a need to develop cultivars adapted to different climatic conditions and resistant to various diseases while still producing high-quality, high-yield roots. Thus, 12 and 9 commercial P. ginseng cultivars have been registered in South Korea and China, respectively. Those varieties show superiority to local landraces. For example, Chunpoong is more highly resistant to rusty rot disease than the local Jakyungjong landrace and has a good root shape; it is highly cultivated to produce red ginseng. The Chinese cultivar Jilin Huangguo Renshen has higher ginsenoside content than its local landraces. This review provides information about P. ginseng cultivars and offers directions for future research, such as intra- and interspecific hybridization.

Phytochemical analysis of Panax species: a review

Panax species have gained numerous attentions because of their various biological effects on cardiovascular, kidney, reproductive diseases known for a long time. Recently, advanced analytical methods including thin layer chromatography, high-performance thin layer chromatography, gas chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with tandem ultraviolet, diode array detector, evaporative light scattering detector, and mass detector, two-dimensional high-performance liquid chromatography, high speed counter-current chromatography, high speed centrifugal partition chromatography, micellar electrokinetic chromatography, high-performance anion-exchange chromatography, ambient ionization mass spectrometry, molecularly imprinted polymer, enzyme immunoassay, ¹H-NMR, and infrared spectroscopy have been used to identify and evaluate chemical constituents in Panax species. Moreover, Soxhlet extraction, heat reflux extraction, ultrasonic extraction, solid phase extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, enzyme-assisted extraction, acceleration solvent extraction, matrix solid phase dispersion extraction, and pulsed electric field are discussed. In this review, a total of 219 articles published from 1980 to 2018 are investigated. Panax species including P. notoginseng, P. quinquefolius, sand P. ginseng in the raw and processed forms from different parts, geographical origins, and growing times are studied. Furthermore, the potential biomarkers are screened through the previous articles. It is expected that the review can provide a fundamental for further studies.

Retention behavior of ginsenosides in a sulfo-based high performance liquid chromatography column

We herein report the use of a sulfo-based column and hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) to separate 14 ginsenosides, namely Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Rf, Re, Rg1, Rg2, Rg3, Rh1, Rh2, F₂, and C-K. In addition to its rapid and efficient ability to separate these ginsenosides, the sulfo-based column exhibited a good relationship between the ginsenoside capacity factor (k') and molecular weight (M_w) and a strict elution order corresponding to the polarity (P) of the ginsenosides, as confirmed by thin layer chromatography.

Simultaneous Determination and Analysis of Major Ginsenosides in Wild American Ginseng Grown in Tennessee

Ginsenosides are the major constituent that is responsible for the health effects of American ginseng. The ginsenoside profile of wild American ginseng is ultimately the result of germplasm, climate, geography, vegetation species, water, and soil conditions. This is the first report to address the ginsenoside profile of wild American ginseng grown in Tennessee (TN), the third leading state for production of wild American ginseng. In the present study, ten major ginsenosides in wild American ginseng roots grown in TN, including Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1, Rg2, and Rg3, were determined simultaneously. The chemotypic differences among TN wild ginseng, cultivated American ginseng, and Asian ginseng were assessed based on the widely used markers of ginsenoside profiling, including the top three ginsenosides, ratios of PPD/PPT, Rg1/Rb1, Rg1/Re, and Rb2/Rc. Our findings showed marked variation in ginsenoside profile for TN wild ginseng populations. Nevertheless, TN wild ginseng has significant higher ginsenoside content and more ginsenoside diversity than the cultivated ginseng. The total ginsenoside content in TN wild ginseng, as well as ginsenosides Rg1 and Re, increases with the age of the roots. Marked chemotypic differences between TN wild ginseng and cultivated American ginseng were observed based on the chemotypic markers. Surprisingly, we found that TN wild ginseng is close to Asian ginseng with regard to these characteristics in chemical composition. This study verified an accessible method to scientifically elucidate the difference in chemical constituents to distinguish wild from the cultivated American ginseng. This work is critical for the ecological and biological assessments of wild American ginseng so as to facilitate long-term sustainability of the wild population.

