Herpes Simplex Virus: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment

Risk of Herpes Simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) among patients with insomnia: A retrospective cohort study

The aim of this study was to explore the risk of Simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) in patients with insomnia. This study applied a population-based retrospective cohort design. A total of 50,210 patients aged ≥ 20 years who had received a diagnosis of insomnia between 2000 and 2015. They were identified according to the corresponding International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) code. The control cohort comprised 100,420 age-matched and sex-matched patients. Data from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database were employed from 2000 to 2015. The overall incidence of HSV-1 in the insomnia cohort was significantly higher than that in the comparison cohort (3.10 vs 0.33 per 1000 person-years). Patients with insomnia had a higher risk of HSV-1 infection, compared with the comparisons (hazard ratio (HR) = 4.33, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.18-5.58). For individuals divided into 3 age groups (≤40, 41-65, and >65 years old), the HSV-1 infection risk of the insomnia cohort was significantly greater than that of the comparisons. As the duration of insomnia increases, the risk of HSV-1 occurrence decreases.

Efficacy of adjuvant Photobiomodulation therapy in recurrent herpes labialis, a randomized clinical trial study

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to determine the effect of Photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) in the treatment of recurrent herpes labialis (RHL), one of the most common herpes simplex virus type 1 infections.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In this randomized double blind controlled trial, Twenty-two symptomatic patients with RHL were enrolled. The patients were randomly allocated into one group (5% acyclovir cream with 940±10 nm wavelength and 4 J/cm2 energy density and 100 mW output power) and another group (5% Acyclovir 5 times/5 days and sham laser). Lesion size, and pain intensity were considered as the outcome at baseline, 1st 2nd and 3rd days postoperatively.

RESULTS

Pain intensity in PBM + Acyclovir group was significantly lower than Acyclovir without PBM group in both two and three days after intervention (p < 0.001). The lesion size in case group was significantly lower on 7 and 10 days (p <0.05). Patients in the treatment group were significantly more satisfied with their treatment process (p=0.008).

CONCLUSION

PBMT can be used as an adjuvant tool to acyclovir cream, due to higher potential in reducing postoperative pain, lesion size and also patients satisfaction.

In vitro and silico studies of geraniin interfering with HSV-2 replication by targeting glycoprotein D

Residues ASN94 and GLN41 presented the highest frequency in molecular docking tests. The geraniin-glycoprotein D(gD) complexes was stable with RMSD(root mean square deviation)value less than 0.3 nm. The Molecular dynamic (MD) simulations revealed stable hydrogen bonds between gD and geraniin. Root mean square fluctuation (RMSF) values were less than 0.15 nm around the interface of geraniin-gD complex. In virucidal assays showed a much higher anti-HSV-2 inhibition activity of geraniin as compared to acyclovir(ACV).Human immunodeficiency virus transactivator (HIV-TAT) treatment significantly enhanced HSV-2 replication and lethal effect on HaCaT cells. The inhibitory rate of geraniin against HSV-2 coinfected with HIV-TAT was significantly decreased. The immunofluorescence results also revealed that HSV-2 gD expression presented a green fluorescence on HaCaT cells membranes and showed clear downregulation in geraniin-treated cells, but was expressed clearly on cell membranes under geraniin, HSV-2 and HIV-TAT cotreatment. The anti-apoptotic effect from geraniin persisted after 72 h, while the anti-apoptotic effect from geraniin diminished when HIV-TAT and geraniin were combined.

Oral herpes simplex virus infection in patients undergoing chemotherapy - an integrative review

Aim

The purpose of this study is to undertake an integrative literature review in order to determine the prevalence, etiology, and reactivation of oral HSV infection in patients receiving chemotherapy (CT).

Methods

The study was carried out in the PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Virtual Health Library, and Scopus databases, using the descriptors "Herpes Simplex", "Viral Diseases", "Mouth", and "Antineoplastic Agents".

Results

The findings suggest that HSV infection is widespread in this group of patients and can be severe. HSV infection is frequent in CT patients, and treatment should begin as soon as it is feasible, utilizing antivirals to avoid future difficulties, as patients are immunocompromised.

