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Taub DG, Woolf CJ. Age-dependent small fiber neuropathy: Mechanistic insights from animal models. Exp Neurol 2024; 377:114811. [PMID: 38723859 PMCID: PMC11131160 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2024.114811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Revised: 04/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/05/2024] [Indexed: 05/28/2024]
Abstract
Small fiber neuropathy (SFN) is a common and debilitating disease in which the terminals of small diameter sensory axons degenerate, producing sensory loss, and in many patients neuropathic pain. While a substantial number of cases are attributable to diabetes, almost 50% are idiopathic. An underappreciated aspect of the disease is its late onset in most patients. Animal models of human genetic mutations that produce SFN also display age-dependent phenotypes suggesting that aging is an important contributor to the risk of development of the disease. In this review we define how particular sensory neurons are affected in SFN and discuss how aging may drive the disease. We also evaluate how animal models of SFN can define disease mechanisms that will provide insight into early risk detection and suggest novel therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel G Taub
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center and Department of Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Clifford J Woolf
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center and Department of Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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2
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Stassart RM, Gomez-Sanchez JA, Lloyd AC. Schwann Cells as Orchestrators of Nerve Repair: Implications for Tissue Regeneration and Pathologies. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2024; 16:a041363. [PMID: 38199866 PMCID: PMC11146315 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a041363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Peripheral nerves exist in a stable state in adulthood providing a rapid bidirectional signaling system to control tissue structure and function. However, following injury, peripheral nerves can regenerate much more effectively than those of the central nervous system (CNS). This multicellular process is coordinated by peripheral glia, in particular Schwann cells, which have multiple roles in stimulating and nurturing the regrowth of damaged axons back to their targets. Aside from the repair of damaged nerves themselves, nerve regenerative processes have been linked to the repair of other tissues and de novo innervation appears important in establishing an environment conducive for the development and spread of tumors. In contrast, defects in these processes are linked to neuropathies, aging, and pain. In this review, we focus on the role of peripheral glia, especially Schwann cells, in multiple aspects of nerve regeneration and discuss how these findings may be relevant for pathologies associated with these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth M Stassart
- Paul-Flechsig-Institute of Neuropathology, University Clinic Leipzig, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - Jose A Gomez-Sanchez
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de Alicante (ISABIAL), Alicante 03010, Spain
- Instituto de Neurociencias CSIC-UMH, Sant Joan de Alicante 03550, Spain
| | - Alison C Lloyd
- UCL Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
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3
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Jagaraj CJ, Shadfar S, Kashani SA, Saravanabavan S, Farzana F, Atkin JD. Molecular hallmarks of ageing in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Cell Mol Life Sci 2024; 81:111. [PMID: 38430277 PMCID: PMC10908642 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-024-05164-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 01/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal, severely debilitating and rapidly progressing disorder affecting motor neurons in the brain, brainstem, and spinal cord. Unfortunately, there are few effective treatments, thus there remains a critical need to find novel interventions that can mitigate against its effects. Whilst the aetiology of ALS remains unclear, ageing is the major risk factor. Ageing is a slowly progressive process marked by functional decline of an organism over its lifespan. However, it remains unclear how ageing promotes the risk of ALS. At the molecular and cellular level there are specific hallmarks characteristic of normal ageing. These hallmarks are highly inter-related and overlap significantly with each other. Moreover, whilst ageing is a normal process, there are striking similarities at the molecular level between these factors and neurodegeneration in ALS. Nine ageing hallmarks were originally proposed: genomic instability, loss of telomeres, senescence, epigenetic modifications, dysregulated nutrient sensing, loss of proteostasis, mitochondrial dysfunction, stem cell exhaustion, and altered inter-cellular communication. However, these were recently (2023) expanded to include dysregulation of autophagy, inflammation and dysbiosis. Hence, given the latest updates to these hallmarks, and their close association to disease processes in ALS, a new examination of their relationship to pathophysiology is warranted. In this review, we describe possible mechanisms by which normal ageing impacts on neurodegenerative mechanisms implicated in ALS, and new therapeutic interventions that may arise from this.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyril Jones Jagaraj
- MND Research Centre, Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, 75 Talavera Road, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Sina Shadfar
- MND Research Centre, Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, 75 Talavera Road, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Sara Assar Kashani
- MND Research Centre, Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, 75 Talavera Road, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Sayanthooran Saravanabavan
- MND Research Centre, Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, 75 Talavera Road, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Fabiha Farzana
- MND Research Centre, Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, 75 Talavera Road, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Julie D Atkin
- MND Research Centre, Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, 75 Talavera Road, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia.
- La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Melbourne, VIC, 3086, Australia.