American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.) as a Source of Bioactive Phytochemicals with Pro-Health Properties

Panax quinquefolium L. (American Ginseng, AG) is an herb characteristic for regions of North America and Asia. Due to its beneficial properties it has been extensively investigated for decades. Nowadays, it is one of the most commonly applied medical herbs worldwide. Active compounds of AG are ginsenosides, saponins of the glycosides group that are abundant in roots, leaves, stem, and fruits of the plant. Ginsenosides are suggested to be primarily responsible for health-beneficial effects of AG. AG acts on the nervous system; it was reported to improve the cognitive function in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease, display anxiolytic activity, and neuroprotective effects against neuronal damage resulting from ischemic stroke in animals, demonstrate anxiolytic activity, and induce neuroprotective effects against neuronal damage in ischemic stroke in animals. Administration of AG leads to inhibition of hypertrophy in heart failure by regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mice as well as depletion of cardiac contractile function in rats. It also has an anti-diabetic and anti-obesity potential as it increases insulin sensitivity and inhibits formation of adipose tissue. AG displays anti-cancer effect by induction of apoptosis of cancer cells and reducing local inflammation. It exerts antimicrobial effects against several pathogenic strains of bacteria. Therefore, AG presents a high potential to induce beneficial health effects in humans and should be further explored to formulate precise nutritional recommendations, as well as to assess its value in prevention and therapy of some disorders, including cancer.

Various Multicharged Anions of Ginsenosides in Negative Electrospray Ionization with QTOF High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry

When characterizing components from ginseng, we found a vast number of multicharged anions presented in the liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) chromatograms. The source of these anions is unclear yet, while ginsenosides, the major components of ginseng, are the main suspected type of molecules because of their sugar moiety. Our investigation using 14 pure ginsenosides affirmed that the multicharged anions were formed by ginsenosides rather than other types of ingredients in ginseng. Various anions could be observed for each ginsenoside. These anions contain ions ([M-2H]^2-, [M+Adduct]^2-), as well as those formed by polymerization of at least two ginsenosides, such as [nM-2H]^2-, [nM-H+Adduct]^2-, and [nM-3H]^3-. The presence of so different types of ions from a ginsenoside explains the reason for the large number of anions in the LC-MS analysis of ginseng. We further found that formation of [nM-2H]^2- ions was influenced by the number of sugar chains: ginsenosides containing two sugar chains produced all [nM-2H]^2- ion types, whereas ginsenosides containing one sugar chain did not produce [2M-2H]^2-. Thus, [2M-2H]^2- and [3M-2H]^2- can be utilized to rapidly identify monodesmosidic and/or bidesmosidic ginsenosides as joint diagnostic anions. The position of the glycosyl radical might be the key factor affecting the formation of multicharged multimer ions from monodesmosidic ginsenosides. Consequently, three groups of ginsenoside isomers were differentiated by characteristic [nM-2H]^2- anions. Using concentration-dependent characteristics and collision-induced dissociation (CID), we confirmed that [nM-2H]^2- ions are non-covalently bound multimers whose aggregation has marked distinction between monodesmosidic and bidesmosidic ginsenosides, accounting for the differentiated formation of [nM-2H]^2- between them. Graphical Abstract.

The Phytochemistry of Cherokee Aromatic Medicinal Plants

Background: Native Americans have had a rich ethnobotanical heritage for treating diseases, ailments, and injuries. Cherokee traditional medicine has provided numerous aromatic and medicinal plants that not only were used by the Cherokee people, but were also adopted for use by European settlers in North America. Methods: The aim of this review was to examine the Cherokee ethnobotanical literature and the published phytochemical investigations on Cherokee medicinal plants and to correlate phytochemical constituents with traditional uses and biological activities. Results: Several Cherokee medicinal plants are still in use today as herbal medicines, including, for example, yarrow (Achillea millefolium), black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa), American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), and blue skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora). This review presents a summary of the traditional uses, phytochemical constituents, and biological activities of Cherokee aromatic and medicinal plants. Conclusions: The list is not complete, however, as there is still much work needed in phytochemical investigation and pharmacological evaluation of many traditional herbal medicines.

