Advances and challenges in liposome digestion: Surface interaction, biological fate, and GIT modeling

Engineering marine phospholipid nanoliposomes via glycerol-infused proliposomes: Mechanisms, strategies, and versatile applications in scalable food-grade nanoliposome production

This study presents a novel approach using polyol-based proliposome to produce marine phospholipids nanoliposomes. Proliposomes were formulated by blending glycerol with phospholipids across varying mass ratios (2:1 to 1:10) at room temperature. Analysis employing polarized light microscopy, FTIR, and DSC revealed that glycerol disrupted the stacked acyl groups within phospholipids, lowering the phase transition temperature (Tm). Krill oil phospholipids (KOP) proliposomes exhibited superior performance in nanoliposomes formation, with a mean diameter of 125.60 ± 3.97 nm, attributed to the decreased Tm (-7.64 and 7.00 °C) compared to soybean phospholipids, along with a correspondingly higher absolute zeta potential (-39.77 ± 1.18 mV). The resulting KOP proliposomes demonstrated liposomes formation stability over six months and under various environmental stresses (dilution, thermal, ionic strength, pH), coupled with in vitro absorption exceeding 90 %. This investigation elucidates the mechanism behind glycerol-formulated proliposomes and proposes innovative strategies for scalable, solvent-free nanoliposome production with implications for functional foods and pharmaceutical applications.

In vitro fermentation reveals an interplay relationship between oat β-glucan and human gut Bacteroides and their potential role in regulating gut cytokines

Dietary oat β-glucan regulates the gut microbial composition and structure; however, the interplay relationship between oat β-glucan and the gut microbiota is unclear. In this study, we aim to investigate the interaction between oat β-glucan and human gut Bacteroides, a versatile carbohydrate utilizer, and explore the effect of their interaction on gut immunity homeostasis. The results of in vitro fermentation showed that oat β-glucan significantly increased the abundance of gut Bacteroides at the genus level. Then, Bacteroides strains were isolated from human gut microbiota and 9 strains of Bacteroides could grow on oat β-glucan and degrade oat β-glucan to reducing sugars. Notably, strains Bacteroides xylanisolvens Bac02 and Bacteroides koreensis Bac08 possessed the strongest degradation capacity towards oat β-glucan. Genome analysis and functional annotations suggested that B. xylanisolvens Bac02 and B. koreensis Bac08 contained abundant genes encoding glycoside hydrolases family 3 (GH3) and GH16, which might be responsible for β-glucan degradation. Moreover, cell experiments revealed that the metabolites from oat β-glucan fermentation by these 9 strains of Bacteroides could regulate the polarization of macrophages and maintain gut immunity homeostasis. Our study provides a novel insight into research on the interplay between dietary compounds and the gut microbiota.

Hyaluronic Acid-Coated Nanoliposomes as Delivery Systems for Fisetin: Stability, Membrane Fluidity, and Bioavailability

Fisetin has shown numerous health benefits, whereas its food application is constrained by water insolubility, poor stability, and low bioaccessibility. This work investigated the potential of hyaluronic acid (HA)-coated nanoliposomes for the encapsulation and delivery of fisetin. It was observed that HA can adsorb onto the liposomal membrane through hydrogen bonding and maintain the spherical shape of nanoliposomes. Fluorescence analysis suggested that the HA coating restricted the motion and freedom of phospholipid molecules in the headgroup region and reduced the interior micropolarity of the nanoliposomes but did not affect the fluidity of the hydrophobic core. These effects were more pronounced for the HA with a low molecular weight (35 kDa) and moderate concentration (0.4%). The HA coating improved the storage and thermal stability of the nanoliposomes, as well as the digestive stability and bioaccessibility of the encapsulated fisetin. These findings could guide the development of HA-coated nanoliposomes for the controlled delivery of hydrophobic bioactives such as fisetin in functional foods.

The astrochemical evolutionary traits of phospholipid membrane homochirality

Compartmentalization is crucial for the evolution of life. Present-day phospholipid membranes exhibit a high level of complexity and species-dependent homochirality, the so-called lipid divide. It is possible that less stable, yet more dynamic systems, promoting out-of-equilibrium environments, facilitated the evolution of life at its early stages. The composition of the preceding primitive membranes and the evolutionary route towards complexity and homochirality remain unexplained. Organics-rich carbonaceous chondrites are evidence of the ample diversity of interstellar chemistry, which may have enriched the prebiotic milieu on early Earth. This Review evaluates the detections of simple amphiphiles - likely ancestors of membrane phospholipids - in extraterrestrial samples and analogues, along with potential pathways to form primitive compartments on primeval Earth. The chiroptical properties of the chiral backbones of phospholipids provide a guide for future investigations into the origins of phospholipid membrane homochirality. We highlight a plausible common pathway towards homochirality of lipids, amino acids, and sugars starting from enantioenriched monomers. Finally, given their high recalcitrance and resistance to degradation, lipids are among the best candidate biomarkers in exobiology.

A Dual-Recognition Fluorescence Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for Specific Detection of Intact Lipid Nanoparticles via a Localized Scaffolding Autocatalytic DNA Circuit Amplifier

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are emerging as one of the most promising drug delivery systems. The long-circulating effect of intact LNPs (i-LNPs) is the key to efficacy and toxicity in vivo. However, the significant challenge is specific and sensitive detection of i-LNPs. Herein, a dual-recognition fluorescence enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DR-FELISA) was developed to directly isolate and detect i-LNPs by combining dual-recognition separation with a one-step signal amplification strategy. The microplates captured and enriched i-LNPs through antibody-antigen reaction. Dual-chol probes were spontaneously introduced into the lipid bilayer of captured i-LNPs, converting the detection of i-LNPs into the detection of double-cholesterol probes. Finally, the end of the dual-chol probes initiated the localized scaffolding autocatalytic DNA circuits (SADC) system for further signal amplification. The SADC system provides a sensitive and efficient amplifier through localized network structures and self-assembled triggers. Simultaneous recognition of i-LNPs surface PEG-lipid and lipid bilayer structures significantly eliminates interference from biological samples. i-LNPs were detected with high selectivity, ranging from 0.2 to 1.25 mg/mL with a limit of detection of 0.1 mg/mL. Moreover, this method allows the isolation and quantitative analysis of different formulations of i-LNPs in serum samples with a satisfactory recovery rate ranging from 94.8 to 116.3%. Thus, the DR-FELISA method provides an advanced platform for the exclusive and sensitive detection of i-LNPs, providing new insights for the study of the quality and intracorporal process of complex formulations.