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4
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Kuang R, Zhang Y, Wu G, Zhu Z, Xu S, Liu X, Xu Y, Luo Y. Long Non-coding RNAs Influence Aging Process of Sciatic Nerves in SD Rats. Comb Chem High Throughput Screen 2024; 27:2140-2150. [PMID: 37691192 DOI: 10.2174/1386207326666230907115800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 08/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate the long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) changes in the sciatic nerve (SN) in Sprague Dawley (SD) rats during aging. METHODS Eighteen healthy SD rats were selected at the age of 1 month (1M) and 24 months (24M) and SNs were collected. High-throughput transcriptome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis were performed. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks and competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) networks were established according to differentially expressed genes (DEGs). RESULT As the length of lncRNAs increased, its proportion to the total number of lncRNAs decreased. A total of 4079 DElncRNAs were identified in Con vs. 24M. GO analysis was primarily clustered in nerve and lipid metabolism, extracellular matrix, and vascularization-related fields. There were 17 nodes in the PPI network of the target genes of up-regulating genes including Itgb2, Lox, Col11a1, Wnt5a, Kras, etc. Using quantitative RT-PCR, microarray sequencing accuracy was validated. There were 169 nodes constructing the PPI network of down-regulated target genes, mainly including Col1a1, Hmgcs1, Hmgcr. CeRNA interaction networks were constructed. CONCLUSION Lipid metabolism, angiogenesis, and ECM fields might play an important role in the senescence process in SNs. Col3a1, Serpinh1, Hmgcr, and Fdps could be candidates for nerve aging research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Kuang
- Department of Plastic Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 58 Zhongshan Road 2, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Department of Plastic Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 58 Zhongshan Road 2, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Guanggeng Wu
- Department of Plastic Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 58 Zhongshan Road 2, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Zhaowei Zhu
- Department of Plastic Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 58 Zhongshan Road 2, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Shuqia Xu
- Department of Plastic Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 58 Zhongshan Road 2, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Xiangxia Liu
- Department of Plastic Surgery, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Yangbin Xu
- Department of Plastic Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 58 Zhongshan Road 2, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Yunxiang Luo
- Department of Plastic Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 58 Zhongshan Road 2, Guangzhou 510080, China
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5
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Fuentes-Flores A, Geronimo-Olvera C, Girardi K, Necuñir-Ibarra D, Patel SK, Bons J, Wright MC, Geschwind D, Hoke A, Gomez-Sanchez JA, Schilling B, Rebolledo DL, Campisi J, Court FA. Senescent Schwann cells induced by aging and chronic denervation impair axonal regeneration following peripheral nerve injury. EMBO Mol Med 2023; 15:e17907. [PMID: 37860842 DOI: 10.15252/emmm.202317907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Following peripheral nerve injury, successful axonal growth and functional recovery require Schwann cell (SC) reprogramming into a reparative phenotype, a process dependent upon c-Jun transcription factor activation. Unfortunately, axonal regeneration is greatly impaired in aged organisms and following chronic denervation, which can lead to poor clinical outcomes. While diminished c-Jun expression in SCs has been associated with regenerative failure, it is unclear whether the inability to maintain a repair state is associated with the transition into an axonal growth inhibition phenotype. We here find that reparative SCs transition into a senescent phenotype, characterized by diminished c-Jun expression and secretion of inhibitory factors for axonal regeneration in aging and chronic denervation. In both conditions, the elimination of senescent SCs by systemic senolytic drug treatment or genetic targeting improved nerve regeneration and functional recovery, increased c-Jun expression and decreased nerve inflammation. This work provides the first characterization of senescent SCs and their influence on axonal regeneration in aging and chronic denervation, opening new avenues for enhancing regeneration and functional recovery after peripheral nerve injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Fuentes-Flores
- Center for Integrative Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Geroscience Center for Brain Health and Metabolism (GERO), Santiago, Chile
| | - Cristian Geronimo-Olvera
- Center for Integrative Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Geroscience Center for Brain Health and Metabolism (GERO), Santiago, Chile
| | - Karina Girardi
- Center for Integrative Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Geroscience Center for Brain Health and Metabolism (GERO), Santiago, Chile
| | - David Necuñir-Ibarra
- Center for Integrative Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Geroscience Center for Brain Health and Metabolism (GERO), Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Joanna Bons
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, USA
| | - Megan C Wright
- Departments of Neurology and Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Daniel Geschwind
- Departments of Neurology, Psychiatry, and Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Ahmet Hoke
- Departments of Neurology and Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jose A Gomez-Sanchez
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de Alicante (ISABIAL), Alicante, Spain
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, UMH-CSIC, San Juan de Alicante, Spain
| | | | - Daniela L Rebolledo
- Center for Integrative Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Geroscience Center for Brain Health and Metabolism (GERO), Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Felipe A Court
- Center for Integrative Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Geroscience Center for Brain Health and Metabolism (GERO), Santiago, Chile
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, USA
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Helbing DL, Kirkpatrick JM, Reuter M, Bischoff J, Stockdale A, Carlstedt A, Cirri E, Bauer R, Morrison H. Proteomic analysis of peripheral nerve myelin during murine aging. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1214003. [PMID: 37964793 PMCID: PMC10642449 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1214003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Aging of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is associated with structural and functional changes that lead to a reduction in regenerative capacity and the development of age-related peripheral neuropathy. Myelin is central to maintaining physiological peripheral nerve function and differences in myelin maintenance, degradation, formation and clearance have been suggested to contribute to age-related PNS changes. Recent proteomic studies have elucidated the complex composition of the total myelin proteome in health and its changes in neuropathy models. However, changes in the myelin proteome of peripheral nerves during aging have not been investigated. Here we show that the proteomes of myelin fractions isolated from young and old nerves show only subtle changes. In particular, we found that the three most abundant peripheral myelin proteins (MPZ, MBP, and PRX) do not change in old myelin fractions. We also show a tendency for high-abundance myelin proteins other than these three to be downregulated, with only a small number of ribosome-related proteins significantly downregulated and extracellular matrix proteins such as collagens upregulated. In addition, we illustrate that the peripheral nerve myelin proteome reported in this study is suitable for assessing myelin degradation and renewal during peripheral nerve degeneration and regeneration. Our results suggest that the peripheral nerve myelin proteome is relatively stable and undergoes only subtle changes in composition during mouse aging. We proffer the resultant dataset as a resource and starting point for future studies aimed at investigating peripheral nerve myelin during aging. Said datasets are available in the PRIDE archive under the identifier PXD040719 (aging myelin proteome) and PXD041026 (sciatic nerve injury proteome).
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Lucas Helbing
- Leibniz Institute on Aging, Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
- Center for Intervention and Research on Adaptive and Maladaptive Brain Circuits Underlying Mental Health (C-I-R-C), Jena-Magdeburg-Halle, Germany
- German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), Jena, Germany
- Institute of Molecular Cell Biology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Michael Reuter
- Leibniz Institute on Aging, Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Julia Bischoff
- Leibniz Institute on Aging, Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Amy Stockdale
- Leibniz Institute on Aging, Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Emilio Cirri
- Leibniz Institute on Aging, Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Reinhard Bauer
- Institute of Molecular Cell Biology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Helen Morrison
- Leibniz Institute on Aging, Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Germany
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
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7
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Maita KC, Garcia JP, Avila FR, Ricardo A TG, Ho OA, Claudia C S C, Eduardo N C, Forte AJ. Evaluation of the Aging Effect on Peripheral Nerve Regeneration: A Systematic Review. J Surg Res 2023; 288:329-340. [PMID: 37060859 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2023.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 04/17/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Peripheral nerve injuries have been associated with increased healthcare costs and decreased patients' quality of life. Aging represents one factor that slows the speed of peripheral nervous system (PNS) regeneration. Since cellular homeostasis imbalance associated with aging lead to an increased failure in nerve regeneration in mammals of advanced age, this systematic review aims to determine the main molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in peripheral nerve regeneration in aged murine models after a peripheral nerve injuries. METHODS Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, a literature search of 4 databases was conducted in July 2022 for studies comparing the peripheral nerve regeneration capability between young and aged murine models. RESULTS After the initial search yielded 744 publications, ten articles fulfilled the inclusion criteria. These studies show that age-related changes such as chronic inflammatory state, delayed macrophages' response to injury, dysfunctional Schwann Cells (SCs), and microenvironment alterations cause a reduction in the regenerative capability of the PNS in murine models. Furthermore, identifying altered gene expression patterns of SC after nerve damage can contribute to the understanding of physiological modifications produced by aging. CONCLUSIONS The interaction between macrophages and SC plays a crucial role in the nerve regeneration of aged models. Therefore, studies aimed at developing new and promising therapies for nerve regeneration should focus on these cellular groups to enhance the regenerative capabilities of the PNS in elderly populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karla C Maita
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida
| | - John P Garcia
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida
| | | | | | - Olivia A Ho
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida
| | - Chini Claudia C S
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida
| | - Chini Eduardo N
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida
| | - Antonio J Forte
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida.