Antiobesity Effects of Ginsenoside Rg1 on 3T3-L1 Preadipocytes and High Fat Diet-Induced Obese Mice Mediated by AMPK

Ginsenosides Rg1 is one of the major pharmacologically active saponins in ginseng, which as an antioxidant reduces oxidative damage in the liver and can also be used to prevent cardiovascular diseases and diabetes. However, there is no research targeting the effect of lipid metabolism in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced mice. In this study, we evaluated the anti-obesity effects of Rg1 in 3T3-L1 adipocyte cells and HFD-induced obese C57BL/6J mice. Administration of Rg1 to HFD-induced obese mice significantly decreased body weight, total cholesterol, and total triglyceride levels. In addition to effects in 3T3-L1 cells, Rg1 reduced the accumulation of lipid droplets in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, Rg1 exhibits an anti-adipogenic effect via regulation of the expression of the transcriptional factors and lipid metabolism-related genes in vivo and in vitro. We observed that Rg1 administration significantly increased the phosphorylation level of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in both epididymal white adipose tissue and 3T3-L1 cells. These results indicated that Rg1 works both in an anti-adipogenic and anti-obesity manner through inducing AMPK activation, inhibiting lipogenesis, and decreasing intracellular lipid content, adipocyte size, and adipose weight.

Study on the Structure of Ginseng Glycopeptides with Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Activity

Panax ginseng is well known for its medicinal functions. As a class of important compound of ginseng, ginsenoside is widely studied around the world. In addition, ginseng glycopeptides also showed good biological activity, but researches in this field are rarely reported. In this study, ginseng glycopeptides (Gg) were first prepared from Panax ginseng by reflux extracted with 85% ethanol and the following purification with Sephadex G-15 column. Then, the inflammatory pain models induced by carrageenan and the rat pain models induced by Faure Marin were established for research on mechanism of analgesic activities. It is showed that Gg had an obvious inhibiting effect on inflammation and a significant reduction on the Malondialdehyde (MDA) of inflammatory foot tissue. And there were significant differences between moderate to high dose of Gg and model group in Interleukin 1β (IL-1β), Interleukin 2 (IL-2), Interleukin 4 (IL-4), Tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and Histamine. The two models can be preliminarily determined that the analgesic effect of Gg may be peripheral, which mechanism may be related to the dynamic balance between proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-2, IL-4, and Interleukin 10 (IL-10)). A series of methods were used to study Gg in physical-chemical properties and linking mode of glycoside. The high-resolution mass spectrometry was used for identification of the structure of Gg. Moreover, the structure of 20 major Gg were investigated and identified. The structural analysis of Gg was benefit for the next study on structure-activity relationship.

Red ginseng monograph

Ginseng has been traditionally used for several millennia in Asian countries, including Korea, China, and Japan, not only as a nourishing and tonifying agent but also as a therapeutic agent for a variety of diseases. In recent years, the various effects of red ginseng including immunity improvement, fatigue relief, memory improvement, blood circulation improvement, antioxidation, mitigation of menopausal women's symptoms, and anticancer an effect have been reported in clinical as well as basic research. Around the world, there is a trend of the rising consumption of health functional foods on the level of disease prevention along with increased interest in maintaining health because of population aging and the awareness of lifestyle diseases and chronic diseases. Red ginseng occupies an important position as a health functional food. But till now, international ginseng monographs including those of the World Health Organization have been based on data on white ginseng and have mentioned red ginseng only partly. Therefore, the red ginseng monograph is needed for component of red ginseng, functionality certified as a health functional food in the Korea Food and Drug Administration, major efficacy, action mechanism, and safety. The present red ginseng monograph will contribute to providing accurate information on red ginseng to agencies, businesses, and consumers both in South Korea and abroad.

