Neural immunoglobulin superfamily interaction networks

Following the Evolutionary Paths of Dscam1 Proteins toward Highly Specific Homophilic Interactions

Many adhesion proteins, evolutionarily related through gene duplication, exhibit distinct and precise interaction preferences and affinities crucial for cell patterning. Yet, the evolutionary paths by which these proteins acquire new specificities and prevent cross-interactions within their family members remain unknown. To bridge this gap, this study focuses on Drosophila Down syndrome cell adhesion molecule-1 (Dscam1) proteins, which are cell adhesion proteins that have undergone extensive gene duplication. Dscam1 evolved under strong selective pressure to achieve strict homophilic recognition, essential for neuronal self-avoidance and patterning. Through a combination of phylogenetic analyses, ancestral sequence reconstruction, and cell aggregation assays, we studied the evolutionary trajectory of Dscam1 exon 4 across various insect lineages. We demonstrated that recent Dscam1 duplications in the mosquito lineage bind with strict homophilic specificities without any cross-interactions. We found that ancestral and intermediate Dscam1 isoforms maintained their homophilic binding capabilities, with some intermediate isoforms also engaging in promiscuous interactions with other paralogs. Our results highlight the robust selective pressure for homophilic specificity integral to the Dscam1 function within the process of neuronal self-avoidance. Importantly, our study suggests that the path to achieving such selective specificity does not introduce disruptive mutations that prevent self-binding but includes evolutionary intermediates that demonstrate promiscuous heterophilic interactions. Overall, these results offer insights into evolutionary strategies that underlie adhesion protein interaction specificities.

Synaptic cell adhesion molecules contribute to the pathogenesis and progression of fragile X syndrome

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common form of inherited intellectual disability and a monogenic cause of autism spectrum disorders. Deficiencies in the fragile X messenger ribonucleoprotein, encoded by the FMR1 gene, lead to various anatomical and pathophysiological abnormalities and behavioral deficits, such as spine dysmorphogenesis and learning and memory impairments. Synaptic cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) play crucial roles in synapse formation and neural signal transmission by promoting the formation of new synaptic contacts, accurately organizing presynaptic and postsynaptic protein complexes, and ensuring the accuracy of signal transmission. Recent studies have implicated synaptic CAMs such as the immunoglobulin superfamily, N-cadherin, leucine-rich repeat proteins, and neuroligin-1 in the pathogenesis of FXS and found that they contribute to defects in dendritic spines and synaptic plasticity in FXS animal models. This review systematically summarizes the biological associations between nine representative synaptic CAMs and FMRP, as well as the functional consequences of the interaction, to provide new insights into the mechanisms of abnormal synaptic development in FXS.

The dynamic TRPV2 ion channel proximity proteome reveals functional links of calcium flux with cellular adhesion factors NCAM and L1CAM in neurite outgrowth

TRPV2 voltage-insensitive, calcium-permeable ion channels play important roles in cancer progression, immune response, and neuronal development. Despite TRPV2's physiological impact, underlying endogenous proteins mediating TRPV2 responses and affected signaling pathways remain elusive. Using quantitative peroxidase-catalyzed (APEX2) proximity proteomics we uncover dynamic changes in the TRPV2-proximal proteome and identify calcium signaling and cell adhesion factors recruited to the molecular channel neighborhood in response to activation. Quantitative TRPV2 proximity proteomics further revealed activation-induced enrichment of protein clusters with biological functions in neural and cellular projection. We demonstrate a functional connection between TRPV2 and the neural immunoglobulin cell adhesion molecules NCAM and L1CAM. NCAM and L1CAM stimulation robustly induces TRPV2 [Ca2+]I flux in neuronal PC12 cells and this TRPV2-specific [Ca2+]I flux requires activation of the protein kinase PKCα. TRPV2 expression directly impacts neurite lengths that are modulated by NCAM or L1CAM stimulation. Hence, TRPV2's calcium signaling plays a previously undescribed, yet vital role in cell adhesion, and TRPV2 calcium flux and neurite development are intricately linked via NCAM and L1CAM cell adhesion proteins.

IGSF3 is a homophilic cell adhesion molecule that drives lung metastasis of melanoma by promoting adhesion to vascular endothelium

The immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) is one of the largest families of cell-surface molecules involved in various cell-cell interactions, including cancer-stromal interactions. In this study, we undertook a comprehensive RT-PCR-based screening for IgSF molecules that promote experimental lung metastasis in mice. By comparing the expression of 325 genes encoding cell-surface IgSF molecules between mouse melanoma B16 cells and its highly metastatic subline, B16F10 cells, we found that expression of the immunoglobulin superfamily member 3 gene (Igsf3) was significantly enhanced in B16F10 cells than in B16 cells. Knockdown of Igsf3 in B16F10 cells significantly reduced lung metastasis following intravenous injection into C57BL/6 mice. IGSF3 promoted adhesion of B16F10 cells to vascular endothelial cells and functioned as a homophilic cell adhesion molecule between B16F10 cells and vascular endothelial cells. Notably, the knockdown of IGSF3 in either B16F10 cells or vascular endothelial cells suppressed the transendothelial migration of B16F10 cells. Moreover, IGSF3 knockdown suppressed the extravasation of B16F10 cells into the lungs after intravenous injection. These results suggest that IGSF3 promotes the metastatic potential of B16F10 cells in the lungs by facilitating their adhesion to vascular endothelial cells.

Functional septate junctions between cyst cells are required for survival of transit amplifying male germ cells expressing Bag of marbles

In adult stem cell lineages, the cellular microenvironment plays essential roles to ensure the proper balance of self-renewal, differentiation and regulated elimination of differentiating cells. Although regulated death of progenitor cells undergoing proliferation or early differentiation is a feature of many tissues, mechanisms that initiate this pruning remain unexplored, particularly in the male germline, where up to 30% of the germline is eliminated before the meiotic divisions. We conducted a targeted screen to identify functional regulators required in somatic support cells for survival or differentiation at early steps in the male germ line stem cell lineage. Cell type-specific knockdown in cyst cells uncovered novel roles of genes in germline stem cell differentiation, including a previously unappreciated role of the Septate Junction (SJ) in preventing cell death of differentiating germline progenitors. Loss of the SJ in the somatic cyst cells resulted in elimination of transit-amplifying spermatogonia by the 8-cell stage. Germ cell death was spared in males mutant for the differentiation factor bam indicating that intact barriers surrounding transit amplifying progenitors are required to ensure germline survival once differentiation has initiated.