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8
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Impairment of peripheral nerve regeneration by insufficient activation of the HGF/c-Met/c-Jun pathway in aged mice. Heliyon 2022; 8:e11411. [DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
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9
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Identification and quantification of nociceptive Schwann cells in mice with and without Streptozotocin-induced diabetes. J Chem Neuroanat 2022; 123:102118. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2022.102118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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10
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Mann A, Steinecker-Frohnwieser B, Naghilou A, Millesi F, Supper P, Semmler L, Wolf S, Marinova L, Weigl L, Weiss T, Radtke C. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Treatment Accelerates the Regeneration of Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons in vitro. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:859545. [PMID: 35418835 PMCID: PMC8995532 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.859545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional recovery from peripheral nerve injuries depends on a multitude of factors. Schwann cells (SCs) are key players in the regenerative process as they develop repair-specific functions to promote axon regrowth. However, chronically denervated SCs lose their repair phenotype, which is considered as a main reason for regeneration failure. Previous studies reported a modulatory effect of low nuclear magnetic resonance therapy (NMRT) on cell proliferation and gene expression. To provide first insight into a possible effect of NMRT on cells involved in peripheral nerve regeneration, this study investigated whether NMRT is able to influence the cellular behavior of primary SC and dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neuron cultures in vitro. The effect of NMRT on rat SCs was evaluated by comparing the morphology, purity, proliferation rate, and expression levels of (repair) SC associated genes between NMRT treated and untreated SC cultures. In addition, the influence of (1) NMRT and (2) medium obtained from NMRT treated SC cultures on rat DRG neuron regeneration was examined by analyzing neurite outgrowth and the neuronal differentiation status. Our results showed that NMRT stimulated the proliferation of SCs without changing their morphology, purity, or expression of (repair) SC associated markers. Furthermore, NMRT promoted DRG neuron regeneration shown by an increased cell survival, enhanced neurite network formation, and progressed neuronal differentiation status. Furthermore, the medium of NMRT treated SC cultures was sufficient to support DRG neuron survival and neurite outgrowth. These findings demonstrate a beneficial impact of NMRT on DRG neuron survival and neurite formation, which is primarily mediated via SC stimulation. Our data suggest that NMRT could be suitable as a non-invasive auxiliary treatment option for peripheral nerve injuries and encourage future studies that investigate the effect of NMRT in a physiological context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anda Mann
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Aida Naghilou
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Flavia Millesi
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Vienna, Austria
| | - Paul Supper
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Lorenz Semmler
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sonja Wolf
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Lena Marinova
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Lukas Weigl
- Department of Special Anesthesia and Pain Therapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Tamara Weiss
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Vienna, Austria
- *Correspondence: Tamara Weiss,
| | - Christine Radtke
- Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Vienna, Austria
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11
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Gomez-Sanchez JA, Patel N, Martirena F, Fazal SV, Mutschler C, Cabedo H. Emerging Role of HDACs in Regeneration and Ageing in the Peripheral Nervous System: Repair Schwann Cells as Pivotal Targets. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23062996. [PMID: 35328416 PMCID: PMC8951080 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23062996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Revised: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) has a remarkable regenerative capacity in comparison to the central nervous system (CNS), a phenomenon that is impaired during ageing. The ability of PNS axons to regenerate after injury is due to Schwann cells (SC) being reprogrammed into a repair phenotype called Repair Schwann cells. These repair SCs are crucial for supporting axonal growth after injury, myelin degradation in a process known as myelinophagy, neurotropic factor secretion, and axonal growth guidance through the formation of Büngner bands. After regeneration, repair SCs can remyelinate newly regenerated axons and support nonmyelinated axons. Increasing evidence points to an epigenetic component in the regulation of repair SC gene expression changes, which is necessary for SC reprogramming and regeneration. One of these epigenetic regulations is histone acetylation by histone acetyl transferases (HATs) or histone deacetylation by histone deacetylases (HDACs). In this review, we have focused particularly on three HDAC classes (I, II, and IV) that are Zn2+-dependent deacetylases. These HDACs are important in repair SC biology and remyelination after PNS injury. Another key aspect explored in this review is HDAC genetic compensation in SCs and novel HDAC inhibitors that are being studied to improve nerve regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose A. Gomez-Sanchez
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández—Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 03550 San Juan de Alicante, Spain; (N.P.); (H.C.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de Alicante (ISABIAL), 03010 Alicante, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-965-919-594
| | - Nikiben Patel
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández—Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 03550 San Juan de Alicante, Spain; (N.P.); (H.C.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de Alicante (ISABIAL), 03010 Alicante, Spain
| | - Fernanda Martirena
- Department of Hematology, General University Hospital of Elda, 03600 Elda, Spain;
| | - Shaline V. Fazal
- John Van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0PY, UK; (S.V.F.); (C.M.)