Therapeutic Potential of Ginsenosides as an Adjuvant Treatment for Diabetes

Ginseng, one of the oldest traditional Chinese medicinal herbs, has been used widely in China and Asia for thousands of years. Ginsenosides extracted from ginseng, which is derived from the roots and rhizomes of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, have been used in China as an adjuvant in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Owing to the technical complexity of ginsenoside production, the total ginsenosides are generally extracted. Accumulating evidence has shown that ginsenosides exert antidiabetic effects. In vivo and in vitro tests revealed the potential of ginsenoside Rg1, Rg3, Rg5, Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, compound K, Rk1, Re, ginseng total saponins, malonyl ginsenosides, Rd, Rh2, F2, protopanaxadiol (PPD) and protopanaxatriol (PPT)-type saponins to treat diabetes and its complications, including type 1 diabetes mellitus, type 2 diabetes mellitus, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic cognitive dysfunction, type 2 diabetes mellitus with fatty liver disease, diabetic cerebral infarction, diabetic cardiomyopathy, and diabetic erectile dysfunction. Many effects are attributed to ginsenosides, including gluconeogenesis reduction, improvement of insulin resistance, glucose transport, insulinotropic action, islet cell protection, hepatoprotective activity, anti-inflammatory effect, myocardial protection, lipid regulation, improvement of glucose tolerance, antioxidation, improvement of erectile dysfunction, regulation of gut flora metabolism, neuroprotection, anti-angiopathy, anti-neurotoxic effects, immunosuppression, and renoprotection effect. The molecular targets of these effects mainly contains GLUTs, SGLT1, GLP-1, FoxO1, TNF-α, IL-6, caspase-3, bcl-2, MDA, SOD, STAT5-PPAR gamma pathway, PI3K/Akt pathway, AMPK-JNK pathway, NF-κB pathway, and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Rg1, Rg3, Rb1, and compound K demonstrated the most promising therapeutic prospects as potential adjuvant medicines for the treatment of diabetes. This paper highlights the underlying pharmacological mechanisms of the anti-diabetic effects of ginsenosides.

Systematic profiling and comparison of the lipidomes from Panax ginseng, P. quinquefolius, and P. notoginseng by ultrahigh performance supercritical fluid chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry and ion mobility-derived collision cross section measurement

Lipidomics currently is still confronted with challenges from chromatographic separation and lipids identification. Here we report a lipidomics platform by integrating ultrahigh performance supercritical fluid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPSFC/QTOF-MS) and collision cross section (CCS) measurement using ion mobility spectroscopy/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (IMS/QTOF-MS), aiming to enhance the profiling performance and identification reliability of lipids. The lipidomes extracted from three congeneric Panax species (P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius, and P. notoginseng) by methyl tert-butyl ether are comprehensively profiled and compared by use of this platform. A potent UHPSFC/QTOF-MS approach was developed on a 1.7-μm particles packed Torus 2-PIC column using CH₃OH (in CO₂) as a modifier and CH₃OH/0.2 mM ammonium acetate as the makeup liquid, enabling well resolution of six lipid subclasses by both positive and negative MS^E modes. In contrast to the reversed-phase chromatography, "normal-phase" like elution order and better resolution of polar lipids and some lipid isomers were achieved by UHPSFC separation. Pattern recognition chemometric analysis of 60 batches of Ginseng samples ultimately unveiled 24 lipid markers, of which triacylglycerols were the most important. Aside from the automated MS database searching against HMDB and LIPID MAPS, the application of CCS retrieval or CCS prediction improved lipid identification by reducing the possible hits. In conclusion, this integral platform can significantly improve the chromatographic separation and the reliability of lipids identification in lipidomics studies. It is the first report that systematically compares the lipidomic difference of three reputable Panax species, providing useful information for their quality control in addition to ginsenoside analysis.

