Extracellular nucleotides as negative modulators of immunity

Analyzing the Role of Specific Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns-Related Genes in Osteoarthritis and Investigating the Association between β-Amyloid and Apolipoprotein E Isoforms

INTRODUCTION

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a prevalent chronic joint disorder. It is characterized by an immune response that maintains a low level of inflammation throughout its progression. During OA, cartilage degradation leads to the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), which intensify the inflammatory response. β-Amyloid is a well-recognized DAMP in OA, can interact with APOE isoforms.

METHODS

This study identified DAMPs-related genes in OA using bioinformatics techniques. Additionally, we examined the expression levels of β-amyloid and apolipoprotein E (ApoE) isoforms by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

We identified 10 key genes by machine learning techniques. Immune infiltration analysis revealed upregulation of various immune cell types in OA cartilage, underscoring the critical role of inflammation in OA pathogenesis. In the validation study, elevated serum levels of β-amyloid in knee osteoarthritis (KOA) patients were confirmed, showing positive correlations with ApoE2 and ApoE4. Notably, ApoE3 was identified as an independent protective factor against KOA.

CONCLUSION

In this bioinformatics analysis, we identified the DAMPs-related genes of KOA and explored their potential functions and regulatory networks. The high expression of β-amyloid in KOA was confirmed by experiments, and the correlation between β-amyloid and ApoE2, ApoE4 in KOA was revealed for the first time, this provides a new way to explore the pathogenesis of KOA and to study the therapeutic targets of KOA.

Overview of the role of purinergic signaling and insights into its role in cancer therapy

Innovation of cancer therapy has received a dramatic acceleration over the last fifteen years thanks to the introduction of the novel immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI). On the other hand, the conspicuous scientific knowledge accumulated in purinergic signaling since the early seventies is finally being transferred to the clinic. Several Phase I/II clinical trials are currently underway to investigate the effect of drugs interfering with purinergic signaling as stand-alone or combination therapy in cancer. This is supporting the novel concept of "purinergic immune checkpoint" (PIC) in cancer therapy. In the present review we will address a) the basic pharmacology and cell biology of the purinergic system; b) principles of its pathophysiology in human diseases; c) implications for cell death, cell proliferation and cancer; d) novel molecular tools to investigate nucleotide homeostasis in the extracellular environment; e) recent developments in the pharmacology of P1, P2 receptors and related ecto-enzymes; f) P1 and P2 ligands as novel diagnostic tools; g) current issues in PIC-based anti-cancer therapy. This review will provide an appraisal of the current status of purinergic signaling in cancer and will help identify future avenues of development.

Kinetic properties of E-NTPDase activity in lymphocytes isolated from bone marrow, thymus and mesenteric lymph nodes of Wistar rats

Plasma membrane anchored nucleotidases (E-ATPDases), as the E-NTPDase family, could hydrolyze and regulate the pericellular levels of nucleotides in lymphocytes. Each immune organ has a different microenvironment and display lymphocytes with different functions and phenotypes. Considering the different functions of each resident subpopulations of lymphocytes, the E-ATPDases activities in bone marrow (BML), thymus (TL) and mesenteric lymph node (MLL) lymphocytes of Wistar rats were characterized. The hydrolysis of extracellular nucleotides (eATP and eADP) showed linearity in time of reaction between 0 and 120 min, and concentration of lymphocytes expressed in proteins between 1 and 6 μg protein in the reaction medium. The optimal activity was attained at 37 °C in a pH value of 8.0. The necessity of the cofactors Ca2+ and Mg2+ for the enzymatic activity was confirmed through a curve of concentration of 0-1000 µM in the reaction medium, with both cofactors showing similar effects in the enzymatic activity. The Chevillard plot revealed that the hydrolysis of eATP and eADP occurred at the same active site of the enzyme. The analyses of E-ATPDases inhibitor and enzyme specificity showed possible involvement of E-NTPDase isoforms - 1 and - 2 in the isolated cells. Furthermore, different kinetic behavior of the nucleotide hydrolysis in each resident subpopulation lymphocyte was observed in this study, as MLL showed the higher Vmax with the lowest km values, while TL had the lowest Vmax and high km values. The kinetic values for E-NTPDase activity of each immune tissue lymphocytes can be an important therapeutic target for numeral immune-related diseases.

Analysis of Extracellular ATP Distribution in the Intervertebral Disc

Progressive loss of proteoglycans (PGs) is the major biochemical change during intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as the primary energy source is not only critical for cell survival but also serves as a building block in PG synthesis. Extracellular ATP can mediate a variety of physiological functions and was shown to promote extracellular matrix (ECM) production in the IVD. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop a 3D finite element model to predict extracellular ATP distribution in the IVD and evaluate the impact of degeneration on extracellular ATP distribution. A novel 3D finite element model of the IVD was developed by incorporating experimental measurements of ATP metabolism and ATP-PG binding kinetics into the mechano-electrochemical mixture theory. The new model was validated by experimental data of porcine IVD, and then used to analyze the extracellular distribution of ATP in human IVDs. Extracellular ATP was shown to bind specifically with PGs in IVD ECM. It was found that annulus fibrosus cells hydrolyze ATP faster than that of nucleus pulposus (NP) cells whereas NP cells exhibited a higher ATP release. The distribution of extracellular ATP in a porcine model was consistent with experimental data in our previous study. The predictions from a human IVD model showed a high accumulation of extracellular ATP in the NP region, whereas the extracellular ATP level was reduced with tissue degeneration. This study provides an understanding of extracellular ATP metabolism and its potential biological influences on the IVD via purinergic signaling.

Modulation of Microglial Function by ATP-Gated P2X7 Receptors: Studies in Rat, Mice and Human

P2X receptors are a family of seven ATP-gated ion channels that trigger physiological and pathophysiological responses in a variety of cells. Five of the family members are sensitive to low concentrations of extracellular ATP, while the P2X6 receptor has an unknown affinity. The last subtype, the P2X7 receptor, is unique in requiring millimolar concentrations to fully activate in humans. This low sensitivity imparts the agonist with the ability to act as a damage-associated molecular pattern that triggers the innate immune response in response to the elevated levels of extracellular ATP that accompany inflammation and tissue damage. In this review, we focus on microglia because they are the primary immune cells of the central nervous system, and they activate in response to ATP or its synthetic analog, BzATP. We start by introducing purinergic receptors and then briefly consider the roles that microglia play in neurodevelopment and disease by referencing both original works and relevant reviews. Next, we move to the role of extracellular ATP and P2X receptors in initiating and/or modulating innate immunity in the central nervous system. While most of the data that we review involve work on mice and rats, we highlight human studies of P2X7R whenever possible.