- Wellcome—MRC Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Puddicombe Way, Cambridge CB2 0AW, UK
| | - Clara Mutschler
- John Van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0PY, UK; (S.V.F.); (C.M.)
| | - Hugo Cabedo
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández—Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 03550 San Juan de Alicante, Spain; (N.P.); (H.C.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de Alicante (ISABIAL), 03010 Alicante, Spain
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12
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Jessen KR, Mirsky R. The Role of c-Jun and Autocrine Signaling Loops in the Control of Repair Schwann Cells and Regeneration. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 15:820216. [PMID: 35221918 PMCID: PMC8863656 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.820216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
After nerve injury, both Schwann cells and neurons switch to pro-regenerative states. For Schwann cells, this involves reprogramming of myelin and Remak cells to repair Schwann cells that provide the signals and mechanisms needed for the survival of injured neurons, myelin clearance, axonal regeneration and target reinnervation. Because functional repair cells are essential for regeneration, it is unfortunate that their phenotype is not robust. Repair cell activation falters as animals get older and the repair phenotype fades during chronic denervation. These malfunctions are important reasons for the poor outcomes after nerve damage in humans. This review will discuss injury-induced Schwann cell reprogramming and the concept of the repair Schwann cell, and consider the molecular control of these cells with emphasis on c-Jun. This transcription factor is required for the generation of functional repair cells, and failure of c-Jun expression is implicated in repair cell failures in older animals and during chronic denervation. Elevating c-Jun expression in repair cells promotes regeneration, showing in principle that targeting repair cells is an effective way of improving nerve repair. In this context, we will outline the emerging evidence that repair cells are sustained by autocrine signaling loops, attractive targets for interventions aimed at promoting regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristjan R. Jessen
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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13
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Negro S, Pirazzini M, Rigoni M. Models and methods to study Schwann cells. J Anat 2022; 241:1235-1258. [PMID: 34988978 PMCID: PMC9558160 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Schwann cells (SCs) are fundamental components of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) of all vertebrates and play essential roles in development, maintenance, function, and regeneration of peripheral nerves. There are distinct populations of SCs including: (1) myelinating SCs that ensheath axons by a specialized plasma membrane, called myelin, which enhances the conduction of electric impulses; (2) non‐myelinating SCs, including Remak SCs, which wrap bundles of multiple axons of small caliber, and perysinaptic SCs (PSCs), associated with motor axon terminals at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). All types of SCs contribute to PNS regeneration through striking morphological and functional changes in response to nerve injury, are affected in peripheral neuropathies and show abnormalities and a diminished plasticity during aging. Therefore, methodological approaches to study and manipulate SCs in physiological and pathophysiological conditions are crucial to expand the present knowledge on SC biology and to devise new therapeutic strategies to counteract neurodegenerative conditions and age‐derived denervation. We present here an updated overview of traditional and emerging methodologies for the study of SCs for scientists approaching this research field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuele Negro
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Marco Pirazzini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.,CIR-Myo, Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerca di Miologia, University of Padua, Padova, Italy
| | - Michela Rigoni
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.,CIR-Myo, Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerca di Miologia, University of Padua, Padova, Italy
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14
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De la Maza Krzeptowsky LC, San-Juan D, Ximénez Camilli C, Alvarez Perera LÁ, Valdez Ruvalcaba H, Morales Báez JA, Anschel DJ. Neurophysiological Intraoperative Monitoring in the Elderly. J Clin Neurophysiol 2021; 38:231-236. [PMID: 32141983 DOI: 10.1097/wnp.0000000000000689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring (IONM) is widely used to prevent nervous system injury during surgeries in elderly patients. However, there are no studies that describe the characteristics and changes in neurophysiological tests during the IONM of patients aged 60 years and older. The study aims to describe and compare IONM changes during surgeries in adult patients aged 18 to 59 years with those aged 60 years and older. METHODS We performed a comparative retrospective study of patients aged 18 to 59 years versus those 60 aged years and older who underwent IONM during 2013 to 2018 in Mexico City. Sociodemographic characteristics were recorded and compared. Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring techniques, their changes, and surgical procedures for both groups were analyzed and compared using descriptive statistics, Mann-Whitney U, Fisher, and χ2 tests. The sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values were calculated. RESULTS In total, 195 patients were analyzed: 104 patients, 68.63 ± 6.54 years old (elderly group) and 91 patients, 42.3 ± 10.5 years old (younger group). No differences were found in the rates of signal change during IONM between the group of elderly patients and the younger group. The sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values were 80%, 99%, 80%, and 99%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Elderly patients have a similar rate of changes in IONM signals compared with younger patients during heterogeneous surgeries guided by IONM.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel San-Juan
- Neurophysiology Department, Hospital Ángeles del Pedregal, México City, Mexico
- Neurology Department, National Institute of Neurology, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Luis Á Alvarez Perera
- Neurophysiology Department, Hospital Ángeles del Pedregal, México City, Mexico
- Neurology Department, National Institute of Neurology, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | | | - David J Anschel
- Comprehensive Epilepsy Center of Long Island, Port Jefferson, New York, U.S.A
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15
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Wagstaff LJ, Gomez-Sanchez JA, Fazal SV, Otto GW, Kilpatrick AM, Michael K, Wong LYN, Ma KH, Turmaine M, Svaren J, Gordon T, Arthur-Farraj P, Velasco-Aviles S, Cabedo H, Benito C, Mirsky R, Jessen KR. Failures of nerve regeneration caused by aging or chronic denervation are rescued by restoring Schwann cell c-Jun. eLife 2021; 10:e62232. [PMID: 33475496 PMCID: PMC7819709 DOI: 10.7554/elife.62232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
After nerve injury, myelin and Remak Schwann cells reprogram to repair cells specialized for regeneration. Normally providing strong regenerative support, these cells fail in aging animals, and during chronic denervation that results from slow axon growth. This impairs axonal regeneration and causes significant clinical problems. In mice, we find that repair cells express reduced c-Jun protein as regenerative support provided by these cells declines during aging and chronic denervation. In both cases, genetically restoring Schwann cell c-Jun levels restores regeneration to control levels. We identify potential gene candidates mediating this effect and implicate Shh in the control of Schwann cell c-Jun levels. This establishes that a common mechanism, reduced c-Jun in Schwann cells, regulates success and failure of nerve repair both during aging and chronic denervation. This provides a molecular framework for addressing important clinical problems, suggesting molecular pathways that can be targeted to promote repair in the PNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura J Wagstaff
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Jose A Gomez-Sanchez
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández‐CSICSan Juan de AlicanteSpain
| | - Shaline V Fazal