Conclusion

It is critical for health professionals to be fully informed on the dangers and treatment choices available, with the most appropriate therapy for each circumstance. Furthermore, more recent research with acceptable methodological rigor is required to better quantify the prevalence of HSV in these patients.

Antimicrobial Efficacy of a Vegetable Oil Plasticizer in PVC Matrices

The growing prevalence of bacterial and viral infections, highlighted by the recent COVID-19 pandemic, urgently calls for new antimicrobial strategies. To this end, we have synthesized and characterized a novel fatty acid epoxy-ester plasticizer for polymers, named GDE. GDE is not only sustainable and user-friendly but also demonstrates superior plasticizing properties, while its epoxy components improve the heat stability of PVC-based matrices. A key feature of GDE is its ability to confer antimicrobial properties to surfaces. Indeed, upon contact, this material can effectively kill enveloped viruses, such as herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and the β-coronavirus prototype HCoV-OC43, but it is ineffective against nonenveloped viruses like human adenovirus (HAdV). Further analysis using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) on HSV-1 virions exposed to GDE showed significant structural damage, indicating that GDE can interfere with the viral envelope, potentially causing leakage. Moreover, GDE demonstrates antibacterial activity, albeit to a lesser extent, against notorious pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Overall, this newly developed plasticizer shows significant potential as an antimicrobial agent suitable for use in both community and healthcare settings to curb the spread of infections caused by microorganisms contaminating physical surfaces.

Efficacy of photobiomodulation therapy in recurrent herpes labialis management: a randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVES

This study is aimed at assessing the therapeutic efficacy of photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) for the management of recurrent herpes labialis (RHL) by evaluating both pain and clinical recovery.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A randomized, double-blind, controlled trial was conducted on 40 patients with RHL, and they were randomly divided into two groups, where 20 patients received treatment with PBMT (650 nm, 100 mW, 4.7 J/cm2), continuous mode, for 120 s, and placebo cream, while another 20 patients (control group) were treated with acyclovir cream 5% (5 times/5 days) and passive laser. Pain was assessed at five different times. The day when the complete disappearance of the pain was observed and the day when the crust fell off spontaneously were also recorded.

RESULTS

The pain level in the control group was significantly higher than that in the PBMT group after the second application of the laser, while the differences were not significant between the two groups at other times. The pain in the PBMT group disappeared faster than that in the control group, but the difference was not significant in terms of clinical recovery.

CONCLUSIONS

Photobiomodulation therapy of herpes labialis reduced pain significantly faster than acyclovir, but there was no difference in healing time between the groups in light of the parameters used in this study.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

PBMT is a promising treatment that may be an effective alternative to acyclovir in the management of recurrent herpes labialis.

TRIAL REGISTRATION ISRCTN

com ID: ISRCTN87606522.

Antiherpetic Activity of a Root Exudate from Solanum lycopersicum

The rise of drug resistance to antivirals poses a significant global concern for public health; therefore, there is a pressing need to identify novel compounds that can effectively counteract strains resistant to current antiviral treatments. In light of this, researchers have been exploring new approaches, including the investigation of natural compounds as alternative sources for developing potent antiviral therapies. Thus, this work aimed to evaluate the antiviral properties of the organic-soluble fraction of a root exudate derived from the tomato plant Solanum lycopersicum in the context of herpesvirus infections. Our findings demonstrated that a root exudate from Solanum lycopersicum exhibits remarkable efficacy against prominent members of the family Herpesviridae, specifically herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) (EC50 25.57 µg/mL, SI > 15.64) and human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) (EC50 9.17 µg/mL, SI 32.28) by inhibiting a molecular event during the herpesvirus replication phase. Moreover, the phytochemical fingerprint of the Solanum lycopersicum root exudate was characterized through mass spectrometry. Overall, these data have unveiled a novel natural product with antiherpetic activity, presenting a promising and valuable alternative to existing drugs.