Blocking P2Y2 purinergic receptor prevents the development of lipopolysaccharide-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is associated with high morbidity and mortality resulting from a direct or indirect injury of the lung. It is characterized by a rapid alveolar injury, lung inflammation with neutrophil accumulation, elevated permeability of the microvascular-barrier leading to an aggregation of protein-rich fluid in the lungs, followed by impaired oxygenation in the arteries and eventual respiratory failure. Very recently, we have shown an involvement of the Gq-coupled P2Y2 purinergic receptor (P2RY2) in allergic airway inflammation (AAI). In the current study, we aimed to elucidate the contribution of the P2RY2 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ARDS mouse model. We found that the expression of P2ry2 in neutrophils, macrophages and lung tissue from animals with LPS-induced ARDS was strongly upregulated at mRNA level. In addition, ATP-neutralization by apyrase in vivo markedly attenuated inflammation and blocking of P2RY2 by non-selective antagonist suramin partially decreased inflammation. This was indicated by a reduction in the number of neutrophils, concentration of proinflammatory cytokines in the BALF, microvascular plasma leakage and reduced features of inflammation in histological analysis of the lung. P2RY2 blocking has also attenuated polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN) migration into the interstitium of the lungs in ARDS mouse model. Consistently, treatment of P2ry2 deficient mice with LPS lead to an amelioration of the inflammatory response showed by reduced number of neutrophils and concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines. In attempts to identify the cell type specific role of P2RY2, a series of experiments with conditional P2ry2 knockout animals were performed. We observed that P2ry2 expression in neutrophils, but not in the airway epithelial cells or CD4+ cells, was associated with the inflammatory features caused by ARDS. Altogether, our findings imply for the first time that increased endogenous ATP concentration via activation of P2RY2 is related to the pathogenesis of LPS-induced lung inflammation and may represent a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of ARDS and predictably assess new treatments in ARDS.

Traditional Chinese medicine alleviating neuropathic pain targeting purinergic receptor P2 in purinergic signaling: A review

Past studies have suggested that Chinese herbal may alleviate neuropathic pain, and the mechanism might target the inhibition of purinergic receptor P2. This review discusses whether traditional Chinese medicine target P2 receptors in neuropathic pain and its mechanism in order to provide references for future clinical drug development. The related literatures were searched from Pubmed, Embase, Sinomed, and CNKI databases before June 2023. The search terms included"neuropathic pain", "purinergic receptor P2", "P2", "traditional Chinese medicine", "Chinese herbal medicine", and "herb". We described the traditional Chinese medicine alleviating neuropathic pain via purinergic receptor P2 signaling pathway including P2X2/3 R, P2X3R, P2X4R, P2X7R, P2Y1R. Inhibition of activating glial cells, changing synaptic transmission, increasing painful postsynaptic potential, and activating inflammatory signaling pathways maybe the mechanism. Purine receptor P2 can mediate the occurrence of neuropathic pain. And many of traditional Chinese medicines can target P2 receptors to relieve neuropathic pain, which provides reasonable evidences for the future development of drugs. Also, the safety and efficacy and mechanism need more in-depth experimental research.

Wheat phytase potentially protects HT-29 cells from inflammatory nucleotides-induced cytotoxicity

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the protective effect of wheat phytase as a structural decomposer of inflammatory nucleotides, extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and uridine diphosphate (UDP) on HT-29 cells.

METHODS

Phosphatase activities of wheat phytase against ATP and UDP was investigated in the presence or absence of inhibitors such as L-phenylalanine and L-homoarginine using a Pi Color Lock gold phosphate detection kit. Viability of HT-29 cells exposed to intact- or dephosphorylated-nucleotides was analyzed with an EZ-CYTOX kit. Secretion levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and IL-8) in HT-29 cells exposed to substrate treated with or without wheat phytase were measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. Activation of caspase-3 in HT-29 cells treated with intact ATP or dephosphorylated-ATP was investigated using a colorimetric assay kit.

RESULTS

Wheat phytase dephosphorylated both nucleotides, ATP and UDP, in a dosedependent manner. Regardless of the presence or absence of enzyme inhibitors (L-phenylalanine and L-homoarginine), wheat phytase dephosphorylated UDP. Only L-phenylalanine inhibited the dephosphorylation of ATP by wheat phytase. However, the level of inhibition was less than 10%. Wheat phytase significantly enhanced the viability of HT-29 cells against ATP- and UDP-induced cytotoxicity. Interleukin (IL)-8 released from HT-29 cells with nucleotides dephosphorylated by wheat phytase was higher than that released from HT-29 cells with intact nucleotides. Moreover, the release of IL-6 was strongly induced from HT-29 cells with UDP dephosphorylated by wheat phytase. HT-29 cells with ATP degraded by wheat phytase showed significantly (13%) lower activity of caspase-3 than HT-29 cells with intact ATP.

CONCLUSION

Wheat phytase can be a candidate for veterinary medicine to prevent cell death in animals. In this context, wheat phytase beyond its nutritional aspects might be a novel and promising tool for promoting growth and function of intestinal epithelial cells under luminal ATP and UDP surge in the gut.

Phytochemical and biological characterization of aqueous extract of Vassobia breviflora on proliferation and viability of melanoma cells: involvement of purinergic pathway

Vassobia breviflora belongs to the Solanaceae family, possessing biological activity against tumor cells and is a promising alternative for therapy. The aim of this investigation was to determine the phytochemical properties V. breviflora using ESI-ToF-MS. The cytotoxic effects of this extract were examined in B16-F10 melanoma cells and the relationship if any to purinergic signaling was involved. The antioxidant activity of total phenols, (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) was analyzed, as well as production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) was determined. Genotoxicity was assessed by DNA damage assay. Subsequently, the structural bioactive compounds were docked against purinoceptors P2X7 and P2Y1 receptors. The bioactive compounds found in V. breviflora were N-methyl-(2S,4 R)-trans-4-hydroxy-L-proline, calystegine B, 12-O-benzoyl- tenacigenin A and bungoside B. In vitro cytotoxicity was demonstrated at concentration ranges of 0.1-10 mg/ml, and plasmid DNA breaks only at the concentration of 10 mg/ml. V. breviflora extracts affected hydrolysis by ectoenzymes, such as ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase) and ectoadenosine deaminase (E-ADA) which control levels of degradation and formation of nucleosides and nucleotides. In the presence of substrates ATP, ADP, AMP and adenosine, the activities of E-NTPDase, 5´-NT or E-ADA were significantly modulated by V. breviflora. N-methyl-(2S,4 R)-trans-4-hydroxy-L-proline presented higher binding affinity (according to receptor-ligand complex estimated binding affinity as evidenced by ∆G values) to bind to both P2X7 and P2Y1purinergic receptors.Our results suggest a putative interaction of V. breviflora bioactive compounds with growth inhibitory potential in B16-F10 melanoma and suggest that may be considered as promising compounds in melanoma and cancer treatment.