Development and evaluation of guar gum-coated nano-nutriosomes for cyanidin-3-O-glucoside encapsulation

Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) is a type of water-soluble flavonoid compound that is abundantly found in fruits and vegetables. C3G possesses numerous biological activities, however, it is prone to breakdown under environmental conditions. To overcome these issues, we developed nano-nutriosome (NS) carriers created by vortex-mixing and probe-sonication techniques for C3G encapsulation in which the phospholipid and Nutriose® FB06 were chosen as carrier material, and guar gum (GG) as a coating material to formulate a unilamellar and multicompartment structure. This study aimed to develop and evaluate C3G-loaded nano-nutriosomes coated by GG (GG-C3G-NS) for improving physicochemical stability, antioxidant activity, cellular uptake, and controlled release properties. The C3G-NS and GG-C3G-NS are nanosized (143.47 to 154.13 nm), with high encapsulation efficiency (>93.31 %). The NS carriers successfully encapsulated C3G which was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. C3G showed more stability in storage, thermal, pH, ionic, and oxidative conditions. Furthermore, the NS exhibited a better-controlled release of C3G in different food stimulant conditions and in vitro release study. Additionally, NS systems enhanced cellular uptake and showed no cytotoxicity. Overall, GG-NS could be a promising nanocarrier for improving the stability, controlled release, and antioxidant activity of bioactive compounds.

A recombinant fungal photolyase autonomously enters human cell nuclei to fix UV-induced DNA lesions

Solar ultraviolet radiations induced DNA damages in human skin cells with cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPD) and (6-4) photoproducts (6-4PPs) as the most frequent lesions. CPDs are repaired much slower than 6-4PPs by the nucleotide excision repair pathway, which are thus the major lesions that interfere with key cellular processes and give rise to gene mutations, possibly resulting in skin cancer. In prokaryotes and multicellular eukaryotes other than placental mammals, CPDs can be rapidly repaired by CPD photolyases in one simple enzymatic reaction using the energy of blue light. In this study, we aim to construct recombinant CPD photolyases that can autonomously enter human cell nuclei to fix UV-induced CPDs. A fly cell penetration peptide and a viral nucleus localization signal peptide were recombined with a fungal CPD photolyase to construct a recombinant protein. This engineered CPD photolyase autonomously crosses cytoplasm and nuclear membrane of human cell nuclei, which then efficiently photo-repairs UV-induced CPD lesions in the genomic DNA. This further protects the cells by increasing SOD activity, and decreasing cellular ROSs, malondialdehyde and apoptosis.

Improving physicochemical characteristics and cytotoxicity of baicalin esters by liposome encapsulation

The instability of ester bonds, low water solubility, and increased cytotoxicity of flavonoid glycoside esters significantly limit their application in the food industry. Therefore, the present study attempted to resolve these issues through liposome encapsulation. The results showed that baicalin butyl ester (BEC4) and octyl ester (BEC8) have higher encapsulation and loading efficiencies and lower leakage rate from liposomes than baicalin. FTIR results revealed the location of BEC4 and BEC8 in the hydrophobic layer of liposomes, which was different from baicalin. Additionally, liposome encapsulation improved the water solubility and stability of BEC4 and BEC8 in the digestive system and PBS but significantly reduced their cytotoxicity. Furthermore, the release rate of BEC4 and BEC8 from liposomes was lower than that of baicalin during gastrointestinal digestion. These results indicate that liposome encapsulation alleviated the negative effects of fatty chain introduction into flavonoid glycosides.

Understanding the mechanism of high viscosity food delaying gastric emptying

Controlling the structure and viscosity of food can influence the development of diet-related diseases. Food viscosity has been linked with health through its impact on human digestion and gastrointestinal transit, however, there is limited understanding of how the viscosity of food regulates gastric emptying. Here, we used model food preparations with different viscosities using guar gum, to explore the mechanism underlying the influence of viscosity on gastric motility, gastric emptying and postprandial blood glucose. Based on experiments in human volunteers and animals, we demonstrated that high viscosity meals increased gastric antrum area and gastric retention rate. Viscosity also affected gut hormone secretion, reduced the gene expression level of interstitial cells of Cajal, resulting in a delay of gastric emptying and limiting the increase in postprandial glucose. This improved mechanistic understanding of food viscosity during gastric digestion is important for designing new foods to benefit human health.

Enhancement of the bioavailability of phenolic compounds from fruit and vegetable waste by liposomal nanocarriers

Fruits and vegetables are one of the most consumed and processed commodities globally and comprise abundant phenolic compounds, one of the main nutraceuticals in the food industry. Comparably elevated rates of these compounds are found in waste (peel, seeds, leaf, stem, etc.) in the food processing industry. They are being investigated for their potential use in functional foods. However, phenolic compounds' low bioavailability limits their application, which can be approached by loading the phenolic compounds into an encapsulation system such as liposomal carriers. This review aims to elucidate the recent trend in extracting phenolic compounds from the waste stream and the means to load them in stable liposomes. Furthermore, the application of these liposomes with only natural extracts in food matrices is also presented. Many studies have indicated that liposomes can be a proper candidate for encapsulating and delivering phenolic compounds and as a means to increase their bioavailability.

Chondroitin sulfate and chitosan-coated liposomes as a novel delivery system for betanin: Preparation, characterization and in vitro digestion behavior

Betanin, a water-soluble pigment known for its high bioactivity, is hindered by pH and temperature sensitivity, weak ionic strength, and low bioavailability. In this study, nanoliposome (NPS), chitosan-coated NPS (CNPS), and chondroitin sulfate-chitosan bilayer-modified nanoliposomes (SCNPS) were prepared based on a layer-by-layer electrostatic interaction method for betanin encapsulation. The increase of polymer layers from NPS to SCNPS led to a monotonic increment from 223.57 to 522.33 nm in size, from -27.73 to 16.70 mV in negative charge and from 0.22 to 0.35 in polydispersity index. The chemical stability against pH (ranging from 2 to 10), ionic type (KCl, CaCl2, ALCl3) and ionic strength (100, 500 mM) significantly impacted the appearance and particle size of the double-layered nanoliposome. In vitro digestion experiment showed that SCNPS displayed higher stability and slower betanin release compared to NPS and CNPS. This study demonstrates that betanin can be efficiently encapsulated by SCNPS with improved stability and bioavailability.