The Immune Suppressor IGSF1 as a Potential Target for Cancer Immunotherapy

The development of first-generation immune-checkpoint inhibitors targeting PD-1/PD-L1 and CTLA-4 ushered in a new era in anticancer therapy. Although immune-checkpoint blockade therapies have shown clinical success, a substantial number of patients yet fail to benefit. Many studies are under way to discover next-generation immunotherapeutic targets. Immunoglobulin superfamily member 1 (IGSF1) is a membrane glycoprotein proposed to regulate thyroid function. Despite containing 12 immunoglobin domains, a possible role for IGSF1, in immune response, remains unknown. Here, our studies revealed that IGSF1 is predominantly expressed in tumors but not normal tissues, and increased expression is observed in PD-L1low non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells as compared with PD-L1high cells. Subsequently, we developed and characterized an IGSF1-specific human monoclonal antibody, WM-A1, that effectively promoted antitumor immunity and overcame the limitations of first-generation immune-checkpoint inhibitors, likely via a distinct mechanism of action. We further demonstrated high WM-A1 efficacy in humanized peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), and syngeneic mouse models, finding additive efficacy in combination with an anti-PD-1 (a well-characterized checkpoint inhibitor). These findings support IGSF1 as an immune target that might complement existing cancer immunotherapeutics.

SynCAMs in Normal Vertebrate Neural Development and Neuropsychiatric Disorders: from the Perspective of the OCAs

Neuronal synaptic junctions connect neurons to enable neuronal signal transmission in the nervous system. The proper establishment of synaptic connections required many adhesion molecules. Malfunctions of these adhesion molecules can result in neural development disorders and neuropsychiatric disorders. How specific synapses are established by various adhesion molecules for proper neural circuitry is a fundamental question of neuroscience. SynCAMs, also named CADMs, Necl, etc., are among the many adhesion proteins found in synapses. Here, we review the current understanding of the physical properties of SynCAMs and their roles in axon pathfinding, myelination, synaptogenesis, and synaptic plasticity. In addition, we discuss the involvement of SynCAMs in neuropsychiatric disorders. Finally, we propose that SynCAM functions can be better viewed and understood from the perspective of orientational cell adhesions (OCAs). In particular, we discuss the possibilities of how SynCAMs can be regulated at the cell-type specific expression, transcription variants, posttranslational modification, and subcellular localization to modulate the diversity of SynCAMs as OCA molecules. Being major components of the synapses, SynCAMs continue to be an important research topic of neuroscience, and many outstanding questions are waiting to be answered.

The Role of IgLON Cell Adhesion Molecules in Neurodegenerative Diseases

In the brain, cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are critical for neurite outgrowth, axonal fasciculation, neuronal survival and migration, and synapse formation and maintenance. Among CAMs, the IgLON family comprises five members: Opioid Binding Protein/Cell Adhesion Molecule Like (OPCML or OBCAM), Limbic System Associated Membrane Protein (LSAMP), neurotrimin (NTM), Neuronal Growth Regulator 1 (NEGR1), and IgLON5. IgLONs exhibit three N-terminal C2 immunoglobulin domains; several glycosylation sites; and a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchoring to the membrane. Interactions as homo- or heterodimers in cis and in trans, as well as binding to other molecules, appear critical for their functions. Shedding by metalloproteases generates soluble factors interacting with cellular receptors and activating signal transduction. The aim of this review was to analyse the available data implicating a role for IgLONs in neuropsychiatric disorders. Starting from the identification of a pathological role for antibodies against IgLON5 in an autoimmune neurodegenerative disease with a poorly understood mechanism of action, accumulating evidence links IgLONs to neuropsychiatric disorders, albeit with still undefined mechanisms which will require future thorough investigations.

Cell Adhesion Molecules in Fibrotic Diseases

Mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of tissue fibrosis remain incompletely understood. Emerging evidence suggests that cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are critical in fibrotic progression in many organs, including lung, kidney, skin, and liver. CAMs promote cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) interactions to maintain tissue architecture and normal function in homeostasis. However, dysregulated expression and function of CAMs can lead to chronic inflammation and tissue fibrosis. The major families of CAMs include integrins, cadherins, selectins, and immunoglobulins. Here, we review the role of the CAMs in fibrosis development across various organs with a focus on integrins and cadherins, and discuss their respective roles in the development of pulmonary fibrosis.

Indispensable role of Nectin-like 4 in regulating synapse-related molecules, synaptic structure, and individual behavior

Nectin-like family members (Necls) are involved in synaptic organization. In contrast to that of Necl-2/CADM1/SynCAM1, which is critical in synaptic events, investigation of Necl-4/CADM4/SynCAM4 in synapses has largely lagged behind given the particularity of homophilic self-interactions compared to interactions with other Necls. We sought to further understand the role of Necl-4 in synapses and found that knockout of Necl-4 led to aberrant expression levels of proteins mediating synaptic function in cortex homogenates and augmented accumulation of ionotropic glutamate receptor in postsynaptic density fractions, although a compensatory effect of Necl-1 on the expression levels existed. Concurrently, we also found increased synaptic clefts in the cortex and simplified dendritic morphology of primary cultured cortical neurons. Experiments on individual behaviors suggested that compared to their wild-type littermates, Necl-4-KO mice exhibited impaired acquisition of spatial memory and working memory and enhanced behavioral despair and anxiety-like behavior. These findings suggest that Necl-4 mediates synaptic function and related behaviors through an indispensable role and offer a new perspective about collaboration and specialization among Necls.

Genome-wide identification and skin expression of immunoglobulin superfamily in discus fish (Symphysodon aequifasciatus) reveal common genes associated with vertebrate lactation

Discus Symphysodon spp. employs an unusual parental care behavior where fry feed on parental skin mucus after hatching. Studies on discus immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) especially during parental care are scarce. Here, a total of 518 IgSF members were identified based on discus genome and clustered into 12 groups, unevenly distributing on 30 linkage groups. A total of 92 pairs of tandem duplication and 40 pairs of segmental duplication that underwent purifying selection were identified. IgSF genes expressed differentially in discus skin during different care stages and between male and female parents. Specifically, the transcription of btn1a1, similar with mammalian lactation, increased after spawning, reached a peak when fry started biting on parents' skin mucus, and then decreased. The expression of btn2a1 and other immune members, e.g., nect4, fcl5 and cd22, were up-regulated when fry stopped biting on mucus. These results suggest the expression differentiation of IgSF genes in skin of discus fish during parental care.

