Elimination of hepatitis C in Europe: can WHO targets be achieved?

Reducing barriers to the hepatitis C care cascade in prison via point-of-care RNA testing: a qualitative exploration of men in prison using an integrated framework

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is highly prevalent within the prison setting. Although HCV testing and treatment are available within prisons, system barriers can impede progress along the HCV care cascade for those who are incarcerated. The PIVOT intervention used a 'one-stop-shop' model (i.e. point-of-care HCV RNA testing, Fibroscan-based liver disease assessment and treatment) at a reception prison in New South Wales, Australia. This analysis sought to understand the role of point-of-care HCV RNA testing at intake in reducing barriers to the HCV care cascade within the male prison setting.

DESIGN AND SETTING

Qualitative analysis using semi-structured interviews in a reception prison in Australia.

PARTICIPANTS

Twenty-four men enrolled in the PIVOT study; all participants had undergone HCV point-of-care testing in the intervention arm.

MEASUREMENTS

Høj's Integrated Framework informed this analysis.

FINDINGS

Participants widely expressed the view that point-of-care HCV RNA testing on entry was beneficial for care engagement. Point-of-care testing was perceived as timely (compared with standard pathology) and reduced opportunities for adjudication by correctional officers due to fewer clinic visits for testing and results. Adoption of routine opt-out testing at prison intake was regarded as an important strategy for normalising HCV testing (and likely to increase pathways to treatment uptake) and fostered patient candidacy (i.e. self-perceived eligibility to access care).

CONCLUSION

Twenty-four men in prison in New South Wales, Australia, who underwent opt-out point-of-care HCV RNA testing on entry into prison, widely supported the programme as a means of overcoming barriers to HCV testing and treatment in the prison setting, as well as providing public health benefits through early detection of HCV infection among people entering into custody.

Collaborative Referral Model to Achieve Hepatitis C Micro-Elimination in Methadone Maintenance Treatment Patients during the COVID-19 Pandemic

Although hepatitis C virus (HCV) prevails in patients receiving methadone maintenance treatment (MMT), most do not receive anti-HCV therapy. This single-center observational study aimed to achieve HCV micro-elimination at an MMT center during the COVID-19 pandemic using a collaborative referral model, which comprised a referral-for-diagnosis stage (January 2020 to August 2020) and an on-site-diagnosis stage (September 2020 to January 2021). A multidisciplinary team was established and all MMT center patients were enrolled. HCV micro-elimination was defined as >90% of HCV-infected patients diagnosed and >80% of HCV-viremic patients treated. A total of 305 MMT patients, including 275 (90.2%) anti-HCV seropositive patients, were enrolled. Among 189 HCV-infected patients needing referral, the accumulative percentage receiving HCV RNA testing increased from 93 (49.2%) at referral-for-diagnosis stage to 168 (88.9%) at on-site-diagnosis stage. Among 138 HCV-viremic patients, the accumulative percentage receiving direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy increased from 77 (55.8%) at referral-for-diagnosis stage to 129 (93.5%) at on-site-diagnosis stage. We achieved an HCV RNA testing rate of 92.4% (254/275), an HCV treatment rate of 95.8% (203/212) and a sustained virological response rate of 94.1% (191/203). The collaborative referral model is highly effective in HCV RNA testing and HCV treatment uptake among MMT patients, achieving HCV micro-elimination.

Role of Exosomes in Chronic Liver Disease Development and Their Potential Clinical Applications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are vesicular bodies (40-1000 nm) with double-layer membrane structures released by different cell types into extracellular environments, including apoptosis bodies, microvesicles, and exosomes. Exosomes (30-100 nm) are vesicles enclosed by extracellular membrane and contain effective molecules of secretory cells. They are derived from intracellular multivesicular bodies (MVBs) that fuse with the plasma membrane and release their intracellular vesicles by exocytosis. Research has shown that almost all human cells could secrete exosomes, which have a certain relationship with corresponding diseases. In chronic liver diseases, exosomes release a variety of bioactive components into extracellular spaces, mediating intercellular signal transduction and materials transport. Moreover, exosomes play a role in the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of various chronic liver diseases as potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets. Previous studies have found that mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-ex) could alleviate acute and chronic liver injury and have the advantages of high biocompatibility and low immunogenicity. In this paper, we briefly summarize the role of exosomes in the pathogenesis of different chronic liver diseases and the latest research progresses of MSC-ex as the clinical therapeutic targets.