The Cooperation of IL-29 and PLGA Nanoparticles Improves the Protective Immunity of the gD-1 DNA Vaccine Against Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Mice

In clinical practice, the low immunogenicity and low stability of the DNA plasmid vaccine candidates are two significant shortcomings in their application against infectious diseases. To overcome these two disadvantages, the plasmid expressing IL-29 (pIL-29) as a genetic adjuvant and polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) as a non-viral delivery system were used, respectively. In this study, the pIL-29 encapsulated in PLGA nanoparticles (nanoIL-29) and the pgD1 encapsulated in PLGA nanoparticles (nanoVac) were simultaneously applied to boost immunologic responses against HSV-1. We generated spherical nanoparticles with encapsulation efficiency of 75 ± 5% and sustained the release of plasmids from them. Then, Balb/c mice were subcutaneously immunized twice with nanoVac+nanoIL-29, Vac+IL-29, nanoVac, Vac, nanoIL-29, and/or IL-29 in addition to negative and positive control groups. Cellular immunity was evaluated via lymphocyte proliferation assay, cytotoxicity test, and IFN-γ, IL-4, and IL-2 measurements. Mice were also challenged with 50X LD50 of HSV-1. The nanoVac+nanoIL-29 candidate vaccine efficiently enhances CTL and Th1-immune responses and increases the survival rates by 100% in mice vaccinated by co-administration of nanoVac and nanoIL-29 against the HSV-1 challenge. The newly proposed vaccine is worth studying in further clinical trials, because it could effectively improve cellular immune responses and protected mice against HSV-1.

Neonatal herpes simplex virus infection: From the maternal infection to the child outcome

This review examines the recent literature on the management of herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections in neonates. We summarized the three clinical categories of maternal HSV infection during pregnancy (primary first episode, nonprimary first episode, or recurrent episode) and the mechanisms of fetal damage. Considering when the transmission of the infection from the mother to the fetus/newborn occurs, three types of neonatal infection can be distinguished: intrauterine infection (5% of cases), postnatal infection (10% of cases), and perinatal infections (85% of cases). Neonatal presentation could range from a limited disease with skin, eye, and mouth disease to central nervous system disease or disseminated disease: the treatment with acyclovir should be tailored according to symptoms and signs of infection, and virological tests. These children need a multidisciplinary follow-up, to timely intercept any deviation from normal neurodevelopmental milestones. Prevention strategies remain a challenge, in the absence of an available vaccine against HSV.

Herpes Simplex Virus, Human Papillomavirus, and Cervical Cancer: Overview, Relationship, and Treatment Implications

There is a significant body of research examining the role of human papillomavirus (HPV) in the pathogenesis of cervical cancer, with a particular emphasis on the oncogenic proteins E5, E6, and E7. What is less well explored, however, is the relationship between cervical cancer and herpes simplex virus (HSV). To date, studies examining the role of HSV in cervical cancer pathogenesis have yielded mixed results. While several experiments have determined that HPV/HSV-2 coinfection results in a higher risk of developing cervical cancer, others have questioned the validity of this association. However, clarifying the potential role of HSV in the pathogenesis of cervical cancer may have significant implications for both the prevention and treatment of this disease. Should this relationship be clarified, treating and preventing HSV could open another avenue with which to prevent cervical cancer. The importance of this is highlighted by the fact that, despite the creation of an effective vaccine against HPV, cervical cancer still impacts 604,000 women and is responsible for 342,000 deaths annually. This review provides an overview of HSV and HPV infections and then delves into the possible links between HPV, HSV, and cervical cancer. It concludes with a summary of preventive measures against and recent treatment advances in cervical cancer.

Synergistic antiviral activity of Lactobacillus acidophilus and Glycyrrhiza glabra against Herpes Simplex-1 Virus (HSV-1) and Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV): experimental and In Silico insights

BACKGROUND

The emergence of different viral infections calls for the development of new, effective, and safe antiviral drugs. Glycyrrhiza glabra is a well-known herbal remedy possessing antiviral properties.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of our research was to evaluate the effectiveness of a newly developed combination of the probiotics Lactobacillus acidophilus and G. glabra root extract against two viral models, namely the DNA virus Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) and the RNA virus Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV), with regards to their antiviral properties.

METHODOLOGY

To examine the antiviral impacts of various treatments, we employed the MTT assay and real-time PCR methodology.