Astrocytes express aberrant immunoglobulins as putative gatekeeper of astrocytes to neuronal progenitor conversion

Using multi-omics analyses including RNAseq, RT-PCR, RACE-PCR, and shotgun proteomic with enrichment strategies, we demonstrated that newborn rat astrocytes produce neural immunoglobulin constant and variable heavy chains as well as light chains. However, their edification is different from the ones found in B cells and they resemble aberrant immunoglobulins observed in several cancers. Moreover, the complete enzymatic V(D)J recombination complex has also been identified in astrocytes. In addition, the constant heavy chain is also present in adult rat astrocytes, whereas in primary astrocytes from human fetus we identified constant and variable kappa chains as well as the substitution lambda chains known to be involved in pre-B cells. To gather insights into the function of these neural IgGs, CRISPR-Cas9 of IgG2B constant heavy chain encoding gene (Igh6), IgG2B overexpression, proximal labeling of rat astrocytes IgG2B and targets identification through 2D gels were performed. In Igh6 KO astrocytes, overrepresentation of factors involved in hematopoietic cells, neural stem cells, and the regulation of neuritogenesis have been identified. Moreover, overexpression of IgG2B in astrocytes induces the CRTC1-CREB-BDNF signaling pathway known to be involved in gliogenesis, whereas Igh6 KO triggers the BMP/YAP1/TEAD3 pathway activated in astrocytes dedifferentiation into neural progenitors. Proximal labeling experiments revealed that IgG2B is N-glycosylated by the OST complex, addressed to vesicle membranes containing the ATPase complex, and behaves partially like CD98hc through its association with LAT1. These experiments also suggest that proximal IgG2B-LAT1 interaction occurs concomitantly with MACO-1 and C2CD2L, at the heart of a potentially novel cell signaling platform. Finally, we demonstrated that these chains are synthesized individually and associated to recognize specific targets. Indeed, intermediate filaments Eif4a2 and Pdia6 involved in astrocyte fate constitute targets for these neural IgGs. Taken together, we hypothese that neural aberrant IgG chains may act as gatekeepers of astrocytes' fate.

Neural connectivity molecules best identify the heterogeneous clock and dopaminergic cell types in the Drosophila adult brain

Our recent single-cell sequencing of most adult Drosophila circadian neurons indicated notable and unexpected heterogeneity. To address whether other populations are similar, we sequenced a large subset of adult brain dopaminergic neurons. Their gene expression heterogeneity is similar to that of clock neurons, i.e., both populations have two to three cells per neuron group. There was also unexpected cell-specific expression of neuron communication molecule messenger RNAs: G protein-coupled receptor or cell surface molecule (CSM) transcripts alone can define adult brain dopaminergic and circadian neuron cell type. Moreover, the adult expression of the CSM DIP-beta in a small group of clock neurons is important for sleep. We suggest that the common features of circadian and dopaminergic neurons are general, essential for neuronal identity and connectivity of the adult brain, and that these features underlie the complex behavioral repertoire of Drosophila.

Computational Assessment of Protein-Protein Binding Specificity within a Family of Synaptic Surface Receptors

Atomic-level information is essential to explain the formation of specific protein complexes in terms of structure and dynamics. The set of Dpr and DIP proteins, which play a key role in the neuromorphogenesis in the nervous system of Drosophila melanogaster, offer a rich paradigm to learn about protein-protein recognition. Many members of the DIP subfamily cross-react with several members of the Dpr family and vice versa. While there exists a total of 231 possible Dpr-DIP heterodimer complexes from the 21 Dpr and 11 DIP proteins, only 57 "cognate" pairs have been detected by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) experiments, suggesting that the remaining 174 pairs have low or unreliable binding affinity. Our goal is to assess the performance of computational approaches to characterize the global set of interactions between Dpr and DIP proteins and identify the specificity of binding between each DIP with their corresponding Dpr binding partners. In addition, we aim to characterize how mutations influence the specificity of the binding interaction. In this work, a wide range of knowledge-based and physics-based approaches are utilized, including mutual information, linear discriminant analysis, homology modeling, molecular dynamics simulations, Poisson-Boltzmann continuum electrostatics calculations, and alchemical free energy perturbation to decipher the origin of binding specificity of the Dpr-DIP complexes examined. Ultimately, the results show that those two broad strategies are complementary, with different strengths and limitations. Biological inter-relations are more clearly revealed through knowledge-based approaches combining evolutionary and structural features, the molecular determinants controlling binding specificity can be predicted accurately with physics-based approaches based on atomic models.

Systematic expression profiling of Dpr and DIP genes reveals cell surface codes in Drosophila larval motor and sensory neurons

In complex nervous systems, neurons must identify their correct partners to form synaptic connections. The prevailing model to ensure correct recognition posits that cell-surface proteins (CSPs) in individual neurons act as identification tags. Thus, knowing what cells express which CSPs would provide insights into neural development, synaptic connectivity, and nervous system evolution. Here, we investigated expression of Dpr and DIP genes, two CSP subfamilies belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily, in Drosophila larval motor neurons (MNs), muscles, glia and sensory neurons (SNs) using a collection of GAL4 driver lines. We found that Dpr genes are more broadly expressed than DIP genes in MNs and SNs, and each examined neuron expresses a unique combination of Dpr and DIP genes. Interestingly, many Dpr and DIP genes are not robustly expressed, but are found instead in gradient and temporal expression patterns. In addition, the unique expression patterns of Dpr and DIP genes revealed three uncharacterized MNs. This study sets the stage for exploring the functions of Dpr and DIP genes in Drosophila MNs and SNs and provides genetic access to subsets of neurons.