Schistosoma mansoni and the purinergic halo

Intravascular schistosomes may control immune and hemostatic responses by regulating the nature and amount of selected host purinergic signaling molecules - such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) - surrounding them. Such metabolites are collectively known as the worm's 'purinergic halo'. Host-interactive, membrane-bound, tegumental ectonucleotidases, notably SmATPDase1, SmNPP5, SmAP and SmNACE, can degrade proinflammatory, prothrombotic and immunomodulatory purinergic metabolites like those listed. A common catabolic product is the anti-inflammatory metabolite adenosine that can additionally be taken in by the worms as food. We envision the tegumental ectonucleotidases as having a twofold role at the worm surface: first, they degrade potentially harmful host signaling molecules, and second, they generate vital nutrients around the worms from where these can be conveniently imported.

P2 Receptors: Novel Disease Markers and Metabolic Checkpoints in Immune Cells

Extracellular ATP (eATP) and P2 receptors are novel emerging regulators of T-lymphocyte responses. Cellular ATP is released via multiple pathways and accumulates at sites of tissue damage and inflammation. P2 receptor expression and function are affected by numerous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with diverse disease conditions. Stimulation by released nucleotides (purinergic signalling) modulates several T-lymphocyte functions, among which energy metabolism. Energy metabolism, whether oxidative or glycolytic, in turn deeply affects T-cell activation, differentiation and effector responses. Specific P2R subtypes, among which the P2X7 receptor (P2X7R), are either up- or down-regulated during T-cell activation and differentiation; thus, they can be considered indexes of activation/quiescence, reporters of T-cell metabolic status and, in principle, markers of immune-mediated disease conditions.

NT5E gene and CD38 protein as potential prognostic biomarkers for childhood B-acute lymphoblastic leukemia

The risk stratification of B-acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) is based on clinical and biological factors. However, B-ALL has significant biological and clinical heterogeneity and 50% of B-ALL patients do not have defined prognostic markers. In this sense, the identification of new prognostic biomarkers is necessary. Considering different cohorts of childhood B-ALL patients, gene (DPP4/CD38/ENTPD1/NT5E) and protein (CD38/CD39/CD73) expressions of ectonucleotidases were analyzed in silico and ex vivo and the association with prognosis was established. In univariate analyses, expression of NT5E was significantly associated with worse progression-free survival (PFS) in bone marrow (BM) samples. In multivariate analyses, Kaplan-Meier analysis, and log-rank test, higher NT5E expression predicted unfavorable PFS in BM samples. Considering minimal residual disease (MRD), higher levels of cellularity were associated with the high NT5E expression at day 8 of induction therapy. In addition, we observed that white blood cells (WBC) of childhood B-ALL patients had more CD38 compared to the same cell population of healthy donors (HD). In fact, MRD > 0.1% patients had higher CD38 protein expression on WBC in comparison to HD. Noteworthy, we observed higher CD38 expression on WBC than blasts in MRD > 0.1% patients. We suggest that NT5E gene and CD38 protein expression, of the ectonucleotidases family, could provide interesting prognostic biomarkers for childhood B-ALL.

Extracellular ATP is increased by release of ATP-loaded microparticles triggered by nutrient deprivation

Rationale: Caloric restriction improves the efficacy of anti-cancer therapy. This effect is largely dependent on the increase of the extracellular ATP concentration in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Pathways for ATP release triggered by nutrient deprivation are largely unknown.

Methods: The extracellular ATP (eATP) concentration was in vivo measured in the tumor microenvironment of B16F10-inoculated C57Bl/6 mice with the pmeLuc probe. Alternatively, the pmeLuc-TG-mouse was used. Caloric restriction was in vivo induced with hydroxycitrate (HC). B16F10 melanoma cells or CT26 colon carcinoma cells were in vitro exposed to serum starvation to mimic nutrient deprivation. Energy metabolism was monitored by Seahorse. Microparticle release was measured by ultracentrifugation and by Nanosight.

Results: Nutrient deprivation increases eATP release despite the dramatic inhibition of intracellular energy synthesis. Under these conditions oxidative phosphorylation was dramatically impaired, mitochondria fragmented and glycolysis and lactic acid release were enhanced. Nutrient deprivation stimulated a P2X7-dependent release of ATP-loaded, mitochondria-containing, microparticles as well as of naked mitochondria.

Conclusions: Nutrient deprivation promotes a striking accumulation of eATP paralleled by a large release of ATP-laden microparticles and of naked mitochondria. This is likely to be a main mechanism driving the accumulation of eATP into the TME.

Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns As Double-Edged Swords in Sepsis

Significance: Sepsis is defined as a life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by dysregulated host response to infection. This leads to an uncontrolled inflammatory response at the onset of infection, followed by immunosuppression. The development of a specific treatment modality for sepsis is still challenging, reflecting our inadequate understanding of its pathophysiology. Understanding the mechanism and transition of the early hyperinflammation to late stage of immunosuppression in sepsis is critical for developing sepsis therapeutics. Recent Advances: Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are intracellular molecules and released upon tissue injury and cell death in sepsis. DAMPs are recognized by pattern recognition receptors to initiate inflammatory cascades. DAMPs not only elicit an inflammatory response but also they subsequently induce immunosuppression, both are equally important for exacerbating sepsis. Recent advances on a new DAMP, extracellular cold-inducible RNA-binding protein for fueling inflammation and immunosuppression in sepsis, have added a new avenue into the dual functions of DAMPs in sepsis. Critical Issues: The molecular modification of DAMPs and their binding to pattern recognition receptors transit dynamically by the cellular environment in pathophysiologic conditions. Correlation between the dynamic changes of the impacts of DAMPs and the clinical outcomes in sepsis still lacks adequate understanding. Here, we focus on the impacts of DAMPs that cause inflammation as well as induce immunosuppression in sepsis. We further discuss the therapeutic potential by targeting DAMPs to attenuate inflammation and immunosuppression for mitigating sepsis. Future Directions: Uncovering pathways of the transition from inflammation to immunosuppression of DAMPs is a potential therapeutic avenue for mitigating sepsis.

Antiviral potential of plant polysaccharide nanoparticles actuating non-specific immunity

The development of high-end targeted drugs and vaccines against modern pandemic infections, such as COVID-19, can take a too long time that lets the epidemic spin up and harms society. However, the countermeasures must be applied against the infection in this period until the targeted drugs became available. In this regard, the non-specific, broad-spectrum anti-viral means could be considered as a compromise allowing overcoming the period of trial. One way to enhance the ability to resist the infection is to activate the nonspecific immunity using a suitable driving-up agent, such as plant polysaccharides, particularly our drug Panavir isolated from the potato shoots. Earlier, we have shown the noticeable anti-viral and anti-bacterial activity of Panavir. Here we demonstrate the pro-inflammation activity of Panavir, which four-to-eight times intensified the ATP and MIF secretion by HL-60 cells. This effect was mediated by the active phagocytosis of the Panavir particles by the cells. We hypothesized the physiological basis of the Panavir proinflammatory activity is mediated by the indol-containing compounds (auxins) present in Panavir and acting as a plant analog of serotonin.