RESULTS

The findings of our study indicate that the co-administration of L. acidophilus and G. glabra resulted in a significant improvement in the survival rate of Vero cells, while also leading to a reduction in the titers of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 (HSV-1) and Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV) in comparison to cells that were not treated. Additionally, an investigation was conducted on glycyrrhizin, the primary constituent of G. glabra extract, utilizing molecular docking techniques. The results indicated that glycyrrhizin exhibited a greater binding energy score for HSV-1 polymerase (- 22.45 kcal/mol) and VSV nucleocapsid (- 19.77 kcal/mol) in comparison to the cocrystallized ligand (- 13.31 and - 11.44 kcal/mol, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of L. acidophilus and G. glabra extract can be used to develop a new, natural antiviral agent that is safe and effective.

A Narrative Review of Alternative Symptomatic Treatments for Herpes Simplex Virus

Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) and -2 (HSV-2) are large, spherically shaped, double-stranded DNA viruses that coevolved with Homo sapiens for over 300,000 years, having developed numerous immunoevasive mechanisms to survive the lifetime of their human host. Although in the continued absence of an acceptable prophylactic and therapeutic vaccine, approved pharmacologics (e.g., nucleoside analogs) hold benefit against viral outbreaks, while resistance and toxicity limit their universal application. Against these shortcomings, there is a long history of proven and unproven home remedies. With the breadth of purported alternative therapies, patients are exposed to risk of harm without proper information. Here, we examined the shortcomings of the current gold standard HSV therapy, acyclovir, and described several natural products that demonstrated promise in controlling HSV infection, including lemon balm, lysine, propolis, vitamin E, and zinc, while arginine, cannabis, and many other recreational drugs are detrimental. Based on this literature, we offered recommendations regarding the use of such natural products and their further investigation.

Knowledge, attitudes, and testing preferences for Herpes Simplex Virus infections among undergraduate students at a large university in Los Angeles, California

OBJECTIVE

Genital herpes is a common sexually transmitted disease among young adults in the United States. We conducted a cross-sectional survey to evaluate herpes simplex virus knowledge among university students.

PARTICIPANTS

612 full-time undergraduate students.

METHODS

We gathered data on demographics, sexual activity, knowledge about the herpes simplex virus, attitudes toward it, and preferences for testing and treatment.

RESULTS

Of 612 full-time undergraduate students, 71.4% (437/612) reported being sexually active. Of them, 54.2% (237/437) reported ever being tested for a sexually transmitted infection. On a standardized knowledge assessment of genital herpes, 22.7% (139/612) of participants scored ≥80% correct. Over half of participants, 57.2% (350/612), reported that they could not cope with a genital herpes outbreak. Being sexually active and tested for sexually transmitted infections was associated with higher scores on the genital herpes knowledge assessment.

CONCLUSION

University students have low knowledge regarding genital herpes. Genital herpes education is needed to improve sexual health and wellness.

Contribution of carbohydrate-related metabolism in Herpesvirus infections

Human herpesviruses are enveloped viruses with double-stranded linear DNA genomes highly prevalent in the human population. These viruses are subdivided into three subfamilies, namely alphaherpesvirinae (herpes simplex virus type 1, HSV-1; herpes simplex virus type 2, HSV-2; and varicella-zoster virus, VZV), betaherpesvirinae (human cytomegalovirus, HCMV; human herpesvirus 6, HHV-6; and human herpesvirus 7, HHV-7) and gammaherpesvirinae (Epstein-Barr virus, EBV; and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, KSHV). Besides encoding numerous molecular determinants to evade the host antiviral responses, these viruses also modulate cellular metabolic processes to promote their replication. Here, we review and discuss existing studies describing an interplay between carbohydrate metabolism and the replication cycle of herpesviruses, altogether highlighting potentially new molecular targets based on these interactions that could be used to block herpesvirus infections.

Efficacy of Lazolex® Gel in the Treatment of Herpes Simplex Mucocutaneous Infections and the Prevention of Recurrences: A Pilot Study