Proteosomes based on milk phospholipids and proteins to enhance the stability and bioaccessibility of β-carotene

Proteosomes (P) based on milk fat globule membrane's phospholipids (MPs), whey protein isolate (WPI) and sodium caseinate (CasNa) were developed by ultrasonication to encapsulate β-carotene. Entirely milk-ingredients based proteosomes (WPI-MPs-P and CasNa-MPs-P) revealed homogenous distribution with size diameters < 250 nm. WPI-MPs-P depicted positive ζ-potential values (+15.7 ± 0.5 mV), while CasNa-MPs-P demonstrated negative (-32.5 ± 3.4 mV) values of surface charge, respectively and hydrophilic nature of proteosomes was observed by measuring contact-angle (θ). AFM and SEM exhibited spherical to oval and slightly irregular morphology of nanocarriers. For various concentrations of β-carotene, the highest encapsulation efficiency of β-carotene was 90 ± 0.2% and 92 ± 0.8% in WPI-MPs-P and CasNa-MPs-P respectively. FTIR analyses confirmed the hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions-based encapsulation of β-carotene. Beneficial antioxidant-potential of β-carotene was retained after its encapsulation in the proteosomes. Proteosomes increased the digestive-stability (>50%) and bioaccessibility (>85%) of β-carotene. Thus, milk-ingredients based proteosomes offer a novel-strategy to develop functional dairy products to overcome widespread vitamin-A-deficiency.

Activating the delivery of a model drug to lipid membrane by encapsulation of cyclodextrin: Combined experimental and molecular docking studies

Drug delivery science is always an important topic as it studies the delivery of therapeutic payloads to the desired target cells without affecting the healthy tissues/cells, thus minimizing drug-induced toxicity. Aiming towards the targeted drug delivery, the present project deals with the delivery of a polarity-sensitive solvatochromic model drug, namely, salt of 8-anilinonaphthalene-1-sulphonic acid (ANSA) to the model bio-membrane (which mimic several aspects of the real cell membrane), more precisely at the lipid-water interface of L-α-Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) phospholipid. The drug delivery process has been activated through the binding of dye with cyclodextrin, acting as a drug transporter. Detailed steady-state and time-resolved spectroscopic studies including molecular docking analysis imply the targeted drug delivery of dye, ANSA, towards the lipid-water interface region of lipid bilayers through encapsulation within the cyclodextrin void. Stronger binding interaction of the dye with the lipid bilayers relative to β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) is the foremost reason for the targeted delivery. The present biophysical interaction studies of drug-lipid interaction, thus, may provide a cordial approach for drug formulation and drug delivery.

Colon-targeted delivery of polyphenols: construction principles, targeting mechanisms and evaluation methods

Polyphenols have received considerable attention for their promotive effects on colonic health. However, polyphenols are mostly sensitive to harsh gastrointestinal environments, thus, must be protected. It is necessary to design and develop a colon-targeted delivery system to improve the stability, colon-targeting and bioavailability of polyphenols. This paper mainly introduces research on colon-targeted controlled release of polyphenols. The physiological features affecting the dissolution, release and absorption of polyphenol-loaded delivery systems in the colon are first discussed. Simultaneously, the types of colon-targeted carriers with different release mechanisms are described, and colon-targeting assessment models that have been studied so far and their advantages and limitations are summarized. Based on the current research on polyphenols colon-targeting, outlook and reflections are proposed, with the goal of inspiring strategic development of new colon-targeted therapeutics to ensure that the polyphenols reach the colon with complete bioactivity.

Specific surface modification of liposomes for gut targeting of food bioactive agents

Liposomes have become a research hotspot in recent years as food delivery systems with attractive properties, including the bilayer structure assembled like the cell membrane, reducing the side-effect and improving environmental stability of cargos, controlling release, extending duration of functional ingredients, and high biodegradable and biocompatible abilities in the body. However, the conventional liposomes lack stability during storage and are weak in targeted absorption in the gastrointestinal track. At present, surface modification has been approved to be an effective platform to shield these barricades and help liposomes deliver the agents safely and effectively to the ideal site. In this review, the gastrointestinal stability of conventional liposomes, cargo release models from liposomes, and the biological fate of the core materials after release were emphasized. Then, the strategies in both physical and chemical perspectives to improve the stability and utilization of liposomes in the gastrointestinal tract, and the emerging approaches for improving gut targeting by specifically modified liposomes and the intestinal receptors relative to liposomes/cargos absorption were highlighted. Last but not the least, the safety, challenges, and opportunities for the improvement of liposomal bioavailability were also discussed to inspire new applications of liposomes as oral carriers.

Factors affecting the fate of nanoencapsulates post administration

Nanoencapsulation has found numerous applications in the food and nutraceutical industries. Micro and nanoencapsulated forms of bioactives have proven benefits in terms of stability, release, and performance in the body. However, the encapsulated ingredient is often subjected to a wide range of processing conditions and this is followed by storage, consumption, and transit along the gastrointestinal tract. A strong understanding of the fate of nanoencapsulates in the biological system is mandatory as it provides valuable insights for ingredient selection, formulation, and application. In addition to their efficacy, there is also the need to assess the safety of ingested nanoencapsulates. Given the rising research and commercial focus of this subject, this review provides a strong focus on their interaction factors and mechanisms, highlighting their prospective biological fate. This review also covers various approaches to studying the fate of nanoencapsulates in the body. Also, with emphasis on the overall scope, the need for a new advanced integrated common methodology to evaluate the fate of nanoencapsulates post-administration is discussed.

The crossroad of nanovesicles and oral delivery of insulin

INTRODUCTION

Diabetes mellitus is one of the challenging health problems worldwide. Multiple daily subcutaneous injection of insulin causes poor compliance in patients. Development of efficient oral formulations to improve the quality of life of such patients has been an important goal in pharmaceutical industry. However, due to serious issues such as low bioavailability and instability, it has not been achieved yet.