Implications of CD39 in immune-related diseases

Extracellular adenosine triphosphate (eATP) mediates pro-inflammatory responses by recruiting and activating inflammatory cells. CD39 can hydrolyze eATP into adenosine monophosphate (AMP), while CD73 can convert AMP into the immunosuppressive nucleoside adenosine (ADO). CD39 is a rate-limiting enzyme in this cascade, which is regarded as an immunological switch shifting the ATP-mediated pro-inflammatory environment to the ADO- mediated anti-inflammatory status. The CD39 expression can be detected in a wide spectrum of immunocytes, which is under the influence of environmental and genetic factors. It is increasingly suggested that, CD39 participates in some pathophysiological processes, like inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), sepsis, multiple sclerosis (MS), allergic diseases, ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), diabetes and cancer. Here, we focus on the current understanding of CD39 in immunity, and comprehensively illustrate the diverse CD39 functions within a variety of disorders.

Mitochondria Synergize With P2 Receptors to Regulate Human T Cell Function

Intracellular ATP is the universal energy carrier that fuels many cellular processes. However, immune cells can also release a portion of their ATP into the extracellular space. There, ATP activates purinergic receptors that mediate autocrine and paracrine signaling events needed for the initiation, modulation, and termination of cell functions. Mitochondria contribute to these processes by producing ATP that is released. Here, we summarize the synergistic interplay between mitochondria and purinergic signaling that regulates T cell functions. Specifically, we discuss how mitochondria interact with P2X1, P2X4, and P2Y11 receptors to regulate T cell metabolism, cell migration, and antigen recognition. These mitochondrial and purinergic signaling mechanisms are indispensable for host immune defense. However, they also represent an Achilles heel that can render the host susceptible to infections and inflammatory disorders. Hypoxia and mitochondrial dysfunction deflate the purinergic signaling mechanisms that regulate T cells, while inflammation and tissue damage generate excessive systemic ATP levels that distort autocrine purinergic signaling and impair T cell function. An improved understanding of the metabolic and purinergic signaling mechanisms that regulate T cells may lead to novel strategies for the diagnosis and treatment of infectious and inflammatory diseases.

Purinergic System Signaling in Metainflammation-Associated Osteoarthritis

Inflammation triggered by metabolic imbalance, also called metainflammation, is low-grade inflammation caused by the components involved in metabolic syndrome (MetS), including central obesity and impaired glucose tolerance. This phenomenon is mainly due to excess nutrients and energy, and it contributes to the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis (OA). OA is characterized by the progressive degeneration of articular cartilage, which suffers erosion and progressively becomes thinner. Purinergic signaling is involved in several physiological and pathological processes, such as cell proliferation in development and tissue regeneration, neurotransmission and inflammation. Adenosine and ATP receptors, and other members of the signaling pathway, such as AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), are involved in obesity, type 2 diabetes (T2D) and OA progression. In this review, we focus on purinergic regulation in osteoarthritic cartilage and how different components of MetS, such as obesity and T2D, modulate the purinergic system in OA. In that regard, we describe the critical role in this disease of receptors, such as adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR) and ATP P2X7 receptor. Finally, we also assess how nucleotides regulate the inflammasome in OA.

Signaling of the Purinergic System in the Joint

The joint is a complex anatomical structure consisting of different tissues, each with a particular feature, playing together to give mobility and stability at the body. All the joints have a similar composition including cartilage for reducing the friction of the movement and protecting the underlying bone, a synovial membrane that produces synovial fluid to lubricate the joint, ligaments to limit joint movement, and tendons for the interaction with muscles. Direct or indirect damage of one or more of the tissues forming the joint is the foundation of different pathological conditions. Many molecular mechanisms are involved in maintaining the joint homeostasis as well as in triggering disease development. The molecular pathway activated by the purinergic system is one of them.The purinergic signaling defines a group of receptors and intermembrane channels activated by adenosine, adenosine diphosphate, adenosine 5’-triphosphate, uridine triphosphate, and uridine diphosphate. It has been largely described as a modulator of many physiological and pathological conditions including rheumatic diseases. Here we will give an overview of the purinergic system in the joint describing its expression and function in the synovium, cartilage, ligament, tendon, and bone with a therapeutic perspective.

Extracellular ATP is a potent signaling molecule in the activation of the Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) innate immune responses

Innate immunity is the first line of defense against pathogen infections. Extracellular ATP (eATP) is one of the most studied danger-associated molecular pattern molecules that can activate host innate immune responses through binding with and activating purinergic receptors on the plasma membrane. The detailed actions of eATP on fish innate immunity, however, remain poorly understood. In this study, we investigated bacterial pathogen-induced ATP release in head kidney cells of the Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus. We also examined the actions of eATP on pro-inflammatory cytokine and immune-related gene expression, the activity of induced NO synthase (iNOS), and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and NO in Japanese flounder immune cells. We demonstrate that ATP is dynamically released from Japanese flounder head kidney cells into the extracellular milieu during immune challenge by formalin-inactivated Edwardsiella tarda and Vibrio anguillarum. In addition, we show that eATP administration results in profound up-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine gene expression, iNOS activity, and inflammatory mediator production, including ROS and NO, in Japanese flounder immune cells. Altogether, our findings demonstrate that eATP is a potent signaling molecule for the activation of innate immune responses in fish.

The Protective Effect of a Topical Mucin Secretagogue on Ocular Surface Damage Induced by Airborne Carbon Black Exposure

Purpose

Exposure to airborne particulate matter can induce ocular surface damage and inflammation. We evaluated the effects of a topical mucin secretagogue on the mitigation of ocular surface damage induced by exposure to airborne carbon black (CB).

Methods

Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to ambient CB for 2 hours twice daily for 5 days. Corneal staining score and tear lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) activity were measured to evaluate ocular surface damage. Serum immunoglobulin (Ig) G and IgE levels and the sizes of cervical lymph nodes were also measured. The expressions of interleukin (IL)-4, IL-17, and interferon (IFN)-γ were measured by Western blot analysis. Diquafosol tetrasodium was instilled six times a day for 5 days, and the extent of ocular surface damage was evaluated.

Results

After exposure to airborne CB, the median corneal staining score and LDH activity were significantly increased. Serum IgG and IgE levels and the sizes of cervical lymph nodes were also significantly increased. Additionally, the expression of IL-4 and IFN-γ was elevated in the anterior segment of the eyeball. Furthermore, the expression of IL-4, IL-17, and IFN-γ was elevated in the cervical lymph nodes. When exposed to airborne black carbon, topical diquafosol tetrasodium significantly increased tear MUC5AC concentration and decreased tear LDH activity.

Conclusions

Exposure to airborne CB induced ocular surface damage and increased proinflammatory cytokines in the eyes and cervical lymph nodes. Topical mucin secretagogues seem to have a protective effect on the ocular surface against exposure to airborne particulate matters.