Reaching hardly reached people who use drugs: a community-based strategy for the elimination of hepatitis C

Background

Elimination of HCV among people who use drugs (PWUD) remains a challenge even in countries in which HCV care is provided free of cost. We assessed whether an innovative community-based respondent-driven sampling (RDS) survey, coupled with HCV screening and immediate treatment, could be efficient to detect and cure active PWUD with chronic HCV in a large city of Southern France.

Methods

At a community site with peers, PWUD (cannabis not included) were enrolled after confirmation by a urine drug test. Participants were then screened for HBV/HCV/HIV and benefited from on-site HCV treatment evaluation and prescription. Peer support was provided during treatment, and a systematic visit was scheduled 12 weeks after the end of treatment. The cost of the intervention was estimated.

Results

554 participants were enrolled. Most were male (78.8%) with a median age of 39 years (IQR: 33-46). Cocaine (73.1%) and heroine (46.8%) were the main drugs consumed. Overall, 32.6% of PWUD (N = 181) were HCV seropositive, of which 49 (27.1%) had detectable HCV RNA and were thus eligible for treatment. Ten of these patients had severe fibrosis. HCV treatment was initiated for 37 (75.5%) patients among whom 30 (81.1%) completed their treatment and 27 (73.0%) achieved sustained viral response at week 12. The total cost was 161€ per screened patient and 1,816€ per patient needing treatment.

Conclusions

Community-based RDS survey approach, involving peers, proved efficient and cost-effective to reach and cure PWUD for HCV. This innovative strategy could be key for the final step of HCV elimination.

Laboratory Profile of COVID-19 Patients with Hepatitis C-Related Liver Cirrhosis

Patients with cirrhosis are known to have multiple comorbidities and impaired organ system functioning due to alterations caused by chronic liver failure. In the past two years, since the COVID-19 pandemic started, several studies have described the affinity of SARS-CoV-2 with the liver and biliary cells. Considering hepatitis C as a significant independent factor for cirrhosis in Romania, this research was built on the premises that this certain group of patients is susceptible to alterations of their serum parameters that are yet to be described, which might be useful in the management of COVID-19 in these individuals. A retrospective cohort study was developed at a tertiary hospital for infectious disease in Romania, which included a total of 242 patients with hepatitis C cirrhosis across two years, out of which 46 patients were infected with SARS-CoV-2. Stratification by patient weight and COVID-19 status identified several important laboratory serum tests as predictors for acute-on-chronic liver failure and risk for intensive care unit admission. Thus, white blood cell count, lymphocyte count, ferritin, hypoglycemia, prothrombin time, and HCV viral load were independent risk factors for ACLF in patients with COVID-19. High PT, creatinine, BUN, and HCV viral load were the strongest predictors for ICU admission. Inflammatory markers and parameters of gas exchange were also observed as risk factors for ACLF and ICU admission, including procalcitonin, CRP, IL-6, and D-dimers. Our study questions and confirms the health impact of COVID-19 on patients with cirrhosis and whether their laboratory profile significantly changes due to SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Hepatitis C virus: A critical approach to who really needs treatment

Introduction of effective drugs in the treatment of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has prompted the World Health Organization to declare a global eradication target by 2030. Propositions have been made to screen the general population and treat all HCV carriers irrespective of the disease status. A year ago the new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 virus appeared causing a worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 disease. Huge financial resources were redirected, and the pandemic became the first priority in every country. In this review, we examined the feasibility of the World Health Organization elimination program and the actual natural course of HCV infection. We also identified and analyzed certain comorbidity factors that may aggravate the progress of HCV and some marginalized subpopulations with characteristics favoring HCV dissemination. Alcohol consumption, HIV coinfection and the presence of components of metabolic syndrome including obesity, hyperuricemia and overt diabetes were comorbidities mostly responsible for increased liver-related morbidity and mortality of HCV. We also examined the significance of special subpopulations like people who inject drugs and males having sex with males. Finally, we proposed a different micro-elimination screening and treatment program that can be implemented in all countries irrespective of income. We suggest that screening and treatment of HCV carriers should be limited only in these particular groups.