AREAS COVERED

Due to functional properties of the vesicles and the fact that hepatic-directed vesicles of insulin could reach the clinical phases, we focused on three main vesicular delivery systems for oral delivery of insulin: liposomes, niosomes, and polymersomes. Recent papers were thoroughly discussed to provide a broad overview of such oral delivery systems.

EXPERT OPINION

Although conventional liposomes are unstable in the presence of bile salts, their further modifications such as surface coating could increase their stability in the GI tract. Bilosomes showed good flexibility and stability in GI fluids. Also, niosomes were stable, but they could not induce significant hypoglycemia in animal studies. Although polymersomes were effective, they are expensive and there are some issues about their safety and industrial scale-up. Also, we believe that other modifications such as addition of a targeting agent or surface coating of the vesicles could significantly increase the bioavailability of insulin-loaded vesicles.

Stability of glycosylated complexes loaded with Epigallocatechin 3-gallate (EGCG)

The application of Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) in food industry was limited by its low stability in aqueous solutions and poor bioavailability in vivo. The novel EGCG glycosylated arachin nanoparticles (Ara-CMCS-EGCG) and EGCG glycosylated casein nanoparticles (Cas-CMCS-EGCG) were prepared to improve the stability and bioavailability of EGCG. The effect of different variables on the storage stability and the slow-release behavior of novel glycosylation complexes in nanoparticle background solution and artificial gastrointestinal fluid were investigated. The results showed that the DPPH scavenging activity of Ara-CMCS-EGCG and Cas-CMCS-EGCG were stable in temperature (25 ∼ 70 °C). EGCG could enhance the crosslinking effect of molecular particles in glycosylation complexes solution. The glycosylated protein nanoparticles were stable to acid-base and enzymolysis in simulated gastrointestinal fluid. The release rate of EGCG in simulated intestinal fluid was higher than that in simulated gastric fluid. The glycosylated protein carrier can not only release EGCG slowly, but also significantly improve the stability and bioavailability of EGCG in simulated gastrointestinal fluid.

Gelatin as a bioactive nanodelivery system for functional food applications

Gelatin has long been used as an encapsulant agent in the pharmaceutical and biomedical industries because of its low cost, wide availability, biocompatibility, and degradability. However, the exploitation of gelatin for nanodelivery application is not fully achieved in the functional food filed. In this review article, we highlight the latest work being performed for gelatin-based nanocarriers, including polyelectrolyte complexes, nanoemulsions, nanoliposomes, nanogels, and nanofibers. Specifically, we discuss the applications and challenges of these nanocarriers for stabilization and controlled release of bioactive compounds. To achieve better efficacy, gelatin is frequently used in combination with other biomaterials such as polysaccharides. The fabrication and synergistic effects of the newly developed gelatin composite nanocarriers are also present.

Specific protection mechanism of oligosaccharides on liposomes during freeze-drying

Liposomes have been received much attention during the past decades as bioactive compounds carriers in food field. However, the application of liposomes is extremely limited by the structural instability during processing such as freeze-drying. In addition, the protection mechanism of lyoprotectant for liposomes during freeze-drying remains controversial. In this study, lactose, fructooligosaccharide, inulin and sucrose were used as lyoprotectants for liposomes and the physicochemical properties, structural stability and freeze-drying protection mechanism were explored. The addition of oligosaccharides could significantly suppress the changes in size and zeta potential, and the amorphous state of liposomes was negligible changed from XRD. The T_g of the four oligosaccharides, especially for sucrose (69.50 °C) and lactose (95.67 °C), revealed the freeze-dried liposomes had formed vitrification matrix, which could prevent liposomes from fusion via increasing the viscosity and reducing membrane mobility. The decrease in T_m of sucrose (147.67 °C) and lactose (181.67 °C), and the changes in functional group of phospholipid and hygroscopic capacity of lyophilized liposomes indicated oligosaccharides replaced water molecules to interact with phospholipids by hydrogen bonds. It can be concluded that the protection mechanism of sucrose and lactose as lyoprotectant was attributed to the combination of vitrification theory and water replacement hypothesis, while the water replacement hypothesis was dominated by fructooligosaccharide and inulin.

OSA-starch stabilized EPA nanoliposomes: preparation, characterization, stability and digestion in vitro and in vivo

OSA-starch stabilized EPA nanoliposomes (OSA-EPA-NLs) were prepared by thin film rehydration/dispersion method. The physical properties and morphology of OSA-EPA-NLs were characterized. The best formulated sample was used to measure the storage stability and oxidative properties of EPA under different environmental stresses and to determine release and absorption of OSA-EPA-NLs in vitro and in vivo. The results showed that the encapsulation efficiency of OSA-EPA-NLs was 84.61%. All samples were relatively stable under different environmental stresses, and the release rate of EPA in simulated intestine stage (89.87%) was higher than that in the simulated gastric stage (5.86%). The areas under the EPA concentration-time curve of OSA-EPA-NLs group and EPA-NLs group through in vivo study were 0.42 and 0.32, respectively, which indicated that OSA-starch could improve the stability of EPA nanoliposomes and enhance EPA bioavailability in the form of ethyl esters.

Coating Materials to Increase the Stability of Liposomes

Liposomes carry various compounds with applications in pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic fields, and the administration route is especially parenteral, oral, or transdermal. Liposomes are used to preserve and release the internal components, thus maintaining the properties of the compounds, the stability and shelf life of the encapsulated products, and their functional benefits. The main problem in obtaining liposomes at the industrial level is their low stability due to fragile phospholipid membranes. To increase the stability of liposomes, phospholipid bilayers have been modified or different coating materials have been developed and studied, both for liposomes with applications in the pharmaceutical field and liposomes in the food field. In the cosmetic field, liposomes need no additional coating because the liposomal formulation is intended to have a fast penetration into the skin. The aim of this review is to provide current knowledge regarding physical and chemical factors that influence stability, coating materials for liposomes with applications in the pharmaceutical and food fields to increase the stability of liposomes containing various sensitive compounds, and absorption of the liposomes and commercial liposomal products obtained through various technologies available on the market.