Synapse Formation and Function Across Species: Ancient Roles for CCP, CUB, and TSP-1 Structural Domains

The appearance of synapses was a crucial step in the creation of the variety of nervous systems that are found in the animal kingdom. With increased complexity of the organisms came a greater number of synaptic proteins. In this review we describe synaptic proteins that contain the structural domains CUB, CCP, or TSP-1. These domains are found in invertebrates and vertebrates, and CUB and CCP domains were initially described in proteins belonging to the complement system of innate immunity. Interestingly, they are found in synapses of the nematode C. elegans, which does not have a complement system, suggesting an ancient function. Comparison of the roles of CUB-, CCP-, and TSP-1 containing synaptic proteins in various species shows that in more complex nervous systems, these structural domains are combined with other domains and that there is partial conservation of their function. These three domains are thus basic building blocks of the synaptic architecture. Further studies of structural domains characteristic of synaptic proteins in invertebrates such as C. elegans and comparison of their role in mammals will help identify other conserved synaptic molecular building blocks. Furthermore, this type of functional comparison across species will also identify structural domains added during evolution in correlation with increased complexity, shedding light on mechanisms underlying cognition and brain diseases.

Autoantibodies against NCAM1 from patients with schizophrenia cause schizophrenia-related behavior and changes in synapses in mice

From genetic and etiological studies, autoimmune mechanisms underlying schizophrenia are suspected; however, the details remain unclear. In this study, we describe autoantibodies against neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM1) in patients with schizophrenia (5.4%, cell-based assay; 6.7%, ELISA) in a Japanese cohort (n = 223). Anti-NCAM1 autoantibody disrupts both NCAM1-NCAM1 and NCAM1-glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) interactions. Furthermore, the anti-NCAM1 antibody purified from patients with schizophrenia interrupts NCAM1-Fyn interaction and inhibits phosphorylation of FAK, MEK1, and ERK1 when introduced into the cerebrospinal fluid of mice and also reduces the number of spines and synapses in frontal cortex. In addition, it induces schizophrenia-related behavior in mice, including deficient pre-pulse inhibition and cognitive impairment. In conclusion, anti-NCAM1 autoantibodies in patients with schizophrenia cause schizophrenia-related behavior and changes in synapses in mice. These antibodies may be a potential therapeutic target and serve as a biomarker to distinguish a small but treatable subgroup in heterogeneous patients with schizophrenia.

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Some patients with schizophrenia are positive for anti-NCAM1 autoantibodies

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Anti-NCAM1 antibody from schizophrenia patients inhibits NCAM1-NCAM1 interactions

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Anti-NCAM1 antibody from schizophrenia patients reduces spines and synapses in mice

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Anti-NCAM1 antibody from patients induces schizophrenia-related behavior in mice

CellCall: integrating paired ligand-receptor and transcription factor activities for cell-cell communication

With the dramatic development of single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) technologies, the systematic decoding of cell-cell communication has received great research interest. To date, several in-silico methods have been developed, but most of them lack the ability to predict the communication pathways connecting the insides and outsides of cells. Here, we developed CellCall, a toolkit to infer inter- and intracellular communication pathways by integrating paired ligand-receptor and transcription factor (TF) activity. Moreover, CellCall uses an embedded pathway activity analysis method to identify the significantly activated pathways involved in intercellular crosstalk between certain cell types. Additionally, CellCall offers a rich suite of visualization options (Circos plot, Sankey plot, bubble plot, ridge plot, etc.) to present the analysis results. Case studies on scRNA-seq datasets of human testicular cells and the tumor immune microenvironment demonstrated the reliable and unique functionality of CellCall in intercellular communication analysis and internal TF activity exploration, which were further validated experimentally. Comparative analysis of CellCall and other tools indicated that CellCall was more accurate and offered more functions. In summary, CellCall provides a sophisticated and practical tool allowing researchers to decipher intercellular communication and related internal regulatory signals based on scRNA-seq data. CellCall is freely available at https://github.com/ShellyCoder/cellcall.

Expression of immunoglobulin constant domain genes in neurons of the mouse central nervous system

General consensus states that immunoglobulins are exclusively expressed by B lymphocytes to form the first line of defense against common pathogens. Here, we provide compelling evidence for the expression of two heavy chain immunoglobulin genes in subpopulations of neurons in the mouse brain and spinal cord. RNA isolated from excitatory and inhibitory neurons through ribosome affinity purification revealed Ighg3 and Ighm transcripts encoding for the constant (Fc), but not the variable regions of IgG3 and IgM. Because, in the absence of the variable immunoglobulin regions, these transcripts lack the canonical transcription initiation site used in lymphocytes, we screened for alternative 5' transcription start sites and identified a novel 5' exon adjacent to a proposed promoter element. Immunohistochemical, Western blot, and in silico analyses strongly support that these neuronal transcripts are translated into proteins containing four Immunoglobulin domains. Our data thus demonstrate the expression of two Fc-encoding genes Ighg3 and Ighm in spinal and supraspinal neurons of the murine CNS and suggest a hitherto unknown function of the encoded proteins.

Interactions between maternal fluoxetine exposure, the maternal gut microbiome and fetal neurodevelopment in mice

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the most widely used treatment by women experiencing depression during pregnancy. However, the effects of maternal SSRI use on early offspring development remain poorly understood. Recent studies suggest that SSRIs can modify the gut microbiota and interact directly with particular gut bacteria, raising the question of whether the gut microbiome impacts host responses to SSRIs. In this study, we investigate effects of prenatal SSRI exposure on fetal neurodevelopment and further evaluate potential modulatory influences of the maternal gut microbiome. We demonstrate that maternal treatment with the SSRI fluoxetine induces widespread alterations in the fetal brain transcriptome during midgestation, including increases in the expression of genes relevant to synaptic organization and neuronal signaling and decreases in the expression of genes related to DNA replication and mitosis. Notably, maternal fluoxetine treatment from E7.5 to E14.5 has no overt effects on the composition of the maternal gut microbiota. However, maternal pretreatment with antibiotics to deplete the gut microbiome substantially modifies transcriptional responses of the fetal brain to maternal fluoxetine treatment. In particular, maternal fluoxetine treatment elevates localized expression of the opioid binding protein/cell adhesion molecule like gene Opcml in the fetal thalamus and lateral ganglionic eminence, which is prevented by maternal antibiotic treatment. Together, these findings reveal that maternal fluoxetine treatment alters gene expression in the fetal brain through pathways that are impacted, at least in part, by the presence of the maternal gut microbiota.