Background. Previous in vitro and in vivo studies indicated that walnut extract has a therapeutic effect on herpes simplex infections. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy and tolerance of Lazolex® Gel (Iveriapharma, Tbilisi, Georgia), an emollient gel to treat mucocutaneous lesions caused by herpes simplex virus. Methods. A single-center, single-arm, open-label, phase II clinical trial was conducted with 30 patients divided into two groups: 15 patients with herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infections and 15 with herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2). All received topical treatment with Lazolex® Gel four times a day for 10 days. The efficacy and tolerance of the treatment were evaluated on day 10 and day 20 of the study. Recurrence rates were also evaluated both prior to treatment with Lazolex® and over a 4-year follow-up period subsequent to treatment. Results. The median effective time to resolution of symptoms (itching, burning, and pain) was 1.97 days in the HSV-1 group and 3.11 days in the HSV-2 group. The median effective time for vesicles and erosion to disappear was 3.64 days in the HSV-1 group and 3.88 days for the HSV-2 group. Finally, the median effective time for inflammatory signs to disappear was 5.70 and 4.32 days, respectively. Following treatment with Lazolex® Gel, the frequency of outbreaks decreased from a median of 2.00 and 1.00 times per year in the HSV-1 and HSV-2 cohorts to 0.25 and 0.00 ( $p=0.001$ and $p=0.003$ ), respectively. Conclusions. Topical treatment with Lazolex® Gel applied to lesions four times a day for 10 days was shown to be effective and safe in the treatment of herpes simplex mucocutaneous infections and dramatically reduced the rate of recurrence. Clinical trial was approved by Drug Agency of Ministry of Labour, Health and Social Affairs of Georgia, registration # DA Nº CT-000032, date of approval 01.10.2007.

Interplay between Lipid Metabolism, Lipid Droplets, and DNA Virus Infections

Lipid droplets (LDs) are cellular organelles rich in neutral lipids such as triglycerides and cholesterol esters that are coated by a phospholipid monolayer and associated proteins. LDs are known to play important roles in the storage and availability of lipids in the cell and to serve as a source of energy reserve for the cell. However, these structures have also been related to oxidative stress, reticular stress responses, and reduced antigen presentation to T cells. Importantly, LDs are also known to modulate viral infection by participating in virus replication and assembly. Here, we review and discuss the interplay between neutral lipid metabolism and LDs in the replication cycle of different DNA viruses, identifying potentially new molecular targets for the treatment of viral infections.

Antiviral Effect of Polyphenolic Substances in Geranium wilfordii Maxim against HSV-2 Infection Using in vitro and in silico Approaches

Background

Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infestation was the most widespread STD (sexually transmitted diseases) among humans and was the leading cause of infectious recurrent genital herpes. Existing therapies against HSV-2 did incompletely restrain the comeback of activated HSV-2 infestation. Geranium wilfordii Maxim had long been used as traditional Chinese medicine for treating the diseases owing to its anti-inflammatory and antiviral effects. Herein, the study was designed to investigate the antiviral activity of G.wilfordii and its potential effect in regulating the host's immune response.

Methods

To identify the stage of infection at which the compounds inhibited HSV-2, we performed virucidal, therapeutic, and prophylactic assays. The antiviral efficacy was evaluated by the analysis of viral components HSV-2 gD and VP16. The antiviral activities of these compounds were also evaluated by phenotypic analysis, such as cell proliferation and apoptosis. Molecular docking studies on candidate compounds were done to indicate binding interactions between the compounds and adopted compound targets.

Results

Quercetin, corilagin, and geraniin inhibited the replication of HSV-2, with geraniin showing greater TI. The obtained IC₅₀ value of quercetin was 204.7 μM and TI (IC₅₀/EC₅₀) was 5.1, whereas the obtained IC₅₀ value of corilagin was 118.0 μg/ml and TI was 4.05. Geraniin exhibited prominent antiviral activity with an IC₅₀ of 212.4 μM and an EC₅₀ of 18.37 μM, resulting in a therapeutic index (TI) of 11.56. Geraniin showed important in vitro virucidal activity through blocking viral attachment. Compared with the virus group, the apoptosis rates in quercetin-, corilagin-, and geraniin-treated groups were significantly decreased (p < 0.001).The expressions at the transcription genes of virus own replication key factors (including HSV-2 gD and VP16) and cytokines (including TBK1) of infected cells treated with quercetin, corilagin, and geraniin were inhibited. The in silico approaches demonstrated a high number of potential strong intermolecular interactions as hydrogen bonds between geraniin, corilagin, and the activity site of HSV-2 gD. Molecular docking studies demonstrated the effects of corilagin by targeting TBK1.