Orally administered octacosanol improves liver insulin resistance in high-fat diet-fed mice through the reconstruction of the gut microbiota structure and inhibition of the TLR4/NF-κB inflammatory pathway

1-Octacosanol (Octa) is reported to possess many physiological properties. However, its relative mechanism has not been illustrated yet. Herein, we aimed to investigate the effect of Octa on insulin resistance in mice fed with a high fat diet (HFD) and used an in vitro simulated gastrointestinal tract to analyze its digestive behavior. The effects of Octa on the gut microbiota were verified by in vitro fermentation using the mouse fecal microbiota. As a result, the Octa monomer was digested into shortened saturated and unsaturated fatty acids (C10-C24) in the simulated gastrointestinal tract. Octa improved the fasting blood glucose (FBG), insulin resistance (IR), plasma lipids, and inflammatory response in HFD-fed mice in a dose-dependent manner. This study also suggested that a high-dose of Octa effectively decreased the levels of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in the plasma of HFD-fed mice. Octa improved the oxidative stress induced by a HFD and increased the expression of the Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway. Importantly, Octa reshaped gut microbiota through decreasing Firmicutes content and increasing Bacteroidota and Verrucomicrobiota contents at the phylum level, and the changes of intestinal flora structure caused by Octa were significantly correlated with the changes of inflammatory biomarkers. In conclusion, the effects of Octa on insulin resistance might be attributed to the reconstruction of the gut microbiota structure and inhibition of the TLR4/NF-κB inflammatory pathway in HFD-induced obese individuals.

Polymer Encapsulated Liposomes for Oral Co-Delivery of Curcumin and Hydroxytyrosol

Curcumin (Cur) is a hydrophobic polyphenol from the rhizome of Curcuma spp., while hydroxytyrosol (HT) is a water-soluble polyphenol from Olea europaea. Both show outstanding antioxidant properties but suffer from scarce bioavailability and low stability in biological fluids. In this work, the co-encapsulation of Cur and HT into liposomes was realized, and the liposomal formulation was improved using polymers to increase their survival in the gastrointestinal tract. Liposomes with different compositions were formulated: Type 1, composed of phospholipids and cholesterol; Type 2, also with a PEG coating; and Type 3 providing an additional shell of Eudragit^® S100, a gastro-resistant polymer. Samples were characterized in terms of size, morphology, ζ-potential, encapsulation efficiency, and loading capacity. All samples were subjected to a simulated in vitro digestion and their stability was investigated. The Eudragit^®S100 coating demonstrated prevention of early releases of HT in the mouth and gastric phases, while the PEG shell reduced bile salts and pancreatin effects during the intestinal digestion. In vitro antioxidant activity showed a cumulative effect for Cur and HT loaded in vesicles. Finally, liposomes with HT concentrations up to 40 μM and Cur up to 4.7 μM, alone or in combination, did not show cytotoxicity against Caco-2 cells.

Fortification by design: A rational approach to designing vitamin D delivery systems for foods and beverages

Over the past few decades, vitamin D deficiency has been recognized as a serious global public health challenge. The World Health Organization has recommended fortification of foods with vitamin D, but this is often challenging because of its low water solubility, poor chemical stability, and low bioavailability. Studies have shown that these challenges can be overcome by encapsulating vitamin D within well-designed delivery systems containing nanoscale or microscale particles. The characteristics of these particles, such as their composition, size, structure, interfacial properties, and charge, can be controlled to attain desired functionality for specific applications. Recently, there has been great interest in the design, production, and application of vitamin-D loaded delivery systems. Many of the delivery systems reported in the literature are unsuitable for widespread application due to the complexity and high costs of the processing operations required to fabricate them, or because they are incompatible with food matrices. In this article, the concept of "fortification by design" is introduced, which involves a systematic approach to the design, production, and testing of colloidal delivery systems for the encapsulation and fortification of oil-soluble vitamins, using vitamin D as a model. Initially, the challenges associated with the incorporation of vitamin D into foods and beverages are reviewed. The fortification by design concept is then described, which involves several steps: (i) selection of appropriate vitamin D form; (ii) selection of appropriate food matrix; (iii) identification of appropriate delivery system; (iv) identification of appropriate production method; (vii) establishment of appropriate testing procedures; and (viii) system optimization.

Nanoliposome based biosensors for probing mycotoxins and their applications for food: A review

Mycotoxins are the most common feed and food contaminants affecting animals and humans, respectively; continuous exposure causes tremendous health problems such as kidney disorders, infertility, immune suppression, liver inflammation, and cancer. Consequently, their control and quantification in food materials is crucial. Biosensors are potential tools for the rapid detection and quantification of mycotoxins with high sensitivity and selectivity. Nanoliposomes (NLs) are vesicular carriers formed by self-assembling phospholipids that surround the aqueous cores. Utilizing their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and high carrying capacity, researchers have employed NLs in biosensors for monitoring various targets in biological and food samples. The NLs are used for surface modification, signal marker delivery, and detection of toxins, bacteria, pesticides, and diseases. Here, we review marker-entrapped NLs used in the development of NL-based biosensors for mycotoxins. These biosensors are sensitive, selective, portable, and cost-effective analytical tools, and the resulting signal can be produced and/or amplified with or without destroying the NLs. In addition, this review emphasizes the benefits of the immunoliposome method in comparison with traditional detection approaches. We expect this review to serve as a valuable reference for researchers in this rapidly growing field. The insights provided may facilitate the rational design of next-generation NL-based biosensors.

Preparation of Gum Arabic-Maltose-Pea Protein Isolate Complexes for 1-Octacosanol Microcapsule: Improved Storage Stability, Sustained Release in the Gastrointestinal Tract, and Its Effect on the Lipid Metabolism of High-Fat-Diet-Induced Obesity Mice

1-Octacosanol (Octa) is a natural compound with several beneficial properties. However, its poor water solubility and metabolism in the digestive tract reduce its efficacy. The Octa-GA-Malt-PPI microcapsule was prepared as follows: gum Arabic (GA):maltose (Malt):pea protein isolate (PPI) = 2:1:2; core:shell = 1:7.5; emulsification temperature 70 °C; pH 9.0. An in vitro simulated gastrointestinal tract was used to analyze the digestion behavior. C57BL/6 mice were selected to establish an obesity model induced by a high-fat diet (HFD) to evaluate the effect of Octa monomer and the microcapsule. The diffusivity in water and storage stability of Octa improved after encapsulation. The microcapsule was ascribed to electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interactions. The sustained release of Octa from the microcapsule was observed in a simulated gastrointestinal tract. Compared with Octa monomer, the microcapsule was more effective in alleviating the symptoms of weight gain, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia induced by HFD in mice. In conclusion, the construction of microcapsule structure can improve the dispersibility and stability of Octa in water, achieve sustained release of Octa in the gastrointestinal tract, and improve its efficiency in alleviating the effects of HFD on the body.