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Georg W Otto
- University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child HealthLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Alastair M Kilpatrick
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, University of EdinburghEdinburghUnited Kingdom
| | - Kirolos Michael
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Liam YN Wong
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Ki H Ma
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin‐MadisonMadisonUnited States
| | - Mark Turmaine
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - John Svaren
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin‐MadisonMadisonUnited States
| | - Tessa Gordon
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, The Hospital for Sick ChildrenTorontoCanada
| | - Peter Arthur-Farraj
- John Van Geest Centre for Brain repair, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of CambridgeCambridgeUnited Kingdom
| | - Sergio Velasco-Aviles
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández‐CSICSan Juan de AlicanteSpain
- Hospital General Universitario de Alicante, ISABIALAlicanteSpain
| | - Hugo Cabedo
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández‐CSICSan Juan de AlicanteSpain
- Hospital General Universitario de Alicante, ISABIALAlicanteSpain
| | - Cristina Benito
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Rhona Mirsky
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Kristjan R Jessen
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
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16
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de Jongh R, Spijkers XM, Pasteuning-Vuhman S, Vulto P, Pasterkamp RJ. Neuromuscular junction-on-a-chip: ALS disease modeling and read-out development in microfluidic devices. J Neurochem 2021; 157:393-412. [PMID: 33382092 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 12/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal and progressive neurodegenerative disease affecting upper and lower motor neurons with no cure available. Clinical and animal studies reveal that the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), a synaptic connection between motor neurons and skeletal muscle fibers, is highly vulnerable in ALS and suggest that NMJ defects may occur at the early stages of the disease. However, mechanistic insight into how NMJ dysfunction relates to the onset and progression of ALS is incomplete, which hampers therapy development. This is, in part, caused by a lack of robust in vitro models. The ability to combine microfluidic and induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technologies has opened up new avenues for studying molecular and cellular ALS phenotypes in vitro. Microfluidic devices offer several advantages over traditional culture approaches when modeling the NMJ, such as the spatial separation of different cell types and increased control over the cellular microenvironment. Moreover, they are compatible with 3D cell culture, which enhances NMJ functionality and maturity. Here, we review how microfluidic technology is currently being employed to develop more reliable in vitro NMJ models. To validate and phenotype such models, various morphological and functional read-outs have been developed. We describe and discuss the relevance of these read-outs and specifically illustrate how these read-outs have enhanced our understanding of NMJ pathology in ALS. Finally, we share our view on potential future directions and challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rianne de Jongh
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Xandor M Spijkers
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Mimetas B.V., Organ-on-a-chip Company, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Svetlana Pasteuning-Vuhman
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Paul Vulto
- Mimetas B.V., Organ-on-a-chip Company, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - R Jeroen Pasterkamp
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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17
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Huang Z, Powell R, Phillips JB, Haastert-Talini K. Perspective on Schwann Cells Derived from Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells in Peripheral Nerve Tissue Engineering. Cells 2020; 9:E2497. [PMID: 33213068 PMCID: PMC7698557 DOI: 10.3390/cells9112497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Schwann cells play a crucial role in successful peripheral nerve repair and regeneration by supporting both axonal growth and myelination. Schwann cells are therefore a feasible option for cell therapy treatment of peripheral nerve injury. However, sourcing human Schwann cells at quantities required for development beyond research is challenging. Due to their availability, rapid in vitro expansion, survival, and integration within the host tissue, stem cells have attracted considerable attention as candidate cell therapies. Among them, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) with the associated prospects for personalized treatment are a promising therapy to take the leap from bench to bedside. In this critical review, we firstly focus on the current knowledge of the Schwann cell phenotype in regard to peripheral nerve injury, including crosstalk with the immune system during peripheral nerve regeneration. Then, we review iPSC to Schwann cell derivation protocols and the results from recent in vitro and in vivo studies. We finally conclude with some prospects for the use of iPSCs in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhong Huang
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and Cell Biology, Hannover Medical School, 30623 Hannover, Germany;
- Center for Systems Neuroscience (ZSN) Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany
| | - Rebecca Powell
- Department of Pharmacology, UCL School of Pharmacy, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK;
- UCL Centre for Nerve Engineering, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - James B. Phillips
- Department of Pharmacology, UCL School of Pharmacy, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK;
- UCL Centre for Nerve Engineering, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Kirsten Haastert-Talini
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and Cell Biology, Hannover Medical School, 30623 Hannover, Germany;
- Center for Systems Neuroscience (ZSN) Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany
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18
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Böhm L, Helbing DL, Oraha N, Morrison H. The peripheral nervous system in hematopoietic stem cell aging. Mech Ageing Dev 2020; 191:111329. [PMID: 32795470 DOI: 10.1016/j.mad.2020.111329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 08/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Hematopoietic stem cell performance and identity, crucial for homeostasis of the blood-forming system, is governed by extrinsic factors found in the bone marrow microenvironment. Communication within hematopoietic stem cell niches occurs via soluble factors or cell-to-cell contacts between niche and blood-forming cells - which in turn are influenced by systemic factors distributed by the bone marrow extracellular fluid. Although hematopoietic cell-intrinsic aging contributes to the aging phenotype of the hematopoietic system, the architecture and cellular composition of the bone marrow microenvironment have emerged to be highly dynamic during aging and suggested as a major driver for the functional limitations of the blood system observable in old individuals. Recent attention has been paid to the interface between the peripheral nervous system and blood-forming cells in the bone marrow in several clinical contexts and in aging - the latter is reviewed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leopold Böhm
- Leibniz Institute on Aging, Fritz Lipmann Institute, 07745, Jena, Germany; Institute of Molecular Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Jena and Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Dario-Lucas Helbing
- Leibniz Institute on Aging, Fritz Lipmann Institute, 07745, Jena, Germany; Institute of Molecular Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Jena and Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Nova Oraha
- Leibniz Institute on Aging, Fritz Lipmann Institute, 07745, Jena, Germany; Institute of Molecular Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Jena and Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Helen Morrison
- Leibniz Institute on Aging, Fritz Lipmann Institute, 07745, Jena, Germany; Faculty of Biological Sciences, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, 07743, Jena, Germany.