Worldwide prevalence, genotype distribution and management of hepatitis C

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is one of the leading causes of chronic liver disease, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma, resulting in major global public health concerns. The HCV infection is unevenly distributed worldwide, with variations in prevalence across and within countries. The studies on molecular epidemiology conducted in several countries provide an essential supplement for a comprehensive knowledge of HCV epidemiology, genotypes, and subtypes, along with providing information on the impact of current and earlier migratory flows. HCV is phylogenetically classified into 8 major genotypes and 57 subtypes. HCV genotype and subtype distribution differ according to geographic origin and transmission risk category. Unless people with HCV infection are detected and treated appropriately, the number of deaths due to the disease will continue to increase. In 2015, 1.75 million new viral infections were mostly due to unsafe healthcare procedures and drug use injections. In the same year, access to direct-acting antivirals was challenging and varied in developing and developed countries, affecting HCV cure rates based on their availability. The World Health Assembly, in 2016, approved a global strategy to achieve the elimination of the HCV public health threat by 2030 (by reducing new infections by 90% and deaths by 65%). Globally, countries are implementing policies and measures to eliminate HCV risk based on their distribution of genotypes and prevalence.

Implementation of Microelimination Strategy in Eradication of Chronic Hepatitis C Infection in Patients with Hemophilia in the Northern region of Serbia: Is Eradication Possible?

Background

Treating HCV in people with hemophilia prevents the development of end-stage liver disease (ESLD) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and greatly increases the quality of life for people living with hemophilia. There are many obstacles in reaching the WHO goal of globally eradicating HCV by 2030, mainly its scale, complexity, and implementation. That is why many countries have implemented a micro-elimination strategy: a pragmatic elimination approach in populations with the most efficacy. The aim of this publication is to present the morbidity and mortality rates, the clinical course and treatment outcomes of chronic HCV infection in people with hemophilia (PwH), as well as to show an example of a successfully conducted HCV micro-elimination strategy among people with hemophilia in the Province of Vojvodina.

Methods

A retrospective, single-center study, performed using medical documentation of all registered PwH in the Clinical Center of Vojvodina from 1994. until 2020. It included 74 hemophilia patients, out of which 32 were patients with hemophilia and chronic HCV infection.

Results

The mean age of HCV-positive positive people with hemophilia (PwH) was 42.3 years, with the duration of infection of 30–35 years. Co-infection with HIV was observed in 6.25% of cases. Furthermore, 18.75% of patients had spontaneous HCV elimination, and 75% were treated with antiviral protocols. Cirrhosis developed in 21.87% with an incidence rate of 0.6 per 100 patient-years. After treatment with Pegylated IFN and ribavirin (RBV), 58.3% achieved SVR. Side effects of IFN-based therapy regimens were recorded in 20.8% of treated (PwH). In 37.5% PWH, DAA protocols were administered, and these patients achieved SVR. HCV- PwH have a statistically higher mortality rate than non-infected people with hemophilia. Among the HCV-positive PwH, hemophilia-related deaths were 6.25%, and HCV-related deaths were 9.37%. Currently, in the Registry of PwH in Vojvodina, there are no patients with active HCV infection.

Conclusion

The micro-elimination strategy in the subpopulation of PwH was successfully implemented in Vojvodina by hematologists and infectious diseases specialists in close collaboration.

Viral hepatitis update: Progress and perspectives

Viral hepatitis, secondary to infection with hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E viruses, are a major public health problem and an important cause of morbidity and mortality. Despite the huge medical advances achieved in recent years, there are still points of conflict concerning the pathogenesis, immune response, development of new and more effective vaccines, therapies, and treatment. This review focuses on the most important research topics that deal with issues that are currently being solved, those that remain to be solved, and future research directions. For hepatitis A virus we will address epidemiology, molecular surveillance, new susceptible populations as well as environmental and food detections. In the case of hepatitis B virus, we will discuss host factors related to disease, diagnosis, therapy, and vaccine improvement. On hepatitis C virus, we will focus on pathogenesis, immune response, direct action antivirals treatment in the context of solid organ transplantation, issues related to hepatocellular carcinoma development, direct action antivirals resistance due to selection of resistance-associated variants, and vaccination. Regarding hepatitis D virus, we describe diagnostic methodology, pathogenesis, and therapy. Finally, for hepatitis E virus, we will address epidemiology (including new emerging species), diagnosis, clinical aspects, treatment, the development of a vaccine, and environmental surveillance.