New Partners Identified by Mass Spectrometry Assay Reveal Functions of NCAM2 in Neural Cytoskeleton Organization

Neuronal cell adhesion molecule 2 (NCAM2) is a membrane protein with an important role in the morphological development of neurons. In the cortex and the hippocampus, NCAM2 is essential for proper neuronal differentiation, dendritic and axonal outgrowth and synapse formation. However, little is known about NCAM2 functional mechanisms and its interactive partners during brain development. Here we used mass spectrometry to study the molecular interactome of NCAM2 in the second postnatal week of the mouse cerebral cortex. We found that NCAM2 interacts with >100 proteins involved in numerous processes, including neuronal morphogenesis and synaptogenesis. We validated the most relevant interactors, including Neurofilaments (NEFs), Microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2), Calcium/calmodulin kinase II alpha (CaMKIIα), Actin and Nogo. An in silico analysis of the cytosolic tail of the NCAM2.1 isoform revealed specific phosphorylation site motifs with a putative affinity for some of these interactors. Our results expand the knowledge of NCAM2 interactome and confirm the key role of NCAM2 in cytoskeleton organization, neuronal morphogenesis and synaptogenesis. These findings are of interest in explaining the phenotypes observed in different pathologies with alterations in the NCAM2 gene.

Transneuronal Dpr12/DIP-δ interactions facilitate compartmentalized dopaminergic innervation of Drosophila mushroom body axons

The mechanisms controlling wiring of neuronal networks are not completely understood. The stereotypic architecture of the Drosophila mushroom body (MB) offers a unique system to study circuit assembly. The adult medial MB γ-lobe is comprised of a long bundle of axons that wire with specific modulatory and output neurons in a tiled manner, defining five distinct zones. We found that the immunoglobulin superfamily protein Dpr12 is cell-autonomously required in γ-neurons for their developmental regrowth into the distal γ4/5 zones, where both Dpr12 and its interacting protein, DIP-δ, are enriched. DIP-δ functions in a subset of dopaminergic neurons that wire with γ-neurons within the γ4/5 zone. During metamorphosis, these dopaminergic projections arrive to the γ4/5 zone prior to γ-axons, suggesting that γ-axons extend through a prepatterned region. Thus, Dpr12/DIP-δ transneuronal interaction is required for γ4/5 zone formation. Our study sheds light onto molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying circuit formation within subcellular resolution.

Analysis of cell-type-specific chromatin modifications and gene expression in Drosophila neurons that direct reproductive behavior

Examining the role of chromatin modifications and gene expression in neurons is critical for understanding how the potential for behaviors are established and maintained. We investigate this question by examining Drosophila melanogaster fru P1 neurons that underlie reproductive behaviors in both sexes. We developed a method to purify cell-type-specific chromatin (Chromatag), using a tagged histone H2B variant that is expressed using the versatile Gal4/UAS gene expression system. Here, we use Chromatag to evaluate five chromatin modifications, at three life stages in both sexes. We find substantial changes in chromatin modification profiles across development and fewer differences between males and females. Additionally, we find chromatin modifications that persist in different sets of genes from pupal to adult stages, which may point to genes important for cell fate determination in fru P1 neurons. We generated cell-type-specific RNA-seq data sets, using translating ribosome affinity purification (TRAP). We identify actively translated genes in fru P1 neurons, revealing novel stage- and sex-differences in gene expression. We also find chromatin modification enrichment patterns that are associated with gene expression. Next, we use the chromatin modification data to identify cell-type-specific super-enhancer-containing genes. We show that genes with super-enhancers in fru P1 neurons differ across development and between the sexes. We validated that a set of genes are expressed in fru P1 neurons, which were chosen based on having a super-enhancer and TRAP-enriched expression in fru P1 neurons.

A Human IgSF Cell-Surface Interactome Reveals a Complex Network of Protein-Protein Interactions

Cell-surface protein-protein interactions (PPIs) mediate cell-cell communication, recognition, and responses. We executed an interactome screen of 564 human cell-surface and secreted proteins, most of which are immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) proteins, using a high-throughput, automated ELISA-based screening platform employing a pooled-protein strategy to test all 318,096 PPI combinations. Screen results, augmented by phylogenetic homology analysis, revealed ∼380 previously unreported PPIs. We validated a subset using surface plasmon resonance and cell binding assays. Observed PPIs reveal a large and complex network of interactions both within and across biological systems. We identified new PPIs for receptors with well-characterized ligands and binding partners for “orphan” receptors. New PPIs include proteins expressed on multiple cell types and involved in diverse processes including immune and nervous system development and function, differentiation/proliferation, metabolism, vascularization, and reproduction. These PPIs provide a resource for further biological investigation into their functional relevance and may offer new therapeutic drug targets.

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Human IgSF interactome reveals complex network of cell-surface protein interactions

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Phylogenetic homology analysis predicts protein-protein interactions

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∼380 previously unknown protein-protein interactions identified

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Deorphanization of receptors and new binding partners for well-studied receptors

Investigation of Drosophila fruitless neurons that express Dpr/DIP cell adhesion molecules

Drosophila reproductive behaviors are directed by fruitless neurons. A reanalysis of genomic studies shows that genes encoding dpr and DIP immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) members are expressed in fru P1 neurons. We find that each fru P1 and dpr/DIP (fru P1 ∩ dpr/DIP) overlapping expression pattern is similar in both sexes, but there are dimorphisms in neuronal morphology and cell number. Behavioral studies of fru P1 ∩ dpr/DIP perturbation genotypes indicate that the mushroom body functions together with the lateral protocerebral complex to direct courtship behavior. A single-cell RNA-seq analysis of fru P1 neurons shows that many DIPs have high expression in a small set of neurons, whereas the dprs are often expressed in a larger set of neurons at intermediate levels, with a myriad of dpr/DIP expression combinations. Functionally, we find that perturbations of sex hierarchy genes and of DIP-ε change the sex-specific morphologies of fru P1 ∩ DIP-α neurons.