Lipotoxicity-associated inflammation is prevented by guarana (Paullinia cupana) in a model of hyperlipidemia

Hyperlipidemia causes lipotoxicity which prompts an inflammatory response linked to the development of cardiovascular diseases. Natural compounds have been receiving special attention for its potential to treat diseases, inexpensiveness, and safety. Guarana (Paullinia cupana) has demonstrated notable anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, which may prevent chronic diseases caused by changes in lipid profile. Thus, this study aims to evaluate the effect of guarana powder (Paullinia cupana) in the purine metabolism and inflammatory profile in lymphocytes and serum of rats with Poloxamer-407-induced hyperlipidemia. Pretreatment with guarana 12.5, 25, and 50 mg/kg/day or caffeine (0.2 mg/kg/day) by gavage was applied to adult male Wistar rats for a period of 30 days. As a comparative standard, we used simvastatin (0.04 mg/kg) post-induction. Hyperlipidemia was acutely induced with intraperitoneally injection of Poloxamer-407 (500 mg/kg). Guarana powder and caffeine increased the activity of the E-NTPDase (ecto-apyrase), and all pretreatments decreased the E-ADA (ecto-adenosine deaminase) activity, reducing the inflammatory process caused by lipotoxicity. In hyperlipidemic rats, ATP levels were increased while adenosine levels were decreased, guarana and caffeine reverted these changes. Guarana powder, caffeine, and simvastatin also prevented the increase in INF-γ and potentiated the increase in IL-4 levels, promoting an anti-inflammatory profile. Guarana promoted a more robust effect than caffeine. Our results show that guarana powder and caffeine have an anti-inflammatory as seen by the shift from a proinflammatory to an anti-inflammatory profile. The effects of guarana were more pronounced, suggesting that guarana powder may be used as a complementary therapy to improve the lipotoxicity-associated inflammation.

Functional microglia neurotransmitters in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Today neuroscience is dominated by the perspective that microglia are essential elements in any integrated view of the nervous system. A number of different neuroinflammatory conditions affect the CNS where microglia involvement, and particularly microgliosis, is not only a prominent feature, but also a pathogenic key mechanism of disease. On the other side, microglia can also constitute an important trigger of neuronal protection during neurodegenerative disorders. For instance in ALS and other motor neuron diseases, available evidence suggests the coexistence of quite different roles for microglia, characterized by neuroprotective functions at early stages, and neurotoxic actions during disease progression. The scope of this review is a brief discussion about microglia being activated and functioning during ALS, and particularly about neurotransmitters participating to the pathological signature of ALS microglia. We will discuss that ALS microglia can express a variety of classical neurotransmitter receptors comprising those for extracellular ATP, glutamate and histamine. We will review data indicating that the modulation of these transmitter receptors may induce beneficial effects in ALS models, so that the protective properties of microglia can be emphasized at the expenses of their toxicity.

ATP signaling and NTPDase in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune and inflammatory disease with periods of exacerbation and remission. SLE is characterized by the irreversible breakdown of immunological self-tolerance, where there is deregulation of multiple aspects of the immune system. SLE immune dysfunction is characterized by activation of autoreactive T lymphocytes, and hyperactivity of B lymphocytes with consequent production of several autoantibodies. ATP is a purinergic mediator released into the extracellular space in response to cell and tissue damage which operates as a danger signal to modulate immune and inflammatory responses. ATP binds to P2 receptors and its levels are regulated by NTPDase (CD39). SLE patients exhibit increased levels of ATP which binds to P2X receptors resulting in activation of the inflammasome and consequent release of IL-1β and IL-18, cytokines associated with disease pathogenesis. CD39 is upregulated in SLE representing an important immunoregulatory mechanism by controlling inflammation and favoring the production of adenosine. The aim of this review is to clarify the effects of ATP on the modulation of the inflammatory process and immune responses via P2 receptors as well as the role of NTPDase in the immunopathogenesis of SLE.

Extracellular ATP and P2 purinergic signalling in the tumour microenvironment

Modulation of the biochemical composition of the tumour microenvironment is a new frontier of cancer therapy. Several immunosuppressive mechanisms operate in the milieu of most tumours, a condition that makes antitumour immunity ineffective. One of the most potent immunosuppressive factors is adenosine, which is generated in the tumour microenvironment owing to degradation of extracellular ATP. Accruing evidence over the past few years shows that ATP is one of the major biochemical constituents of the tumour microenvironment, where it acts at P2 purinergic receptors expressed on both tumour and host cells. Stimulation of P2 receptors has different effects depending on the extracellular ATP concentration, the P2 receptor subtype engaged and the target cell type. Among P2 receptors, the P2X purinergic receptor 7 (P2X7R) subtype appears to be a main player in host-tumour cell interactions. Preclinical studies in several tumour models have shown that P2X7R targeting is potentially a very effective anticancer treatment, and many pharmaceutical companies have now developed potent and selective small molecule inhibitors of P2X7R. In this Review, we report on the multiple mechanisms by which extracellular ATP shapes the tumour microenvironment and how its stimulation of host and tumour cell P2 receptors contributes to determining tumour fate.

Ecto-enzymes activities in splenic lymphocytes of mice experimentally infected by Trypanosoma cruzi and treated with specific avian immunoglobulins: an attempt to improve the immune response

The aim of this study was to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of specific avian polyclonal antibodies (IgY) against Trypanosoma cruzi and their interaction with ecto-enzymes of the purinergic system (NTPDase and adenosine deaminase (ADA) activities) in splenic lymphocytes. For this, mice were divided into six groups: three non-infected (A, B, and C) and three infected (D, E, and F). The groups A and D were composed by negative and positive controls, respectively; while the groups B and E were treated prophylactically with IgY (50 mg/kg), and the groups C and F were treated therapeutically with IgY (50 mg/kg). Treatment with IgY reduced parasitemia on day 6 post-infection (PI) compared to the infected control group, but it was similar on day 8 PI. Moreover, infected and treated animals (the groups E and F) did not show neither amastigotes in the cardiac tissue nor cardiac lesions when compared to the positive control group (the group D). The E-NTPDase (ATP and ADP as substrate) and ADA activities in splenic lymphocytes increased significantly in the positive control group (the group D) compared to the negative control group (the group A). The therapeutic treatment of IgY (the group F) was able to prevent the increase of E-NTPDase and E-ADA activities compared to the positive control group (the group D), but this finding was not observed in animals that received the prophylactic treatment (the group E). The therapeutic treatment of IgY may be considered an interesting approach to improve the immune response of mice experimentally infected by T. cruzi.

Infection of Human Macrophages by Leishmania infantum Is Influenced by Ecto-Nucleotidases

Ecto-nucleotidase activity is involved in the infection process of Leishmania and various other parasites that enables modulation of host immune responses to promote disease progression. One of the enzymes responsible for this activity is the ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase). The enzyme hydrolyzes nucleotides tri- and/or di-phosphate into monophosphate products, which are subsequently hydrolyzed into adenosine. These nucleotides can serve as purinergic signaling molecules involved in diverse cellular processes that govern immune responses. Given the importance of the extracellular metabolism of these nucleotides during intracellular pathogen infections, this study evaluates the role of ecto-nucleotidase activity during Leishmania infantum (L. infantum) infection in human macrophages. E-NTPDase protein expression and activity was evaluated in L. infantum during purine starvation, adenosine-enriched medium, or in the presence of an inhibitor of ecto-nucleotidases. Results show that E-NTPDase is expressed in L. infantum parasites, including on the cell membrane. Furthermore, functional activity of the enzyme was modulated according to the availability of adenosine in the medium. Purine starvation increased the hydrolytic capacity of nucleotides leading to higher infectivity, while growth in adenosine-enriched medium led to lower infectivity. Moreover, inhibiting E-NTPDase function decreased L. infantum infection in macrophages, suggesting the enzyme may serve as a ligand. Taken together, the ability of L. infantum to hydrolyze nucleotides is directly associated with increased infectivity in macrophages.