Development of a deep eutectic solvent-based ultrasound-assisted homogenous liquid-liquid microextraction method for simultaneous extraction of daclatasvir and sofosbuvir from urine samples

An ultrasound-assisted homogenous liquid-liquid microextraction method using a new deep eutectic solvent was proposed for the extraction of daclatasvir and sofosbuvir from urine. The analytes were determined by high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector. The deep eutectic solvent was prepared by mixing p-aminophenol with tetrabutyl ammonium chloride. It was used in the extraction procedure as an extraction solvent. The amine group in structure of the prepared deep eutectic solvent led to its various solubility in different pHs. In this method, urine sample was placed in a glass test tube and then mixed with sodium chloride and its temperature adjusted at 50 °C. Then, the deep eutectic solvent was dissolved in the solution by manually shaking. In the following, an ammonia solution was added to the solution and the mixture was sonicated for 4 min. After centrifugation, an aliquat of the sedimented phase was injected into the determination system. Low limits of detection (daclatasvir 1.0 and sofosbuvir 1.3 μg/L) and quantification (daclatasvir 3.3 and sofosbuvir 4.0 μg/L), high enrichment factor (daclatasvir 96 and sofosbuvir 90) and extraction recovery (daclatasvir 96 and sofosbuvir 90 %), and good percision (relative standard deviation ≤9.3 %) were obtained. The introduced method was successfully applied in the determination of daclatasvir and sofosbuvir concentrations in urine samples.

Increased cardiovascular risk and reduced quality of life are highly prevalent among individuals with hepatitis C

OBJECTIVE

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is common. Although treatment is effective, with oral antivirals curing >95% of patients, most individuals have comorbidities that persist long term. Therefore, our aim was to determine the prevalence of potentially modifiable health problems in patients with HCV and develop an HCV care bundle to identify and target comorbidities.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional, observational single-centre study that recruited consecutive patients with HCV from our viral hepatitis clinics. Data were collected on cardiovascular (CV) risk factors, lifestyle behaviours, anthropometry and health-related quality of life (HRQoL). QRISK 3 was used to predict 10-year CV event risk.

RESULTS

100 patients were recruited (67% male, 93% white, median age 52 years (range 24-80); 71% were treated for HCV; 34% had cirrhosis; 14% had diabetes; 61% had hypertension; 31% had metabolic syndrome; and 54% were smokers). The median 10-year CV event risk was 8.3% (range 0.3%-63%). 45% had a predicted 10-year CV event risk of >10%. Only 10% of individuals were treated with statins and 27% with antihypertensives. 92% had a predicted 'heart age' greater than their chronological age (median difference +7 (-4 to +26) years). HRQoL was reduced in all SF36v2 domains in the cohort. Factors independently associated with HRQoL included cirrhosis, metabolic syndrome, history of mental health disorder, sedentary behaviour and HCV viraemia.

CONCLUSION

A large proportion of patients with HCV presented with increased risk of CV events, and rates of smoking and sedentary behaviour were high, while prescribing of primary prophylaxis was infrequent. HRQoL was also reduced in the cohort. A 'care bundle' was developed to provide a structured approach to treating potentially modifiable health problems.

Liver Impairment and Hematological Changes in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis C and COVID-19: A Retrospective Study after One Year of Pandemic