Trends in Drug Delivery Systems for Natural Bioactive Molecules to Treat Health Disorders: The Importance of Nano-Liposomes

Drug delivery systems are believed to increase pharmaceutical efficacy and the therapeutic index by protecting and stabilizing bioactive molecules, such as protein and peptides, against body fluids' enzymes and/or unsuitable physicochemical conditions while preserving the surrounding healthy tissues from toxicity. Liposomes are biocompatible and biodegradable and do not cause immunogenicity following intravenous or topical administration. Still, their most important characteristic is the ability to load any drug or complex molecule uncommitted to its hydrophobic or hydrophilic character. Selecting lipid components, ratios and thermo-sensitivity is critical to achieve a suitable nano-liposomal formulation. Nano-liposomal surfaces can be tailored to interact successfully with target cells, avoiding undesirable associations with plasma proteins and enhancing their half-life in the bloodstream. Macropinocytosis-dynamin-independent, cell-membrane-cholesterol-dependent processes, clathrin, and caveolae-independent mechanisms are involved in liposome internalization and trafficking within target cells to deliver the loaded drugs to modulate cell function. A successful translation from animal studies to clinical trials is still an important challenge surrounding the approval of new nano-liposomal drugs that have been the focus of investigations. Precision medicine based on the design of functionalized nano-delivery systems bearing highly specific molecules to drive therapies is a promising strategy to treat degenerative diseases.

Brain Targeting of Citicoline Sodium via Hyaluronic Acid-Decorated Novel Nano-Transbilosomes for Mitigation of Alzheimer's Disease in a Rat Model: Formulation, Optimization, in vitro and in vivo Assessment

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the furthermost advanced neurodegenerative disorders resulting in cognitive and behavioral impairment. Citicoline sodium (CIT) boosts the brain's secretion of acetylcholine, which aids in membrane regeneration and repair. However, it suffers from poor blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeation, which results in lower levels of CIT in the brain.

PURPOSE

This study targeted to encapsulate CIT into novel nano-platform transbilosomes decorated with hyaluronic acid CIT-HA*TBLs to achieve enhanced drug delivery from the nose to the brain.

METHODS

A method of thin-film hydration was utilized to prepare different formulae of CIT-TBLs using the Box-Behnken design. The optimized formula was then hyuloranated via integration of HA to form the CIT-HA*TBLs formula. Furthermore, AD induction was performed by aluminum chloride (Alcl3), animals were allocated, and brain hippocampus tissue was isolated for ELISA and qRT-PCR analysis of malondialdehyde (MDA), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB), and microRNA-137 (miR-137) coupled with immunohistochemical amyloid-beta (Aβ1-42) expression and histopathological finding.

RESULTS

The hyuloranated CIT-HA*TBLs formula, which contained the following ingredients: PL (300 mg), Sp 60 (43.97 mg), and SDC (20 mg). They produced spherical droplets at the nanoscale (178.94 ±12.4 nm), had a high entrapment efficiency with 74.92± 5.54%, had a sustained release profile of CIT with 81.27 ±3.8% release, and had ex vivo permeation of CIT with 512.43±19.58 μg/cm2. In vivo tests showed that CIT-HA*TBL thermogel dramatically reduces the hippocampus expression of miR-137 and (Aβ1-42) expression, boosting cholinergic neurotransmission and decreasing MDA and NF-kB production. Furthermore, CIT-HA*TBLs thermogel mitigate histopathological damage in compared to the other groups.

CONCLUSION

Succinctly, the innovative loading of CIT-HA*TBLs thermogel is a prospectively invaluable intranasal drug delivery system that can raise the efficacy of CIT in Alzheimer's management.

Nanovesicles-Mediated Drug Delivery for Oral Bioavailability Enhancement

Bioavailability is an eternal topic that cannot be circumvented by peroral drug delivery. Adequate blood drug exposure after oral administration is a prerequisite for effective treatment. Nanovesicles as pleiotropic oral vehicles can solubilize, encapsulate, stabilize an active ingredient and promote the payload absorption via various mechanisms. Vesicular systems with nanoscale size, such as liposomes, niosomes and polymersomes, provide a versatile platform for oral delivery of drugs with distinct nature. The amphiphilicity of vesicles in structure allows hydrophilic and lipophilic molecule(s) either or both to be loaded, being encapsulated in the aqueous cavity or the inner core, respectively. Depending on high oral transport efficiency based on their structural flexibility, gastrointestinal stability, biocompatibility, and/or intestinal epithelial affinity, nanovesicles can markedly augment the oral bioavailability of various poorly absorbed drugs. Vesicular drug delivery systems (VDDSs) demonstrate a lot of preferences and are becoming more prominent of late years in biomedical applications. Equally, these systems can potentiate a drug's therapeutic index by ameliorating the oral absorption. This review devotes to comment on various VDDSs with special emphasis on the peroral drug delivery. The classification of nanovesicles, preparative processes, intestinal transport mechanisms, in vivo fate, and design rationale were expounded. Knowledge on vesicles-mediated oral drug delivery for bioavailability enhancement has been properly provided. It can be concluded that VDDSs with many merits will step into an energetic arena in oral drug delivery.

Liposomes as Delivery System for Applications in Meat Products

In the meat industry, microbial contamination, and lipid and protein oxidation are important factors for quality deterioration. Although natural preservatives have been widely used in various meat products, their biological activities are often reduced due to their volatility, instability, and easy degradation. Liposomes as an amphiphilic delivery system can be used to encapsulate food active compounds, which can improve their stability, promote antibacterial and antioxidant effects and further extend the shelf life of meat products. In this review, we mainly introduce liposomes and methods of their preparation including conventional and advanced techniques. Meanwhile, the main current applications of liposomes and biopolymer-liposome hybrid systems in meat preservation are presented.