Estimating the accuracy of pharmacophore-based detection of cognate receptor-ligand pairs in the immunoglobulin superfamily

Secreted and membrane-bound members of the immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) encompass a large, diverse array of proteins that play central roles in immune response and neural development, and are implicated in diseases ranging from cancer to rheumatoid arthritis. Despite the potential biomedical benefits of understanding IgSF:IgSF cognate receptor-ligand interactions, relatively little about them is known at a molecular level, and experimentally probing all possible receptor-ligand pairs is prohibitively costly. The Protein Ligand Interface Design (ProtLID) algorithm is a computational pharmacophore-based approach to identify cognate receptor-ligand pairs that was recently validated in a pilot study on a small set of IgSF complexes. Although ProtLID has shown a success rate of 61% at identifying at least one cognate ligand for a given receptor, it currently lacks any form of confidence measure that can prioritize individual receptor-ligand predictions to pursue experimentally. In this study, we expanded the application of ProtLID to cover all IgSF complexes with available structural data. In addition, we introduced an approach to estimate the confidence of predictions made by ProtLID based on a statistical analysis of how the ProtLID-constructed pharmacophore matches the structures of candidate ligands. The confidence score combines the physicochemical compatibility, spatial consistency, and mathematical skewness of the distribution of matches throughout a set of candidate ligands. Our results suggest that a subset of cases meeting stringent confidence criteria will always have at least one successful receptor-ligand prediction.

Neuronal immunoglobulin superfamily cell adhesion molecules in epithelial morphogenesis: insights from Drosophila

In this review, we address the function of immunoglobulin superfamily cell adhesion molecules (IgCAMs) in epithelia. Work in the Drosophila model system in particular has revealed novel roles for calcium-independent adhesion molecules in the morphogenesis of epithelial tissues. We review the molecular composition of lateral junctions with a focus on their IgCAM components and reconsider the functional roles of epithelial lateral junctions. The epithelial IgCAMs discussed in this review have well-defined roles in the nervous system, particularly in the process of axon guidance, suggesting functional overlap and conservation in mechanism between that process and epithelial remodelling. We expand on the hypothesis that epithelial occluding junctions and synaptic junctions are compositionally equivalent and present a novel hypothesis that the mechanism of epithelial cell (re)integration and synaptic junction formation are shared. We highlight the importance of considering non-cadherin-based adhesion in our understanding of the mechanics of epithelial tissues and raise questions to direct future work. This article is part of the discussion meeting issue 'Contemporary morphogenesis'.

Structure and Functions of Sidekicks

Many of the immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) molecules play pivotal roles in cell communication. The Sidekick (Sdk) gene, first described in Drosophila, encodes the single-pass transmembrane protein, Sdk, which is one of the largest among IgSF membrane proteins. Sdk first appeared in multicellular animals during the Precambrian age and later evolved to Sdk1 and Sdk2 in vertebrates by gene duplication. In flies, a single Sdk is involved in positioning photoreceptor neurons and their axons in the visual system and is responsible for dynamically rearranging cell shapes by strictly populating tricellular adherens junctions in epithelia. In vertebrates, Sdk1 and Sdk2 are expressed by unique sets of cell types and distinctively participate in the formation and/or maintenance of neural circuits in the retina, indicating that they are determinants of synaptic specificity. These functions are mediated by specific homophilic binding of their ectodomains and by intracellular association with PDZ scaffold proteins. Recent human genetic studies as well as animal experiments implicate that Sdk genes may influence various neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders, such as autism spectrum disorders, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, addiction, and depression. The gigantic Sdk1 gene is susceptible to erratic gene rearrangements or mutations in both somatic and germ-line cells, potentially contributing to neurological disorders and some types of cancers. This review summarizes what is known about the structure and roles of Sdks.

Synapse development and maturation at the drosophila neuromuscular junction

Synapses are the sites of neuron-to-neuron communication and form the basis of the neural circuits that underlie all animal cognition and behavior. Chemical synapses are specialized asymmetric junctions between a presynaptic neuron and a postsynaptic target that form through a series of diverse cellular and subcellular events under the control of complex signaling networks. Once established, the synapse facilitates neurotransmission by mediating the organization and fusion of synaptic vesicles and must also retain the ability to undergo plastic changes. In recent years, synaptic genes have been implicated in a wide array of neurodevelopmental disorders; the individual and societal burdens imposed by these disorders, as well as the lack of effective therapies, motivates continued work on fundamental synapse biology. The properties and functions of the nervous system are remarkably conserved across animal phyla, and many insights into the synapses of the vertebrate central nervous system have been derived from studies of invertebrate models. A prominent model synapse is the Drosophila melanogaster larval neuromuscular junction, which bears striking similarities to the glutamatergic synapses of the vertebrate brain and spine; further advantages include the simplicity and experimental versatility of the fly, as well as its century-long history as a model organism. Here, we survey findings on the major events in synaptogenesis, including target specification, morphogenesis, and the assembly and maturation of synaptic specializations, with a emphasis on work conducted at the Drosophila neuromuscular junction.

Quantitative proteomic characterization of microvesicles/exosomes from the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with acute bilirubin encephalopathy

Severe hyperbilirubinemia causes neurotoxicity and may lead to acute bilirubin encephalopathy (ABE) during the critical period of central nervous system development. The aim of the present study was to identify differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) in microvesicles/exosomes (MV/E) isolated from the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients with ABE. Co-precipitation was used to isolate the MV/E from the CSF of patients with ABE and age-matched controls. Isobaric tagging for relative and absolute quantification-based proteomic technology combined with liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry was used to identify DEPs in the MV/E. Bioinformatics analysis was subsequently performed to investigate Gene Ontology functional annotation and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enriched signaling pathways of these DEPs. A total of four proteins were selected for further validation via western blotting. A total of 291 dysregulated proteins were identified by comparing the patients with ABE with the controls. Bioinformatics analysis indicated the involvement of immune-inflammation-associated cellular processes and signaling pathways in the pathophysiology of ABE. In conclusion, the present study identified the proteomic profile of MV/E isolated from the CSF of patients with ABE. These results may provide an improved understanding of the pathogenesis of ABE and may help to identify early diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

From Bound Cells Comes a Sound Mind: The Role of Neuronal Growth Regulator 1 in Psychiatric Disorders