Identification and causes of metabonomic difference between orthotopic and subcutaneous xenograft of pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the most lethal tumors. However, the methodological differences between orthotopic and subcutaneous xenograft (OX and SX) models will cause confusion in understanding its pathological mechanism and clinical relevance. In this study, SX and OX models were established by implanting Panc-1 and BxPC-3 cell strains under skin and on the pancreas of mice, respectively. The tumor tissue and serum samples were collected for1H NMR spectroscopy followed by univariate and multivariate statistical analyses. As results, no obvious metabonomic difference was demonstrated in serum between the two models, however, the model- and cell strain-specific metabonomic differences were observed in tumor tissues. According to the KEGG analysis, ABC transporters, glycerophospholipid metabolism, purine metabolism and central carbon metabolism were identified to be the most significant components involved in metabonomic differences. Considering the methodological discrepancy in SX and OX models, such differences should be contributed to tumor microenvironment. In general, SX are not equivalent to OX models at molecular level. Subcutaneous transplantation displayed its inherent limitations though it offered a simple, inexpensive, reproducible and quantifiable advantage. And orthotopic transplantation may be favorable to simulate PDAC in patients due to its similar pathogenesis to human pancreatic cancer.

Current Developments in Mobilization of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells and Their Interaction with Niches in Bone Marrow

The clinical application of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) has evolved from a highly experimental stage in the 1980s to a currently clinically established treatment for more than 20,000 patients annually who suffer from hematological malignancies and other severe diseases. Studies in numerous murine models have demonstrated that HSPCs reside in distinct niches within the bone marrow environment. Whereas transplanted HSPCs travel through the bloodstream and home to sites of hematopoiesis, HSPCs can be mobilized from these niches into the blood either physiologically or induced by pharmaceutical drugs. Firstly, this review aims to give a synopsis of milestones defining niches and mobilization pathways for HSPCs, including the identification of several cell types involved such as osteoblasts, adventitial reticular cells, endothelial cells, monocytic cells, and granulocytic cells. The main factors that anchor HSPCs in the niche, and/or induce their quiescence are vascular cell adhesion molecule(VCAM)-1, CD44, hematopoietic growth factors, e.g. stem cell factor (SCF) and FLT3 Ligand, chemokines including CXCL12, growth-regulated protein beta and IL-8, proteases, peptides, and other chemical transmitters such as nucleotides. In the second part of the review, we revise the current understanding of HSPC mobilization. Here, we discuss which mechanisms found to be active in HSPC mobilization correspond to the mechanisms relevant for HSPC interaction with niche cells, but also deal with other mediators and signals that target individual cell types and receptors to mobilize HSPCs. A multitude of questions remain to be addressed for a better understanding of HSPC biology and its implications for therapy, including more comprehensive concepts for regulatory circuits such as calcium homeostasis and parathormone, metabolic regulation such as by leptin, the significance of autonomic nervous system, the consequences of alteration of niches in aged patients, or the identification of more easily accessible markers to better predict the efficiency of HSPC mobilization.

Purinergic signaling during intestinal inflammation

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a devastating disease that is associated with excessive inflammation in the intestinal tract in genetically susceptible individuals and potentially triggered by microbial dysbiosis. This illness markedly predisposes patients to thrombophilia and chronic debility as well as bowel, lymphatic, and liver cancers. Development of new therapies is needed to re-establish long-term immune tolerance in IBD patients without increasing the risk of opportunistic infections and cancer. Aberrant purinergic signaling pathways have been implicated in disordered thromboregulation and immune dysregulation, as noted in the pathogenesis of IBD and other gastrointestinal/hepatic autoimmune diseases. Expression of CD39 on endothelial or immune cells allows for homeostatic integration of hemostasis and immunity, which are disrupted in IBD. Our focus in this review is on novel aspects of the functions of CD39 and related NTPDases in IBD. Regulated CD39 activity allows for scavenging of extracellular nucleotides, the maintenance of P2-receptor integrity and coordination of adenosinergic signaling responses. CD39 together with CD73, serves as an integral component of the immunosuppressive machinery of dendritic cells, myeloid cells, T and B cells. Genetic inheritance and environental factors closely regulate the levels of expression and phosphohydrolytic activity of CD39, both on immune cells and released microparticles. Purinergic mechanisms associated with T regulatory and supressor T helper type 17 cells modulate disease activity in IBD, as can be modeled in experimental colitis. As a recent example, upregulation of CD39 is dependent upon ligation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), as with natural ligands such as bilirubin and 2-(1' H-indole-3'-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE). Decreased expression of CD39 and/or dysfunctional AHR signaling, however, abrogates the protective effects of immunosuppressive AHR ligands. These factors could also serve as biomarkers of disease activity in IBD. Heightened thrombosis, inflammation, and immune disturbances as seen in IBD appear to be associated with aberrant purinergic signaling. Ongoing development of therapeutic strategies augmenting CD39 ectonucleotidase bioactivity via cytokines or AHR ligands offers promise for management of thrombophilia, disordered inflammation, and aberrant immune reactivity in IBD.

The ectonucleotidases CD39 and CD73: Novel checkpoint inhibitor targets

Cancers are able to grow by subverting immune suppressive pathways, to prevent the malignant cells as being recognized as dangerous or foreign. This mechanism prevents the cancer from being eliminated by the immune system and allows disease to progress from a very early stage to a lethal state. Immunotherapies are newly developing interventions that modify the patient's immune system to fight cancer, by either directly stimulating rejection-type processes or blocking suppressive pathways. Extracellular adenosine generated by the ectonucleotidases CD39 and CD73 is a newly recognized "immune checkpoint mediator" that interferes with anti-tumor immune responses. In this review, we focus on CD39 and CD73 ectoenzymes and encompass aspects of the biochemistry of these molecules as well as detailing the distribution and function on immune cells. Effects of CD39 and CD73 inhibition in preclinical and clinical studies are discussed. Finally, we provide insights into potential clinical application of adenosinergic and other purinergic-targeting therapies and forecast how these might develop in combination with other anti-cancer modalities.