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19
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Min Q, Parkinson DB, Dun XP. Migrating Schwann cells direct axon regeneration within the peripheral nerve bridge. Glia 2020; 69:235-254. [PMID: 32697392 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Schwann cells within the peripheral nervous system possess a remarkable regenerative potential. Current research shows that peripheral nerve-associated Schwann cells possess the capacity to promote repair of multiple tissues including peripheral nerve gap bridging, skin wound healing, digit tip repair as well as tooth regeneration. One of the key features of the specialized repair Schwann cells is that they become highly motile. They not only migrate into the area of damaged tissue and become a key component of regenerating tissue but also secrete signaling molecules to attract macrophages, support neuronal survival, promote axonal regrowth, activate local mesenchymal stem cells, and interact with other cell types. Currently, the importance of migratory Schwann cells in tissue regeneration is most evident in the case of a peripheral nerve transection injury. Following nerve transection, Schwann cells from both proximal and distal nerve stumps migrate into the nerve bridge and form Schwann cell cords to guide axon regeneration. The formation of Schwann cell cords in the nerve bridge is key to successful peripheral nerve repair following transection injury. In this review, we first examine nerve bridge formation and the behavior of Schwann cell migration in the nerve bridge, and then discuss how migrating Schwann cells direct regenerating axons into the distal nerve. We also review the current understanding of signals that could activate Schwann cell migration and signals that Schwann cells utilize to direct axon regeneration. Understanding the molecular mechanism of Schwann cell migration could potentially offer new therapeutic strategies for peripheral nerve repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Min
- School of Pharmacy, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China
| | - David B Parkinson
- Peninsula Medical School, Faculty of Health, Plymouth University, Plymouth, Devon, UK
| | - Xin-Peng Dun
- School of Pharmacy, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China
- Peninsula Medical School, Faculty of Health, Plymouth University, Plymouth, Devon, UK
- The Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
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20
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Wilcox MB, Laranjeira SG, Eriksson TM, Jessen KR, Mirsky R, Quick TJ, Phillips JB. Characterising cellular and molecular features of human peripheral nerve degeneration. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2020; 8:51. [PMID: 32303273 PMCID: PMC7164159 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-020-00921-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Nerve regeneration is a key biological process in those recovering from neural trauma. From animal models it is known that the regenerative capacity of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) relies heavily on the remarkable ability of Schwann cells to undergo a phenotypic shift from a myelinating phenotype to one that is supportive of neural regeneration. In rodents, a great deal is known about the molecules that control this process, such as the transcription factors c-Jun and early growth response protein 2 (EGR2/KROX20), or mark the cells and cellular changes involved, including SOX10 and P75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR). However, ethical and practical challenges associated with studying human nerve injury have meant that little is known about human nerve regeneration.The present study addresses this issue, analysing 34 denervated and five healthy nerve samples from 27 patients retrieved during reconstructive nerve procedures. Using immunohistochemistry and Real-Time quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-qPCR), the expression of SOX10, c-Jun, p75NTR and EGR2 was assessed in denervated samples and compared to healthy nerve. Nonparametric smoothing linear regression was implemented to better visualise trends in the expression of these markers across denervated samples.It was found, first, that two major genes associated with repair Schwann cells in rodents, c-Jun and p75NTR, are also up-regulated in acutely injured human nerves, while the myelin associated transcription factor EGR2 is down-regulated, observations that encourage the view that rodent models are relevant for learning about human nerve injury. Second, as in rodents, the expression of c-Jun and p75NTR declines during long-term denervation. In rodents, diminishing c-Jun and p75NTR levels mark the general deterioration of repair cells during chronic denervation, a process thought to be a major obstacle to effective nerve repair. The down-regulation of c-Jun and p75NTR reported here provides the first molecular evidence that also in humans, repair cells deteriorate during chronic denervation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B. Wilcox
- Peripheral Nerve Injury Research Unit, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, Stanmore, UK
- Department of Pharmacology, UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, London, WC1N 1AX UK
- UCL Centre for Nerve Engineering, University College London, London, UK
| | - Simão G Laranjeira
- UCL Centre for Nerve Engineering, University College London, London, UK
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College London, London, UK
| | - Tuula M. Eriksson
- Department of Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering, Eastman Dental Institute, University College London, London, UK
| | - Kristjan R. Jessen
- UCL Centre for Nerve Engineering, University College London, London, UK
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Rhona Mirsky
- UCL Centre for Nerve Engineering, University College London, London, UK
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Tom J. Quick
- Peripheral Nerve Injury Research Unit, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, Stanmore, UK
- UCL Centre for Nerve Engineering, University College London, London, UK
| | - James B. Phillips
- Department of Pharmacology, UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, London, WC1N 1AX UK
- UCL Centre for Nerve Engineering, University College London, London, UK
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21
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Yi S, Zhang Y, Gu X, Huang L, Zhang K, Qian T, Gu X. Application of stem cells in peripheral nerve regeneration. BURNS & TRAUMA 2020; 8:tkaa002. [PMID: 32346538 PMCID: PMC7175760 DOI: 10.1093/burnst/tkaa002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Traumatic peripheral nerve injury is a worldwide clinical issue with high morbidity. The severity of peripheral nerve injury can be classified as neurapraxia, axonotmesis or neurotmesis, according to Seddon's classification, or five different degrees according to Sunderland's classification. Patients with neurotmesis suffer from a complete transection of peripheral nerve stumps and are often in need of surgical repair of nerve defects. The applications of autologous nerve grafts as the golden standard for peripheral nerve transplantation meet some difficulties, including donor nerve sacrifice and nerve mismatch. Attempts have been made to construct tissue-engineered nerve grafts as supplements or even substitutes for autologous nerve grafts to bridge peripheral nerve defects. The incorporation of stem cells as seed cells into the biomaterial-based scaffolds increases the effectiveness of tissue-engineered nerve grafts and largely boosts the regenerative process. Numerous stem cells, including embryonic stem cells, neural stem cells, bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells, adipose stem cells, skin-derived precursor stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells, have been used in neural tissue engineering. In the current review, recent trials of stem cell-based tissue-engineered nerve grafts have been summarized; potential concerns and perspectives of stem cell therapeutics have also been contemplated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Yi
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Jiangsu Clinical Medicine Center of Tissue Engineering and Nerve Injury Repair, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Nuclear Medicine Department, Jiangsu Province Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaokun Gu
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Jiangsu Clinical Medicine Center of Tissue Engineering and Nerve Injury Repair, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, China
| | - Li Huang