Phytotherapy in the Management of Diabetes: A Review

Phytotherapy has long been a source of medicinal products and over the years there have been many attempts to use herbal medicines for the treatment of diabetes. Several medicinal plants and their preparations have been demonstrated to act at key points of glucidic metabolism. The most common mechanisms of action found include the inhibition of α-glucosidase and of AGE formation, the increase of GLUT-4 and PPARs expression and antioxidant activity. Despite the large amount of literature available, the actual clinical effectiveness of medicinal plants in controlling diabetes-related symptoms remains controversial and there is a crucial need for stronger evidence-based data. In this review, an overview of the medicinal plants, which use in the management of diabetes is supported by authoritative monographs, is provided. References to some species which are currently under increasing clinical investigation are also reported.

Fabrication of fluorescent labeled ginseng polysaccharide nanoparticles for bioimaging and their immunomodulatory activity on macrophage cell lines

Polysaccharides are a major active component of American ginseng root showing various biological activities including anti-carcinogenic, anti-aging, immunostimulatory and antioxidant effects. Although their biological activity has been reported by several groups, no research has explored their cellular uptake and biodistribution, owing to the lack of suitable detection techniques in living cells. This work examines a novel, simple and efficient fluorescent labeling procedure of ginseng polysaccharides (PS), in order to examine their cellular distribution using confocal microscopy. This procedure utilized a one-pot strategy with fluorescein-5-thiosemicarbazide (FTSC) to introduce a thiosemicarbazide group onto the aldehyde group at the reducing saccharide end to form a stable amino derivative through reductive amination. This polysaccharide-FTSC derivative was then characterized by GPC, UV, FTIR, photoluminescence and fluorescence microscopy to confirm attachment and any structural changes. The results demonstrated that the labeled ginseng PS nanostructure showed high fluorescence with minimal changes in PS molecular weight. The labeled PS exhibited almost no cytotoxicity effect against tumor induced macrophage cell lines (RAW 264.7) while retaining high immunostimulating activity similar to the non-labeled ginseng PS. Therefore, the developed approach provides a convenient and highly efficient fluorescent labeling procedure for understanding the mechanism of ginseng PS uptake in macrophage cell lines.

Analytical Methods of Phytochemicals from the Genus Gentiana

The genus Gentiana comprises approximately 400 species. Many species have a wide range of pharmacological activities and have been used therapeutically for thousands of years. To provide comprehensive guidance, utilization and quality control of Gentiana species, this review presents updated information concerning the recent application and progress of chemical analysis including phytochemical analysis, sample preparation and chemometrics. Detailed and comprehensive data including number of analytes, extraction/separation methods, analytical techniques and chemometrics are shown as corresponding tables. These data illustrate that the development of newly discovered compounds and therapeutic uses, understanding of the structure-activity relationship and establishment of harmonious and effective medicinal herb standards are the direction of advancement in future research.

A Novel Strategy for Quantitative Analysis of Major Ginsenosides in Panacis Japonici Rhizoma with a Standardized Reference Fraction

Panacis Japonici Rhizoma (Zhu-Jie-Shen in Chinese), the root of P. japonicus C.A. Mey., is commonly used in traditional Chinese Medicine. Saponins are the major bioactive compounds in this herb. The similarity of polarity and structure of the natural products in herb caused the difficulty of purification and resulted in the shortage and high cost of the reference compounds, which has greatly hindered efforts toward quantification in quality control. A novel strategy using a standardized reference fraction for qualification of the major saponins in Panacis Japonici Rhizoma was proposed to easily and effectively control the quality of PJR. The strategy is feasible and reliable, and the methodology of the developed approach is also validated. The standardized reference fraction was used for quantification, which might solve the shortage of the pure reference compounds in the quality control of herbal medicines.