The ectonucleotidases CD39 and CD73: Novel checkpoint inhibitor targets

Cancers are able to grow by subverting immune suppressive pathways, to prevent the malignant cells as being recognized as dangerous or foreign. This mechanism prevents the cancer from being eliminated by the immune system and allows disease to progress from a very early stage to a lethal state. Immunotherapies are newly developing interventions that modify the patient's immune system to fight cancer, by either directly stimulating rejection-type processes or blocking suppressive pathways. Extracellular adenosine generated by the ectonucleotidases CD39 and CD73 is a newly recognized "immune checkpoint mediator" that interferes with anti-tumor immune responses. In this review, we focus on CD39 and CD73 ectoenzymes and encompass aspects of the biochemistry of these molecules as well as detailing the distribution and function on immune cells. Effects of CD39 and CD73 inhibition in preclinical and clinical studies are discussed. Finally, we provide insights into potential clinical application of adenosinergic and other purinergic-targeting therapies and forecast how these might develop in combination with other anti-cancer modalities.

Effect of high fat diets on the NTPDase, 5'-nucleotidase and acetylcholinesterase activities in the central nervous system

High fat diets are associated with the promotion of neurological diseases, such as Alzheimer disease (AD). This study aim investigate the high fat diets role to promotion of AD using as biochemistry parameter of status of central nervous system through the NTPDase, 5'-nucleotidase and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activities in brain of young rats. The intake of high fat diets promotes an inhibition of purinergic and cholinergic functions, mainly in the long-term exposure to saturated and saturated/unsaturated diets. The AChE activity was decreased to supernatant and synaptosomes tissues preparations obtained from cerebral cortex in average of 20%, to both groups exposed to saturated and saturated/unsaturated diets, when compared to the control group. Very similar results were found in hippocampus and cerebellum brain areas. At same time, the adenine nucleotides hydrolysis in synaptosomes of cerebral cortex were decreased to ATP, ADP and AMP after the long-term exposure to high fat diets, as saturated and saturated/unsaturated. The inhibition of ATP hydrolysis was of 26% and 39% to saturated and saturated/unsaturated diets, respectively. ADP hydrolysis was decreased in 20% to saturated diet, and AMP hydrolysis was decreased in 25% and 33% to saturated and saturated/unsaturated diets, respectively, all in comparison to the control. Thus, we can suggest that the effects of high diets on the purinergic and cholinergic nervous system may contribute to accelerate the progressive memory loss, to decline in language and other cognitive disruptions, such as AD patients presents.

The ectonucleotidases CD39 and CD73: Novel checkpoint inhibitor targets

Cancers are able to grow by subverting immune suppressive pathways, to prevent the malignant cells as being recognized as dangerous or foreign. This mechanism prevents the cancer from being eliminated by the immune system and allows disease to progress from a very early stage to a lethal state. Immunotherapies are newly developing interventions that modify the patient's immune system to fight cancer, by either directly stimulating rejection-type processes or blocking suppressive pathways. Extracellular adenosine generated by the ectonucleotidases CD39 and CD73 is a newly recognized "immune checkpoint mediator" that interferes with anti-tumor immune responses. In this review, we focus on CD39 and CD73 ectoenzymes and encompass aspects of the biochemistry of these molecules as well as detailing the distribution and function on immune cells. Effects of CD39 and CD73 inhibition in preclinical and clinical studies are discussed. Finally, we provide insights into potential clinical application of adenosinergic and other purinergic-targeting therapies and forecast how these might develop in combination with other anti-cancer modalities.

Extracellular ATP and adenosine: The Yin and Yang in immune responses?

Extracellular adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine molecules are intimately involved in immune responses. ATP is mostly a pro-inflammatory molecule and is released during hypoxic condition and by necrotic cells, as well as by activated immune cells and endothelial cells. However, under certain conditions, for instance at low concentrations or at prolonged exposure, ATP may also have anti-inflammatory properties. Extracellular ATP can activate both P2X and P2Y purinergic receptors. Extracellular ATP can be hydrolyzed into adenosine in a two-step enzymatic process involving the ectonucleotidases CD39 (ecto-apyrase) and CD73. These enzymes are expressed by many cell types, including endothelial cells and immune cells. The counterpart of ATP is adenosine, which is produced by breakdown of intra- or extracellular ATP. Adenosine has mainly anti-inflammatory effects by binding to the adenosine, or P1, receptors (A1, A2A, A2B, and A3). These receptors are also expressed in many cells, including immune cells. The final effect of ATP and adenosine in immune responses depends on the fine regulatory balance between the 2 molecules. In the present review, we will discuss the current knowledge on the role of these 2 molecules in the immune responses.

Evaluation of P2X7 receptor expression in peripheral lymphocytes and immune profile from patients with indeterminate form of Chagas disease

Chagas disease (CD) is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, an intracellular protozoan which is a potent stimulator of cell-mediated immunity. In the indeterminate form of CD (IFCD) a modulation between pro- and anti-inflammatory responses establishes a host-parasite adaptation. It was previously demonstrated that purinergic ecto-enzymes regulates extracellular ATP and adenosine levels, influencing immune and inflammatory processes during IFCD. In inflammatory sites ATP, as well as its degradation product, adenosine, function as signaling molecules and immunoregulators through the activation of purinergic receptors. In this work, it was analyzed the gene and protein expression of P2X7 purinergic receptor in peripheral lymphocytes and serum immunoregulatory cytokines from IFCD patients. Gene and protein expression of P2X7 receptor (P2X7R), and serum cytokines (IL-2, IL-10, IL-17 and IFN-γ) were unaltered. However, IFCD group showed significantly higher IL-4 and IL-6 levels while TNF-α was significantly decreased. These results indicate that imune profile of IFCD patients displays anti-inflammatory characteristics, consistent with the establishment of an immunomodulatory response. Further study about the molecular knowledge of P2X7R in IFCD is useful to clarify the participation of purinergic system in the regulatory mechanism which avoid the progression of CD.

Adenosine diphosphate involvement in THP-1 maturation triggered by the contact allergen 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene

Dendritic cells' (DC) activation is considered a key event in the adverse outcome pathway for skin sensitization elicited by covalent binding of chemicals to proteins. The mechanisms underlying DC activation by contact sensitizers are not completely understood. However, several "danger signals" are pointed as relevant effectors. Among these extra-cellular early danger signals, purines may be crucial for the development of xenoinflammation and several reports indicate their involvement in contact allergic reactions. In the present work we used the DC-surrogate monocytic cell line THP-1, cultured alone or co-cultured with the human keratinocyte cell line HaCaT, to explore the contribution of extracellular adenine nucleotides to THP-1 maturation triggered by the extreme contact sensitizer, 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (DNFB). We found that THP-1 maturation induced by DNFB is impaired after purinergic signaling inhibition, and that the transcription of the purinergic metabotropic receptors P2Y2 and P2Y11 is modulated by the sensitizer. We also detected that THP-1 cells only partially hydrolyse extracellular adenosine triphosphate, leading to accumulation of the mono-phosphate derivative, AMP. We detected different and non-overlapping activation patterns of mitogen activated protein kinases by DNFB and extracellular nucleotides. Overall, our results indicate that THP-1 maturation induced by DNFB is strongly modulated by extracellular adenine nucleotides through metabotropic purinergic receptors. This knowledge unveils a molecular toxicity pathway evoked by sensitizers and involved in THP-1 maturation, a DC-surrogate cell line thoroughly used in in vitro tests for the identification of skin allergens.