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Jiangsu Clinical Medicine Center of Tissue Engineering and Nerve Injury Repair, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, China
| | - Kairong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Jiangsu Clinical Medicine Center of Tissue Engineering and Nerve Injury Repair, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, China
| | - Tianmei Qian
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Jiangsu Clinical Medicine Center of Tissue Engineering and Nerve Injury Repair, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaosong Gu
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Jiangsu Clinical Medicine Center of Tissue Engineering and Nerve Injury Repair, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, China
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22
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Lotfi L, Khakbiz M, Moosazadeh Moghaddam M, Bonakdar S. A biomaterials approach to Schwann cell development in neural tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res A 2019; 107:2425-2446. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.36749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Revised: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leila Lotfi
- Department of Life Science Engineering, Faculty of New Sciences and TechnologiesUniversity of Tehran Tehran Iran
| | - Mehrdad Khakbiz
- Department of Life Science Engineering, Faculty of New Sciences and TechnologiesUniversity of Tehran Tehran Iran
| | | | - Shahin Bonakdar
- National Cell Bank DepartmentPasteur Institute of Iran Tehran Iran
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23
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Teleanu RI, Gherasim O, Gherasim TG, Grumezescu V, Grumezescu AM, Teleanu DM. Nanomaterial-Based Approaches for Neural Regeneration. Pharmaceutics 2019; 11:E266. [PMID: 31181719 PMCID: PMC6630326 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11060266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanical, thermal, chemical, or ischemic injury of the central or peripheral nervous system results in neuron loss, neurite damage, and/or neuronal dysfunction, almost always accompanied by sensorimotor impairment which alters the patient's life quality. The regenerative strategies for the injured nervous system are currently limited and mainly allow partial functional recovery, so it is necessary to develop new and effective approaches for nervous tissue regenerative therapy. Nanomaterials based on inorganic or organic and composite or hybrid compounds with tunable physicochemical properties and functionality proved beneficial for the transport and delivery/release of various neuroregenerative-relevant biomolecules or cells. Within the following paragraphs, we will emphasize that nanomaterial-based strategies (including nanosized and nanostructured biomaterials) represent a promising alternative towards repairing and regenerating the injured nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raluca Ioana Teleanu
- "Victor Gomoiu" Clinical Children's Hospital, "Carol Davila" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania.
| | - Oana Gherasim
- Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest, 011061 Bucharest, Romania.
- Lasers Department, National Institute for Lasers, Plasma and Radiation Physics, 077125 Magurele, Romania.
| | - Tudor George Gherasim
- National Institute of Neurology and Neurovascular Diseases, 077160 Bucharest, Romania.
| | - Valentina Grumezescu
- Lasers Department, National Institute for Lasers, Plasma and Radiation Physics, 077125 Magurele, Romania.
| | - Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu
- Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest, 011061 Bucharest, Romania.
| | - Daniel Mihai Teleanu
- Emergency University Hospital, "Carol Davila" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania.
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24
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Volpi VG, Ferri C, Fregno I, Del Carro U, Bianchi F, Scapin C, Pettinato E, Solda T, Feltri ML, Molinari M, Wrabetz L, D’Antonio M. Schwann cells ER-associated degradation contributes to myelin maintenance in adult nerves and limits demyelination in CMT1B mice. PLoS Genet 2019; 15:e1008069. [PMID: 30995221 PMCID: PMC6488099 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1008069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Revised: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 03/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In the peripheral nervous system (PNS) myelinating Schwann cells synthesize large amounts of myelin protein zero (P0) glycoprotein, an abundant component of peripheral nerve myelin. In humans, mutations in P0 cause the demyelinating Charcot-Marie-Tooth 1B (CMT1B) neuropathy, one of the most diffused genetic disorders of the PNS. We previously showed that several mutations, such as the deletion of serine 63 (P0-S63del), result in misfolding and accumulation of P0 in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), with activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR). In addition, we observed that S63del mouse nerves display the upregulation of many ER-associated degradation (ERAD) genes, suggesting a possible involvement of this pathway in the clearance of the mutant P0. In ERAD in fact, misfolded proteins are dislocated from the ER and targeted for proteasomal degradation. Taking advantage of inducible cells that express the ER retained P0, here we show that the P0-S63del glycoprotein is degraded via ERAD. Moreover, we provide strong evidence that the Schwann cell-specific ablation of the ERAD factor Derlin-2 in S63del nerves exacerbates both the myelin defects and the UPR in vivo, unveiling a protective role for ERAD in CMT1B neuropathy. We also found that lack of Derlin-2 affects adult myelin maintenance in normal nerves, without compromising their development, pinpointing ERAD as a previously unrecognized player in preserving Schwann cells homeostasis in adulthood. Finally, we provide evidence that treatment of S63del peripheral nerve cultures with N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine (GlcNAc), known to enhance protein quality control pathways in C.elegans, ameliorates S63del nerve myelination ex vivo. Overall, our study suggests that potentiating adaptive ER quality control pathways might represent an appealing strategy to treat both conformational and age-related PNS disorders. Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathies are a large family of peripheral nerve disorders, showing extensive clinical and genetic heterogeneity. Although strong advances have been made in the identification of genes and mutations involved, effective therapies are still lacking. Intracellular retention of abnormal proteins has been recently suggested as one of the pathogenetic events that might underlie several conformational neuropathies. To limit the toxic effects of accumulated mutant proteins, cells have developed efficient protein quality control systems aimed at optimizing both protein folding and degradation. Here we show that ER-associated degradation limits Schwann cells stress and myelin defects caused by the accumulation of a mutant myelin protein into the ER. In addition, we also describe for the first time the importance of Schwann cells ERAD in preserving myelin integrity in adult nerves, showing that genetic ERAD impairment leads to a late onset, motor-predominant, peripheral neuropathy in vivo. Effort in the design of strategies that potentiate ERAD and ER quality controls is therefore highly desirable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera G. Volpi
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Cinzia Ferri
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Ilaria Fregno
- Instuitute for Research in Biomedicine, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Università della Svizzera italiana (USI), Bellinzona, Switzerland
- Department of Biology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ubaldo Del Carro
- Institute of Experimental Neurology (INSPE), Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Bianchi
- Institute of Experimental Neurology (INSPE), Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Cristina Scapin
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Emanuela Pettinato
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Tatiana Solda
- Instuitute for Research in Biomedicine, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Università della Svizzera italiana (USI), Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - M. Laura Feltri
- Hunter James Kelly Research Institute, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
- Department of Neurology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