Cell-to-cell adhesion is important for maintenance of brain structure and function. Abnormal neuronal cell adhesion and loss of its connectivity are considered a main cause of psychiatric disorders such as major depressive disorder (MDD). Various cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are involved in neuronal cell adhesions and thereby affect brain functions such as learning and memory, cognitive functions, and psychiatric functions. Compared with other CAMs, neuronal growth regulator 1 (Negr1) has a distinct functioning mechanism in terms of its cross-talk with cytokine receptor signaling. Negr1 is a member of the immunoglobulin LON (IgLON) family of proteins and is involved in neuronal outgrowth, dendritic arborization, and synapse formation. In humans, Negr1 is a risk gene for obesity based on a genome-wide association study. More recently, accumulating evidence supports that it also plays a critical role in psychiatric disorders. In this review, we discuss the recent findings on the role of Negr1 in MDD, focusing on its regulatory mechanism. We also provide evidence of putative involvement of Negr1 in other psychiatric disorders based on the novel behavioral phenotypes of Negr1 knockout mice.

NCAM2 Regulates Dendritic and Axonal Differentiation through the Cytoskeletal Proteins MAP2 and 14-3-3

Neural cell adhesion molecule 2 (NCAM2) is involved in the development and plasticity of the olfactory system. Genetic data have implicated the NCAM2 gene in neurodevelopmental disorders including Down syndrome and autism, although its role in cortical development is unknown. Here, we show that while overexpression of NCAM2 in hippocampal neurons leads to minor alterations, its downregulation severely compromises dendritic architecture, leading to an aberrant phenotype including shorter dendritic trees, retraction of dendrites, and emergence of numerous somatic neurites. Further, our data reveal alterations in the axonal tree and deficits in neuronal polarization. In vivo studies confirm the phenotype and reveal an unexpected role for NCAM2 in cortical migration. Proteomic and cell biology experiments show that NCAM2 molecules exert their functions through a protein complex with the cytoskeletal-associated proteins MAP2 and 14-3-3γ and ζ. We provide evidence that NCAM2 depletion results in destabilization of the microtubular network and reduced MAP2 signal. Our results demonstrate a role for NCAM2 in dendritic formation and maintenance, and in neural polarization and migration, through interaction of NCAM2 with microtubule-associated proteins.

Interactions between Dpr11 and DIP-γ control selection of amacrine neurons in Drosophila color vision circuits

Drosophila R7 UV photoreceptors (PRs) are divided into yellow (y) and pale (p) subtypes. yR7 PRs express the Dpr11 cell surface protein and are presynaptic to Dm8 amacrine neurons (yDm8) that express Dpr11's binding partner DIP-γ, while pR7 PRs synapse onto DIP-γ-negative pDm8. Dpr11 and DIP-γ expression patterns define 'yellow' and 'pale' color vision circuits. We examined Dm8 neurons in these circuits by electron microscopic reconstruction and expansion microscopy. DIP-γ and dpr11 mutations affect the morphologies of yDm8 distal ('home column') dendrites. yDm8 neurons are generated in excess during development and compete for presynaptic yR7 PRs, and interactions between Dpr11 and DIP-γ are required for yDm8 survival. These interactions also allow yDm8 neurons to select yR7 PRs as their appropriate home column partners. yDm8 and pDm8 neurons do not normally compete for survival signals or R7 partners, but can be forced to do so by manipulation of R7 subtype fate.

Modular transcriptional programs separately define axon and dendrite connectivity

Patterns of synaptic connectivity are remarkably precise and complex. Single-cell RNA sequencing has revealed a vast transcriptional diversity of neurons. Nevertheless, a clear logic underlying the transcriptional control of neuronal connectivity has yet to emerge. Here, we focused on Drosophila T4/T5 neurons, a class of closely related neuronal subtypes with different wiring patterns. Eight subtypes of T4/T5 neurons are defined by combinations of two patterns of dendritic inputs and four patterns of axonal outputs. Single-cell profiling during development revealed distinct transcriptional programs defining each dendrite and axon wiring pattern. These programs were defined by the expression of a few transcription factors and different combinations of cell surface proteins. Gain and loss of function studies provide evidence for independent control of different wiring features. We propose that modular transcriptional programs for distinct wiring features are assembled in different combinations to generate diverse patterns of neuronal connectivity.

Control of Synaptic Specificity by Establishing a Relative Preference for Synaptic Partners

The ability of neurons to identify correct synaptic partners is fundamental to the proper assembly and function of neural circuits. Relative to other steps in circuit formation such as axon guidance, our knowledge of how synaptic partner selection is regulated is severely limited. Drosophila Dpr and DIP immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) cell-surface proteins bind heterophilically and are expressed in a complementary manner between synaptic partners in the visual system. Here, we show that in the lamina, DIP mis-expression is sufficient to promote synapse formation with Dpr-expressing neurons and that disrupting DIP function results in ectopic synapse formation. These findings indicate that DIP proteins promote synapses to form between specific cell types and that in their absence, neurons synapse with alternative partners. We propose that neurons have the capacity to synapse with a broad range of cell types and that synaptic specificity is achieved by establishing a preference for specific partners.

Discovery of receptor-ligand interfaces in the immunoglobulin superfamily

Cell-surface-anchored immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) proteins are widespread throughout the human proteome, forming crucial components of diverse biological processes including immunity, cell-cell adhesion, and carcinogenesis. IgSF proteins generally function through protein-protein interactions carried out between extracellular, membrane-bound proteins on adjacent cells, known as trans-binding interfaces. These protein-protein interactions constitute a class of pharmaceutical targets important in the treatment of autoimmune diseases, chronic infections, and cancer. A molecular-level understanding of IgSF protein-protein interactions would greatly benefit further drug development. A critical step toward this goal is the reliable identification of IgSF trans-binding interfaces. We propose a novel combination of structure and sequence information to identify trans-binding interfaces in IgSF proteins. We developed a structure-based binding interface prediction approach that can identify broad regions of the protein surface that encompass the binding interfaces and suggests that IgSF proteins possess binding supersites. These interfaces could theoretically be pinpointed using sequence-based conservation analysis, with performance approaching the theoretical upper limit of binding interface prediction accuracy, but achieving this in practice is limited by the current ability to identify an appropriate multiple sequence alignment for conservation analysis. However, an important contribution of combining the two orthogonal methods is that agreement between these approaches can estimate the reliability of the predictions. This approach was benchmarked on the set of 22 IgSF proteins with experimentally solved structures in complex with their ligands. Additionally, we provide structure-based predictions and reliability scores for the 62 IgSF proteins with known structure but yet uncharacterized binding interfaces.