Recent Advances in Oral Peptide or Protein-Based Drug Liposomes

The high physiology and low toxicity of therapeutic peptides and proteins have made them a hot spot for drug development in recent years. However, their poor oral bioavailability and unstable metabolism make their clinical application difficult. The bilayer membrane of liposomes provides protection for the drug within the compartment, and their high biocompatibility makes the drug more easily absorbed by the body. However, phospholipids—which form the membranes—are subjected to various digestive enzymes and mucosal adhesion in the digestive tract and disintegrate before absorption. Improvements in the composition of liposomes or modifying their surface can enhance the stability of the liposomes in the gastrointestinal tract. This article reviews the basic strategies for liposome preparation and surface modification that promote the oral administration of therapeutic polypeptides.

Cosmetic-Derived Mannosylerythritol Lipid-B-Phospholipid Nanoliposome: An Acid-Stabilized Carrier for Efficient Gastromucosal Delivery of Amoxicillin for In Vivo Treatment of Helicobacter pylori

Helicobacter pylori infection is a leading cause of gastritis and peptic ulcer. Current treatments for H. pylori are limited by the increase in antibiotic-resistant strains and low drug delivery to the infection site, indicating the need for effective delivery systems of antibiotics. Although liposomes are the most successful drug delivery carriers that have already been applied commercially, their acidic stability still stands as a problem. Herein, we developed a novel nanoliposome using cosmetic raw materials of mannosylerythritol lipid-B (MEL-B), soy bean lecithin, and cholesterol, namely, LipoSC-MELB. LipoSC-MELB exhibited enhanced stability under the simulated gastric-acid condition, owing to its strong intermolecular hydrogen-bond interactions caused by the incorporation of MEL-B. Moreover, amoxicillin-loaded LipoSC-MELB (LipoSC-MELB/AMX) had a particle size of approximately 100 nm and exhibited sustained drug release under varying pH conditions (pH 3-7). Besides, LipoSC-MELB/AMX exhibited significantly higher anti-H. pylori and anti-H. pylori biofilm activity as compared with free AMX. Furthermore, LipoSC-MELB was able to carry AMX across the barriers of gastric mucus and H. pylori biofilms. Remarkably, in vivo assays indicated that LipoSC-MELB/AMX was effective in treating H. pylori infection and its associated gastritis and gastric ulcers. Overall, the findings of this study showed that LipoSC-MELB was effective for gastromucosal delivery of amoxicillin to improve its bioavailability for the treatment of H. pylori infection.

Effects of Marine Bioactive Compounds on Gut Ecology Based on In Vitro Digestion and Colonic Fermentation Models

Digestion and the absorption of food compounds are necessary steps before nutrients can exert a role in human health. The absorption and utilization of nutrients in the diet is an extremely complex dynamic process. Accurately grasping the digestion and absorption mechanisms of different nutrients or bioactive compounds can provide a better understanding regarding the relationship between health and nutrition. Several in vitro models for simulating human gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation have been established to obtain more accurate data for further understanding of the metabolism of dietary components. Marine media is rich in a wide variety of nutrients that are essential for humans and is gaining increased attention as a research topic. This review summarizes some of the most explored in vitro digestion and colonic fermentation models. It also summarizes the research progress on the digestion and absorption of nutrients and bioactive compounds from marine substrates when subjected to these in vitro models. Additionally, an overview of the changes imparted by the digestion process on these bioactive compounds is provided, in order to support those marine resources that can be utilized for developing new healthy foods.

Smart active-targeting of lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles for therapeutic applications: Recent advances and challenges

The advances in producing multifunctional lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNs) by combining the biomimetic behavior of liposomes and architectural advantages of polymers have provided great opportunities for selective and efficient therapeutics delivery. The constructed LPHNs exhibit different therapeutic efficacies for special uses based on characteristics of different excipients. However, the high mechanical/structural stability of hybrid nano-systems could be viewed as both a negative property and a positive feature, where the concomitant release of drug molecules in a controllable manner is required. In addition, difficulties in scaling up the LPHNs production, due to involvement of several criteria, limit their application for biomedical fields, especially in monitoring, bioimaging, and drug delivery. To address these challenges bio-modifications have exhibited enormous potential to prepare reproducible LPHNs for site-specific therapeutics delivery, diagnostic and preventative applications. The ever-growing surface bio-functionality has provided continuous vitality to this biotechnology and has also posed desirable biosafety to nanoparticles (NPs). As a proof-of-concept, this manuscript provides a crucial review of coated lipid and polymer NPs displaying excellent surface functionality and architectural advantages. We also provide a description of structural classifications and production methodologies, as well as the biomedical possibilities and translational obstacles in the development of surface modified nanocarrier technology.

Development of Geraniol-Loaded Liposomal Nanoformulations against Salmonella Colonization in the Pig Gut

Salmonella is a global health threat, with pig production being one of the main sources of human salmonellosis. The current study investigated the antivirulence properties of geraniol for inhibiting the in vitro colonization of Salmonella. The minimum inhibitory (MIC) and bactericidal concentrations (MBC) of geraniol against Salmonella typhimurium followed by the sub-MIC of geraniol were determined. Results provided clear evidence that geraniol at 1/8 MIC can be used as an effective, non-toxic antivirulence compound to inhibit virulence factors (motility, adhesion, and invasiveness) affecting the colonization of S. typhimurium on IPEC-J2 cells. Additionally, the findings signified that microfluidics is an emerging technology suitable for the preparation of stable liposomes with a small size (<200 nm) and high encapsulation efficiency (EE) of up to 92.53%, which can act as effective carriers of geraniol into the pig gastrointestinal tract (GIT), targeting Salmonella, preventing colonization, and thus increasing the safety of the food supply chain.

Treating Pulmonary Fibrosis with Non-Viral Gene Therapy: From Bench to Bedside

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic, progressive lung disease characterized by irreversible lung scarring, which achieves almost 80% five-year mortality rate. Undeniably, commercially available pharmaceuticals, such as pirfenidone and nintedanib, exhibit certain effects on improving the well-being of IPF patients, but the stubbornly high mortality still indicates a great urgency of developing superior therapeutics against this devastating disease. As an emerging strategy, gene therapy brings hope for the treatment of IPF by precisely regulating the expression of specific genes. However, traditional administration approaches based on viruses severely restrict the clinical application of gene therapy. Nowadays, non-viral vectors are raised as potential strategies for in vivo gene delivery, attributed to their low immunogenicity and excellent biocompatibility. Herein, we highlight a variety of non-viral vectors, such as liposomes, polymers, and proteins/peptides, which are employed in the treatment of IPF. By respectively clarifying the strengths and weaknesses of the above candidates, we would like to summarize the requisite features of vectors for PF gene therapy and provide novel perspectives on design-decisions of the subsequent vectors, hoping to accelerate the bench-to-bedside pace of non-viral gene therapy for IPF in clinical setting.