| | - Maurizio Molinari
- Instuitute for Research in Biomedicine, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Università della Svizzera italiana (USI), Bellinzona, Switzerland
- School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lawrence Wrabetz
- Hunter James Kelly Research Institute, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
- Department of Neurology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
| | - Maurizio D’Antonio
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
- * E-mail:
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Jessen KR, Mirsky R. The Success and Failure of the Schwann Cell Response to Nerve Injury. Front Cell Neurosci 2019; 13:33. [PMID: 30804758 PMCID: PMC6378273 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2019.00033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 259] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The remarkable plasticity of Schwann cells allows them to adopt the Remak (non-myelin) and myelin phenotypes, which are specialized to meet the needs of small and large diameter axons, and differ markedly from each other. It also enables Schwann cells initially to mount a strikingly adaptive response to nerve injury and to promote regeneration by converting to a repair-promoting phenotype. These repair cells activate a sequence of supportive functions that engineer myelin clearance, prevent neuronal death, and help axon growth and guidance. Eventually, this response runs out of steam, however, because in the long run the phenotype of repair cells is unstable and their survival is compromised. The re-programming of Remak and myelin cells to repair cells, together with the injury-induced switch of peripheral neurons to a growth mode, gives peripheral nerves their strong regenerative potential. But it remains a challenge to harness this potential and devise effective treatments that maintain the initial repair capacity of peripheral nerves for the extended periods typically required for nerve repair in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristjan R Jessen
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rhona Mirsky
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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26
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Couve E, Schmachtenberg O. Schwann Cell Responses and Plasticity in Different Dental Pulp Scenarios. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:299. [PMID: 30233330 PMCID: PMC6133954 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian teeth have evolved as dentin units that enclose a complex system of sensory innervation to protect and preserve their structure and function. In human dental pulp (DP), mechanosensory and nociceptive fibers form a dense meshwork of nerve endings at the coronal dentin-pulp interface, which arise from myelinated and non-myelinated axons of the Raschkow plexus (RP). Schwann cells (SCs) play a crucial role in the support, maintenance and regeneration after injury of these fibers. We have recently characterized two SC phenotypes hierarchically organized within the coronal and radicular DP in human teeth. Myelinating and non-myelinating SCs (nmSCs) display a high degree of plasticity associated with nociceptive C-fiber sprouting and axonal degeneration in response to DP injuries from dentin caries or physiological root resorption (PRR). By comparative immunolabeling, confocal and electron microscopy, we have characterized short-term adaptive responses of SC phenotypes to nerve injuries, and long-term changes related to aging. An increase of SCs characterizes the early responses to caries progression in association with axonal sprouting in affected DP domains. Moreover, during PRR, the formation of bands of Büngner is observed as part of SC repair tracks functions. On the other hand, myelinated axon density is significantly reduced with tooth age, as part of a gradual decrease in DP defense and repair capacities. The remarkable plasticity and capacity of SCs to preserve DP innervation in different dental scenarios constitutes a fundamental aspect to improve clinical treatments. This review article discusses the central role of myelinating and non-mSCs in long-term tooth preservation and homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Couve
- Laboratorio de Microscopía Electrónica, Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Oliver Schmachtenberg
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencias de Valparaíso (CINV), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
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27
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Meas SJ, Zhang CL, Dabdoub A. Reprogramming Glia Into Neurons in the Peripheral Auditory System as a Solution for Sensorineural Hearing Loss: Lessons From the Central Nervous System. Front Mol Neurosci 2018; 11:77. [PMID: 29593497 PMCID: PMC5861218 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Disabling hearing loss affects over 5% of the world’s population and impacts the lives of individuals from all age groups. Within the next three decades, the worldwide incidence of hearing impairment is expected to double. Since a leading cause of hearing loss is the degeneration of primary auditory neurons (PANs), the sensory neurons of the auditory system that receive input from mechanosensory hair cells in the cochlea, it may be possible to restore hearing by regenerating PANs. A direct reprogramming approach can be used to convert the resident spiral ganglion glial cells into induced neurons to restore hearing. This review summarizes recent advances in reprogramming glia in the CNS to suggest future steps for regenerating the peripheral auditory system. In the coming years, direct reprogramming of spiral ganglion glial cells has the potential to become one of the leading biological strategies to treat hearing impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J Meas
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Chun-Li Zhang
- Department of Molecular Biology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
| | - Alain Dabdoub
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Otolaryngology - Head & Neck Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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28
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Iyer AK, Jones KJ, Sanders VM, Walker CL. Temporospatial Analysis and New Players in the Immunology of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19020631. [PMID: 29473876 PMCID: PMC5855853 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19020631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive loss of lower and upper motor neurons (MN) leading to muscle weakness, paralysis and eventually death. Although a highly varied etiology results in ALS, it broadly manifests itself as sporadic and familial forms that have evident similarities in clinical symptoms and disease progression. There is a tremendous amount of knowledge on molecular mechanisms leading to loss of MNs and neuromuscular junctions (NMJ) as major determinants of disease onset, severity and progression in ALS. Specifically, two main opposing hypotheses, the dying forward and dying back phenomena, exist to account for NMJ denervation. The former hypothesis proposes that the earliest degeneration occurs at the central MNs and proceeds to the NMJ, whereas in the latter, the peripheral NMJ is the site of precipitating degeneration progressing backwards to the MN cell body. A large body of literature strongly indicates a role for the immune system in disease onset and progression via regulatory involvement at the level of both the central and peripheral nervous systems (CNS and PNS). In this review, we discuss the earliest reported immune responses with an emphasis on newly identified immune players in mutant superoxide dismutase 1 (mSOD1) transgenic mice, the gold standard mouse model for ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhirami K Iyer
- Anatomy and Cell Biology Department, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
- Richard L. Roudebush Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
| | - Kathryn J Jones
- Anatomy and Cell Biology Department, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
- Richard L. Roudebush Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
| | - Virginia M Sanders
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Chandler L Walker
- Anatomy and Cell Biology Department, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
- Richard L. Roudebush Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
- Department of Biomedical and Applied Sciences, Indiana University School of Dentistry, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
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