Background and Objectives: The COVID-19 pandemic is an ongoing public health emergency. Patients with chronic diseases are at greater risk for complications and poor outcomes. The objective of this study was to investigate the liver function abnormalities and clinical outcomes in patients with COVID-19 and chronic hepatitis C. Materials and Methods: This retrospective, single-center study was conducted on a cohort of 126 patients with a history of hepatitis C, confirmed with COVID-19 between 01 April 2020 and 30 December 2020. Several clinical outcomes were compared between patients with active and non-active HCV infection, and the risks of liver impairment and all-cause mortality in active HCV patients were analyzed using a multivariate logistic regression model. Results: Among 1057 patients under follow-up for chronic HCV infection, 126 (11.9%) were confirmed with COVID-19; of these, 95 (75.4%) were under treatment or achieved SVR, while in the other 31 (24.6%), we found active HCV replication. There was a significantly higher proportion of severe COVID-19 cases in the active HCV group as compared to the non-active HCV group (32.2 vs. 7.3%, p < 0.001). Multivariate analysis showed that age, sex, alanine aminotransferase, C-reactive protein, procalcitonin, and HCV viral load were significant independent risk factors for liver impairment and all-cause mortality. The length of stay in hospital and intensive care unit for COVID-19 was significantly higher in patients with active HCV infection (p-value < 0.001), and a higher proportion of these patients required mechanical ventilation. Conclusions: Active HCV infection is an independent risk factor for all-cause mortality in COVID-19 patients.

Hepatitis C Virus Prevalence and Risk Factors in a Village in Northeastern Romania-A Population-Based Screening-The First Step to Viral Micro-Elimination

(1) Background: The World Health Organization adopted a strategy for the Global Health Sector on Viral Hepatitis in 2016, with the main objective of eliminating hepatitis C virus (HCV) by 2030. In this work, we aimed to evaluate the prevalence of HCV infection and risk factors in a Romanian village using population-based screening as part of the global C virus eradication program. (2) Methods: We conducted a prospective study from March 2019 to February 2020, based on a strategy as part of a project designed to educate, screen, treat and eliminate HCV infection in all adults in a village located in Northeastern Romania. (3) Results: In total, 3507 subjects were invited to be screened by rapid diagnostic orientation tests (RDOT). Overall, 2945 (84%) subjects were tested, out of whom 78 (2.64%) were found to have positive HCV antibodies and were scheduled for further evaluation in a tertiary center of gastroenterology/hepatology in order to be linked to care. In total, 66 (85%) subjects presented for evaluation and 55 (83%) had detectable HCV RNA. Of these, 54 (98%) completed antiviral treatment and 53 (99%) obtained a sustained virological response. (4) Conclusions: The elimination of hepatitis C worldwide has a higher chance of success if micro-elimination strategies based on mass screening are adopted.

Randomized Trial of a Vaccine Regimen to Prevent Chronic HCV Infection

BACKGROUND

A safe and effective vaccine to prevent chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a critical component of efforts to eliminate the disease.

METHODS

In this phase 1-2 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, we evaluated a recombinant chimpanzee adenovirus 3 vector priming vaccination followed by a recombinant modified vaccinia Ankara boost; both vaccines encode HCV nonstructural proteins. Adults who were considered to be at risk for HCV infection on the basis of a history of recent injection drug use were randomly assigned (in a 1:1 ratio) to receive vaccine or placebo on days 0 and 56. Vaccine-related serious adverse events, severe local or systemic adverse events, and laboratory adverse events were the primary safety end points. The primary efficacy end point was chronic HCV infection, defined as persistent viremia for 6 months.

RESULTS

A total of 548 participants underwent randomization, with 274 assigned to each group. There was no significant difference in the incidence of chronic HCV infection between the groups. In the per-protocol population, chronic HCV infection developed in 14 participants in each group (hazard ratio [vaccine vs. placebo], 1.53; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.66 to 3.55; vaccine efficacy, -53%; 95% CI, -255 to 34). In the modified intention-to-treat population, chronic HCV infection developed in 19 participants in the vaccine group and 17 in placebo group (hazard ratio, 1.66; 95% CI, 0.79 to 3.50; vaccine efficacy, -66%; 95% CI, -250 to 21). The geometric mean peak HCV RNA level after infection differed between the vaccine group and the placebo group (152.51×10³ IU per milliliter and 1804.93×10³ IU per milliliter, respectively). T-cell responses to HCV were detected in 78% of the participants in the vaccine group. The percentages of participants with serious adverse events were similar in the two groups.

CONCLUSIONS

In this trial, the HCV vaccine regimen did not cause serious adverse events, produced HCV-specific T-cell responses, and lowered the peak HCV RNA level, but it did not prevent chronic HCV infection. (Funded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT01436357.).