Digestive Characteristics of Hericium erinaceus Polysaccharides and Their Positive Effects on Fecal Microbiota of Male and Female Volunteers During in vitro Fermentation

Hericium erinaceus polysaccharides (HEPs) have attracted widespread attention in regulating gut microbiota (GM). To investigate digestibility and fermentation of HEPs and their effects on GM composition, three polysaccharide fractions, namely, HEP-30, HEP-50, and HEP-70, were fractionally precipitated with 30%, 50%, and 70% ethanol concentrations (v/v) from hot water-soluble extracts of Hericium erinaceus, respectively. Three kinds of prepared HEPs were structurally characterized and simulated gastrointestinal digestion, and their effects on human fecal microbiota fermentations of male and female and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production in vitro were clarified. Under digestive conditions simulating saliva, stomach, and small intestine, HEPs were not significantly influenced and safely reached the distal intestine. After 24 h of in vitro fermentation, the content of SCFAs was significantly enhanced (p < 0.05), and the retention rates of total and reducing sugars and pH value were significantly decreased (p < 0.05). Thus, HEPs could be utilized by GM, especially HEP-50, and enhanced the relative abundance of SCFA-producing bacteria, e.g., Bifidobacterium, Faecalibacterium, Blautia, Butyricicoccus, and Lactobacillus. Furthermore, HEPs reduced the relative abundances of opportunistic pathogenic bacteria, e.g., Escherichia-Shigella, Klebsiella, and Enterobacter. This study suggests that gradual ethanol precipitation is available for the preparation of polysaccharides from Hericium erinaceus, and the extracted polysaccharide could be developed as functional foods with great development value.

Recent advance of <i>in vitro</i> models in natural phytochemicals absorption and metabolism

Natural phytochemicals absorption and metabolic process are mainly in the human gut. Simulating the absorption and metabolism of natural phytochemicals in vitro to predict the rate and degree of absorption of natural phytochemicals provides convenience for many researchers. However, in this process, many physiological factors <i>in vitro</i> are affected, such as stomach and intestinal juice composition, pH, intestinal transmission rate and so on. In recent years, the research methods have gradually improved to make these models more suitable for the natural phytochemicals absorption process, <i>in vitro</i> simulation models have become an essential means to study natural phytochemicals absorption. Therefore, this paper introduces the advantages and disadvantages of commonly used <i>in vitro</i> simulation models of natural phytochemicals absorption and metabolism, as well as briefly introduces the working principle of each model. To provide a theoretical basis for simulating natural phytochemicals absorption <i>in vitro</i> and development and utilization of natural phytochemicals.

High throughput onion-like liposome formation with efficient protein encapsulation under flash antisolvent mixing

Achieving a high encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity of proteins in lecithin-based liposomes has always been a challenge. Here, we use Flash Nano-Precipitation (FNP) to produce liposomes and investigated the encapsulation of model protein (Bovine Serum Albumin, BSA). Through rapid turbulent mixing, we obtained liposomes with small size, low polydispersity, and good batch repeatability at a high production rate. We demonstrated that the bilayer of liposomes prepared solely using lecithin was defective, which led to the fusion, and increased size and polydispersity. When cholesterol was added to reach a lecithin-to-cholesterol molar ratio of 5:3, a compact bilayer formed to effectively inhibit liposome fusion. The encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity of BSA was as high as ∼ 68% and ∼ 6% in lecithin-cholesterol liposome, respectively, far exceeding the values reported in the literature. Further study by Quartz Crystal Microbalance with Dissipation (QCM-D) revealed that the highly effective encapsulation was due to the rapid mutual adsorption between BSA and defective/curved lecithin double layers during the liposome formation. Such rapid mutual adsorption leads to the layer-by-layer assembly and formation of onion-like compact liposome structure as revealed by Cryo-TEM. This simple FNP method provides a scalable manufacturing approach for liposomes with efficient protein encapsulation. The revealed adsorption mechanism between protein and lecithin bilayers could also serve as a guide for similar studies.

Storage Stability and In Vitro Bioaccessibility of Liposomal Betacyanins from Red Pitaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus)

In order to address the poor stability of the betacyanins from red pitaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus, HP), which are considered as good sources of natural colorant, liposomal-encapsulation technique was applied in this study. Thin-layer dispersion method was employed to prepare HP betacyacnin liposomes (HPBL). The formulation parameters for HPBL were optimized, and the characteristics, stability, and release profile of HPBL in in vitro gastrointestinal systems were evaluated.Results showed that an HP betacyanin encapsulation efficiency of 93.43 ± 0.11% was obtained after formulation optimization. The HPBL exhibited a narrow size distribution of particle within a nanometer range and a strong electronegative ζ-potential. By liposomal encapsulation, storage stability of HP betacyanin was significantly enhanced in different storage temperatures. When the environmental pH ranged from 4.3–7.0, around 80% of HP betacyanins were preserved on Day 21 with the liposomal protection. The loss of 2,2′-Diphenyl-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activity and color deterioration of HPBL were developed in accordance with the degradation of HP betacyanins during storage. In in vitro gastrointestinal digestion study, with the protection of liposome, the retention rates of HP betacyanins in vitro were enhanced by 14% and 40% for gastric and intestinal digestion, respectively.This study suggested that liposomal encapsulation was an effective approach to stabilize HP betacyanins during storage and gastrointestinal digestion, but further investigations were needed to better optimize the liposomal formulation and understand the complex liposomal system.

Starch structure and nutritional functionality - Past revelations and future prospects

Starch exists naturally as insoluble semi-crystalline granules assembled by amylose and amylopectin. Acknowledging the pioneers, we have reviewed the major accomplishments in the area of starch structure from the early 18th century and further established the relation of starch structure to nutritional functionality. Although a huge array of work is reported in the area, the review identified that some features of starch are still not fully understood and needs further elucidation. With the rise of diet-related diseases, it has never been more important to understand starch structure and use that knowledge to improve the nutritional value of the world's principal energy source.