IGSF1: A novel oncogene regulates the thyroid cancer progression

Thyroid cancer has been continuously increasing and extraordinarily prevalent worldwide. The genetic diagnosis has been widely used in fine needle aspiration. IGSF1, an immunoglobulin superfamily member 1, has been shown to be associated with the regulation of thyroid hormone. But the function of IGSF1 in thyroid cancer has not been explored yet. In this article, we will illuminate the correlation between IGSF1 expression and thyroid cancer. We analysed the level of IGSF1 expression in 55 pairs of tissue samples by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) data portal. After that, we transfected small interfering RNA to silence IGSF1 in thyroid cancer cell lines (KTC-1 and BCPAP) and confirmed the function of IGSF1 by performed colony formation, migration, invasion, cell counting kit-8, and apoptosis assays. IGSF1 was upregulated in thyroid cancer tissues compared with the adjacent normal tissues (t = 5.783, df = 54; P < .0001) and TCGA (T: N = 65.91 ± 3.998, n = 501: 2.824 ± 0.273, n = 58; P < .0001). In thyroid cell lines, experiments showed that downregulated IGSF1 inhibited proliferation, metastasis, and promoted cell apoptosis. Meanwhile, inhibited IGSF1 expression could downregulate N-cadherin, vimentin, and EZH2, which is associated with metastasis. Thyroid cancer cells IGSF1 expression levels are a correlation with its ability to growth, metastasis, and apoptosis.

Family of neural wiring receptors in bilaterians defined by phylogenetic, biochemical, and structural evidence

The evolution of complex nervous systems was accompanied by the expansion of numerous protein families, including cell-adhesion molecules, surface receptors, and their ligands. These proteins mediate axonal guidance, synapse targeting, and other neuronal wiring-related functions. Recently, 32 interacting cell surface proteins belonging to two newly defined families of the Ig superfamily (IgSF) in fruit flies were discovered to label different subsets of neurons in the brain and ventral nerve cord. They have been shown to be involved in synaptic targeting and morphogenesis, retrograde signaling, and neuronal survival. Here, we show that these proteins, Dprs and DIPs, are members of a widely distributed family of two- and three-Ig domain molecules with neuronal wiring functions, which we refer to as Wirins. Beginning from a single ancestral Wirin gene in the last common ancestor of Bilateria, numerous gene duplications produced the heterophilic Dprs and DIPs in protostomes, along with two other subfamilies that diversified independently across protostome phyla. In deuterostomes, the ancestral Wirin evolved into the IgLON subfamily of neuronal receptors. We show that IgLONs interact with each other and that their complexes can be broken by mutations designed using homology models based on Dpr and DIP structures. The nematode orthologs ZIG-8 and RIG-5 also form heterophilic and homophilic complexes, and crystal structures reveal numerous apparently ancestral features shared with Dpr-DIP complexes. The evolutionary, biochemical, and structural relationships we demonstrate here provide insights into neural development and the rise of the metazoan nervous system.

Structure of the heterophilic interaction between the nectin-like 4 and nectin-like 1 molecules

Nectin-like (Necl) molecules are Ca²⁺-independent Ig-like transmembrane cell adhesion molecules that participate in junctions between different cell types. The specific cell-cell adhesions mediated by Necl proteins are important in neural development and have been implicated in neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we present the crystal structure of the mouse Necl-4 full ectodomain and the structure of the heterophilic Necl ectodomain complex formed by the mNecl-4 and mNecl-1 ectodomains. We demonstrate that, while the ectodomain of mNecl-4 is monomeric, it forms a stable heterodimer with Ig1 of mNecl-1, with an affinity significantly higher than that observed for self-dimerization of the mNecl-1 ectodomain. We validated our structural characterizations by performing a surface plasmon resonance assay and an Fc fusion protein binding assay in mouse primary dorsal root ganglia neurites and Schwann cells and identified a selection of residues important for heterophilic interactions. Finally, we proposed a model of Necl binding specificity that involves an induced-fit conformational change at the dimerization interface.

Immunoglobulin-Like Receptors and Their Impact on Wiring of Brain Synapses

Synapse formation is mediated by a surprisingly large number and wide variety of genes encoding many different protein classes. One of the families increasingly implicated in synapse wiring is the immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF). IgSF molecules are by definition any protein containing at least one Ig-like domain, making this family one of the most common protein classes encoded by the genome. Here, we review the emerging roles for IgSF molecules in synapse formation specifically in the vertebrate brain, focusing on examples from three classes of IgSF members: ( a) cell adhesion molecules, ( b) signaling molecules, and ( c) immune molecules expressed in the brain. The critical roles for IgSF members in regulating synapse formation may explain their extensive involvement in neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders. Solving the IgSF code for synapse formation may reveal multiple new targets for rescuing IgSF-mediated deficits in synapse formation and, eventually, new treatments for psychiatric disorders caused by altered IgSF-induced synapse wiring.

Architecture of cell-cell adhesion mediated by sidekicks

Cell-cell adhesion is important for cell growth, tissue development, and neural network formation. Structures of cell adhesion molecules have been widely studied by crystallography, revealing the molecular details of adhesion interfaces. However, due to technical limitations, the overall structure and organization of adhesion molecules at cell adhesion interfaces has not been fully investigated. Here, we combine electron microscopy and other biophysical methods to characterize the structure of cell-cell adhesion mediated by the cell adhesion molecule Sidekick (Sidekick-1 and Sidekick-2) and obtain 3D views of the Sidekick-mediated adhesion interfaces as well as the organization of Sidekick molecules between cell membranes by electron tomography. The results suggest that the Ig-like domains and the fibronectin III (FnIII) domains of Sidekicks play different roles in cell adhesion. The Ig-like domains mediate the homophilic transinteractions bridging adjacent cells, while the FnIII domains interact with membranes, resulting in a tight adhesion interface between cells that may contribute to the specificity and plasticity of cell-cell contacts during cell growth and neural development.