Emerging role and therapeutic application of exosome in hepatitis virus infection and associated diseases

Hepatitis viruses are chief pathogens of hepatitis and end-stage liver diseases. Their replication and related pathogenic process highly rely on the host micro-environment and multiple cellular elements, including exosomes. Representing with a sort of cell-derived vesicle structure, exosomes were considered to be dispensable cellular components, even wastes. Along with advancing investigation, a specific profile of exosome in driving hepatitis viruses' infection and hepatic disease progression is revealed. Exosomes greatly affect the pathogenesis of hepatitis viruses by mediating their replication and modulating the host immune responses. The characteristics of host exosomes are markedly changed after infection with hepatitis viruses. Exosomes released from hepatitis virus-infected cells can carry viral nucleic or protein components, thereby acting as an effective subterfuge for hepatitis viruses by participating in viral transportation and immune escape. On the contrary, immune cell-derived exosomes contribute toward the innate antiviral immune defense and virus eradication. There is growing evidence supporting the application of exosomal biomarkers for predicting disease progress or therapeutic outcome, while exosomal nanoshuttles are regarded as promising therapeutic options based on their delivery properties and immune compatibility. In this review, we summarize the biogenesis and secretion mechanism of exosomes, review the recent findings pertaining to the role of exosomes in the interplay between hepatitis viruses and innate immune responses, and conclude their potential in further therapeutic application.

Progress and Barriers Towards Elimination of Chronic Hepatitis C in Children

Chronic hepatitis C (CHC) is a global health burden. Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) accounts for most HCV infections in pediatric patients. Spontaneous viral clearance may occur in early childhood but is uncommon thereafter. Infection is usually asymptomatic during childhood, although without an effective treatment, vertically infected children may develop serious liver complications including cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma in adulthood. Despite the lack of vaccine against hepatitis C and effective post-exposure methods of prevention of MTCT, treatment with direct-acting antiviral agents (DAAs) raised the prospect of eliminating HCV on a population level. Highly effective, well-tolerated, oral, and interferon-free regimens of short duration have revolutionized treatment of CHC. However, access to these therapies might be limited because of its high cost. In this review, we provide the current state of knowledge on the epidemiology, testing, monitoring and treating of HCV in children. We outline the remaining gaps in therapy and barriers to disease eradication.

The civil society monitoring of hepatitis C response related to the WHO 2030 elimination goals in 35 European countries

BACKGROUND

People who inject drugs (PWID) account for the majority of new cases of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in Europe; however, HCV testing, and treatment for PWID remain suboptimal. With the advent of direct acting antivirals (DAAs) the World Health Organization (WHO) adopted a strategy to eliminate HCV as public health threat by 2030. To achieve this, key policies for PWID must be implemented and HCV continuum of care needs to be monitored. This study presents results of the first monitoring led by civil society that provide harm reduction services for PWID.

METHODS

In 2019, harm reduction civil society organizations representing focal points of Correlation-European Harm Reduction Network in 36 European countries were invited to complete a 27-item online survey on four strategic fields: use/impact of guidelines on HCV testing and treatment for PWID, availability/functioning of continuum of care, changes compared to the previous year and, the role of harm reduction services and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) of PWID. A descriptive analysis of the responses was undertaken.

RESULTS

The response rate was 97.2%. Six countries reported having no guidelines on HCV treatment (17.1%). Twenty-three (65.7%) reported having treatment guidelines with specific measures for PWID; guidelines that impact on accessibility to HCV testing/treatment and improve access to harm reduction services in 95.6% and 86.3% of them, respectively. DAAs were available in 97.1% of countries; in 26.4% of them they were contraindicated for active drug users. HCV screening/confirmatory tests performed at harm reduction services/community centers, prisons and drug dependence clinics were reported from 80.0%/25.7%, 60.0%/48.6%, and 62.9%/34.3% of countries, respectively. Provision of DAAs at drug dependence clinics and prisons was reported from 34.3 to 42.9% of countries, respectively. Compared to the previous year, HCV awareness campaigns, testing and treatment on service providers' own locations were reported to increase in 42.9%, 51.4% and 42.9% of countries, respectively. NGOs of PWID conducted awareness campaigns on HCV interventions in 68.9% of countries, and 25.7% of countries had no such support.

CONCLUSION

Further improvements in continuum-of-care interventions for PWID are needed, which could be achieved by including harm reduction and PWID organizations in strategic planning of testing and treatment and in efforts to monitor progress toward WHO 2030 elimination goal.