Conclusions

Together, these results highlighted the importance of G.wilfordii treatment in HSV-2 infection and underscored its therapeutic potential. However, additional in vitro and in vivo research was required to validate our findings.

Network Pharmacology-Based Systematic Analysis of Molecular Mechanisms of Geranium wilfordii Maxim for HSV-2 Infection

Background

Being a traditional Chinese medicine, Geranium wilfordii Maxim (GWM) is used for the treatment of various infectious diseases, and its main active ingredients are the polyphenolic substances such as polyphenols quercetin, corilagin, and geraniin. Previous studies have demonstrated the anti-HSV-1 viral activity of these three main ingredients. Through employing a network pharmacological method, the authors of the present research intend to probe the mechanism of GWM for the therapeutic treatment of HSV-2 infection.

Methods

The bioactive substances and related targets of GWM were obtained from the TCMSP database. Gene expression discrepancy for HSV-2 infection was obtained from dataset GSE18527. Crossover genes between disease target genes and GWM target genes were gained via Circos package. Distinctively displayed genes (DDGs) during HSV-2 infection were uploaded to the Metascape database with GWM target genes for further analysis. The tissue-specific distribution of the genes was obtained by uploading the genes to the PaGenBase database. Ingredient-gene-pathway (IGP) networks were constructed using Cytoscape software. Molecular docking investigations were carried out utilizing AutoDock Vina software.

Results

Nine actively involved components were retrieved from the TCMSP database. After taking the intersection among 153 drug target genes and 83 DDGs, 7 crossover genes were screened. Gene enrichment analysis showed that GWM treatment of HSV-2 infection mainly involves cytokine signaling in the immune system, response to virus, epithelial cell differentiation, and type II interferon signaling (IFNG). One hub, three core objectives, and two critical paths were filtered out from the built network. Geraniin showed strong binding activity with HSV-2 gD protein and STING protein in molecular docking.

Conclusions

This network pharmacological study provides a fundamental molecular mechanistic exploration of GWM for the treatment of HSV-2 infection.

Role of environmental factors in multiple sclerosis

INTRODUCTION

Environmental factors play a significant role in the pathogenesis and progression of multiple sclerosis (MS), either acting alone or by interacting with other environmental or genetic factors. This cumulative exposure to external risk factors is highly complex and highly variable between individuals.

AREAS COVERED

We narratively review the current evidence on the role of environment-specific risk factors in MS onset and progression, as well as the effect of gene-environment interactions and the timing of exposure We have reviewed the latest literature, by Ovid Medline, retrieving the most recently published systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses and more recent studies not previously included in meta-analyses or systematic reviews.

EXPERT OPINION

There is some good evidence supporting the impact of some environmental risk factors in increasing the risk of developing MS. Tobacco smoking, low vitamin D levels and/or low sun exposure, Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) seropositivity and a history of infectious mononucleosis may increase the risk of developing MS. Additionally, there is some evidence that gene-smoking, gene-EBV, and smoking-EBV interactions additively affect the risk of MS onset. However, the evidence for a role of other environmental factors in MS progression is limited. Finally, there is some evidence that tobacco smoking, insufficient vitamin D levels and/or sun exposure have impacts on MS phenotypes and various markers of disease activity including relapse, disability progression and MRI findings. Clearly the effect of environmental factors on MS disease course is an area that requires significantly more research.

Current and Future Trends in the Laboratory Diagnosis of Sexually Transmitted Infections

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) continue to exert a considerable public health and social burden globally, particularly for developing countries. Due to the high prevalence of asymptomatic infections and the limitations of symptom-based (syndromic) diagnosis, confirmation of infection using laboratory tools is essential to choose the most appropriate course of treatment and to screen at-risk groups. Numerous laboratory tests and platforms have been developed for gonorrhea, chlamydia, syphilis, trichomoniasis, genital mycoplasmas, herpesviruses, and human papillomavirus. Point-of-care testing is now a possibility, and microfluidic and high-throughput omics technologies promise to revolutionize the diagnosis of STIs. The scope of this paper is to provide an updated overview of the current laboratory diagnostic tools for these infections, highlighting their advantages, limitations, and point-of-care adaptability. The diagnostic applicability of the latest molecular and biochemical approaches is also discussed.