Comparison of double antigen sandwich and indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the diagnosis of hepatitis C virus antibodies

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study is to compare double-antigen sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and indirect ELISA in the diagnosis of hepatitis C virus（HCV）infection.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

A total of 176 samples from the Tumor Hospital Affiliated to Xin Jiang Medical University were utilized to comparison. All serum samples were tested using double-antigen sandwich ELISA and indirect ELISA. Cohen's kappa statistics were used to assess the agreement between the two assays, and multivariate analysis was used to evaluate risk factors for the discordance between the double-antigen ELISA and indirect ELISA.

RESULTS

The positivities of indirect ELISA (Beijing Wantai), double-antigen sandwich ELISA (Beijing Wantai), and indirect ELISA (Beijing Jinhao) were 74.43%, 68.75%, and 73.30%, respectively. The agreement between the indirect ELISA (Beijing Wantai) and double-antigen sandwich ELISA (Beijing Wantai) was high (κ = 0.829;P < .001), and the agreement between the double-antigen sandwich ELISA (Beijing Wantai) and indirect ELISA (Beijing Jinhao) was high (κ = 0.847;P < .001). Variables associated with discordant results between the double-antigen sandwich and indirect ELISA in multivariate analysis were as follows: female (OR:1.462; P < .05), age (<35 years old; OR:3.667; P < .05), and cancer (suffer from malignant tumor; OR:3.621; P < .05).

CONCLUSION

In detection of HCV, high agreement was found between the double-antigen sandwich ELISA and indirect ELISA. Female, younger age, and suffer from malignant tumor were significant risk factors for the discordance. Based on double-antigen sandwich ELISA has distinct methodological advantages over indirect ELISA. It is recommended for the diagnosis of HCV infection.

Development of a downstream process for the production of an inactivated whole hepatitis C virus vaccine

There is a large unmet need for a prophylactic hepatitis C virus (HCV) vaccine to control the ongoing epidemic with this deadly pathogen. Many antiviral vaccines employ whole viruses as antigens. For HCV, this approach became feasible following the development of infectious cell culture systems for virus production. However, the lack of efficient downstream processes (DSP) for HCV purification poses a roadblock for the development of a whole virus vaccine. Using cell culture-derived genotype 1a HCV we developed a scalable and efficient DSP train, employing commonly used clarification and ultrafiltration techniques, followed by two membrane-based chromatography steps. For virus capture, steric exclusion chromatography using cellulose membranes was established, resulting in a virtually complete virus recovery with > 99% protein and 84% DNA depletion. Virus polishing was achieved by sulphated cellulose membrane adsorbers with ~ 50% virus recovery and > 99% protein and 90% DNA depletion. Additional nuclease digestion resulted in 99% overall DNA depletion with final DNA concentrations of 2 ng/mL. Process results were comparable for cell culture-derived HCV of another major genotype (5a). This study provides proof-of-concept for establishment of an efficient and economically attractive DSP with potential application for production of an inactivated whole virus vaccine against HCV for human use.

Natural Killer Cell Responses in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Implications for Novel Immunotherapeutic Approaches

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) still represents a significant complication of chronic liver disease, particularly when cirrhosis ensues. Current treatment options include surgery, loco-regional procedures and chemotherapy, according to specific clinical practice guidelines. Immunotherapy with check-point inhibitors, aimed at rescuing T-cells from exhaustion, has been applied as second-line therapy with limited and variable success. Natural killer (NK) cells are an essential component of innate immunity against cancer and changes in phenotype and function have been described in patients with HCC, who also show perturbations of NK activating receptor/ligand axes. Here we discuss the current status of NK cell treatment of HCC on the basis of existing evidence and ongoing clinical trials on adoptive transfer of autologous or allogeneic NK cells ex vivo or after activation with cytokines such as IL-15 and use of antibodies to target cell-expressed molecules to promote antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). To this end, bi-, tri- and tetra-specific killer cell engagers are being devised to improve NK cell recognition of tumor cells, circumventing tumor immune escape and efficiently targeting NK cells to tumors. Moreover, the exciting technique of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-engineered NK cells offers unique opportunities to create CAR-NK with multiple specificities along the experience gained with CAR-T cells with potentially less adverse effects.