Regulation of the T Cell Response by CD39

The ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 1 (ENTPD1, or CD39) catalyzes the phosphohydrolysis of extracellular ATP (eATP) and ADP (eADP) released under conditions of inflammatory stress and cell injury. CD39 generates AMP, which is in turn used by the ecto-5'-nucleotidase CD73 to synthesize adenosine. These ectonucleotidases have a major impact on the dynamic equilibrium of proinflammatory eATP and ADP nucleotides versus immunosuppressive adenosine nucleosides. Indeed, CD39 plays a dominant role in the purinergic regulation of inflammation and the immune response because its expression is influenced by genetic and environmental factors. We review the specific role of CD39 in the kinetic regulation of cellular immune responses in the evolution of disease. We focus on the effects of CD39 on T cells and explore potential clinical applications in autoimmunity, chronic infections, and cancer.

Blockade of Extracellular ATP Effect by Oxidized ATP Effectively Mitigated Induced Mouse Experimental Autoimmune Uveitis (EAU)

Various pathological conditions are accompanied by ATP release from the intracellular to the extracellular compartment. Extracellular ATP (eATP) functions as a signaling molecule by activating purinergic P2 purine receptors. The key P2 receptor involved in inflammation was identified as P2X7R. Recent studies have shown that P2X7R signaling is required to trigger the Th1/Th17 immune response, and oxidized ATP (oxATP) effectively blocks P2X7R activation. In this study we investigated the effect of oxATP on mouse experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU). Our results demonstrated that induced EAU in B6 mice was almost completely abolished by the administration of small doses of oxATP, and the Th17 response, but not the Th1 response, was significantly weakened in the treated mice. Mechanistic studies showed that the therapeutic effects involve the functional change of a number of immune cells, including dendritic cells (DCs), T cells, and regulatory T cells. OxATP not only directly inhibits the T cell response; it also suppresses T cell activation by altering the function of DCs and Foxp3⁺ T cell. Our results demonstrated that inhibition of P2X7R activation effectively exempts excessive autoimmune inflammation, which may indicate a possible therapeutic use in the treatment of autoimmune diseases.

ROLE OF PURINERGIC RECEPTORS IN IMMUNE RESPONSE

Purine receptors are located on immune and somatic cells of animal and human organisms. Summation of signals from purine and TOLL-like receptors takes place on the level of inflammasome formation and results in summation of the first and second signals of innate immunity. The first signal - from PAMPs (pathogen associated molecular patterns), the second - from DAMPs (danger associated molecular patterns). Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the most studied DAMP. ATP connects with purine receptors, which include P2 (P2X7 receptors are the best described), that results in opening of channels of these receptors and transit of ATP into the cell. In parallel exit of K+ from cells and entrance of Ca2+ and Na+ into the cells is observed, that is associated with activation of the immune competent cell. Damaged cells dying via necrosis or apoptosis are the source of extracellular ATP, as well as activated immunocytes. Signals from P2 and TOLL-like receptors are summarized in effectors of immune response, and activation of P2 receptors in lymphocytes makes a contribution into activation of cells, mediated by T-cell receptor. Negative side of purine receptor activation is a stimulating effect on proliferation and metastasis of malignant cells. The practical output of knowledge on functioning of purine receptors for clinical immunology is the application of agonists and antagonists of purine receptors, as well as explanation of effect of immune modulators from the position of launch of K+/Na+-pump, resulting in prolonged activation of immune competent cells.

Purinergic signalling in a latent stem cell niche of the rat spinal cord

The ependyma of the spinal cord harbours stem cells which are activated by traumatic spinal cord injury. Progenitor-like cells in the central canal (CC) are organized in spatial domains. The cells lining the lateral aspects combine characteristics of ependymocytes and radial glia (RG) whereas in the dorsal and ventral poles, CC-contacting cells have the morphological phenotype of RG and display complex electrophysiological phenotypes. The signals that may affect these progenitors are little understood. Because ATP is massively released after spinal cord injury, we hypothesized that purinergic signalling plays a part in this spinal stem cell niche. We combined immunohistochemistry, in vitro patch-clamp whole-cell recordings and Ca(2+) imaging to explore the effects of purinergic agonists on ependymal progenitor-like cells in the neonatal (P1-P6) rat spinal cord. Prolonged focal application of a high concentration of ATP (1 mM) induced a slow inward current. Equimolar concentrations of BzATP generated larger currents that reversed close to 0 mV, had a linear current-voltage relationship and were blocked by Brilliant Blue G, suggesting the presence of functional P2X7 receptors. Immunohistochemistry showed that P2X7 receptors were expressed around the CC and the processes of RG. BzATP also generated Ca(2+) waves in RG that were triggered by Ca(2+) influx and propagated via Ca(2+) release from internal stores through activation of ryanodine receptors. We speculate that the intracellular Ca(2+) signalling triggered by P2X7 receptor activation may be an epigenetic mechanism to modulate the behaviour of progenitors in response to ATP released after injury.

The pathobiology of pig-to-primate xenotransplantation: a historical review

The immunologic barriers to successful xenotransplantation are related to the presence of natural anti-pig antibodies in humans and non-human primates that bind to antigens expressed on the transplanted pig organ (the most important of which is galactose-α1,3-galactose [Gal]), and activate the complement cascade, which results in rapid destruction of the graft, a process known as hyperacute rejection. High levels of elicited anti-pig IgG may develop if the adaptive immune response is not prevented by adequate immunosuppressive therapy, resulting in activation and injury of the vascular endothelium. The transplantation of organs and cells from pigs that do not express the important Gal antigen (α1,3-galactosyltransferase gene-knockout [GTKO] pigs) and express one or more human complement-regulatory proteins (hCRP, e.g., CD46, CD55), when combined with an effective costimulation blockade-based immunosuppressive regimen, prevents early antibody-mediated and cellular rejection. However, low levels of anti-non-Gal antibody and innate immune cells and/or platelets may initiate the development of a thrombotic microangiopathy in the graft that may be associated with a consumptive coagulopathy in the recipient. This pathogenic process is accentuated by the dysregulation of the coagulation-anticoagulation systems between pigs and primates. The expression in GTKO/hCRP pigs of a human coagulation-regulatory protein, for example, thrombomodulin, is increasingly being associated with prolonged pig graft survival in non-human primates. Initial clinical trials of islet and corneal xenotransplantation are already underway, and trials of pig kidney or heart transplantation are anticipated within the next few years.

P2X ion channel receptors and inflammation

Neuroinflammation limits tissue damage in response to pathogens or injury and promotes repair. There are two stages of inflammation, initiation and resolution. P2X receptors are gaining attention in relation to immunology and inflammation. The P2X7 receptor in particular appears to be an essential immunomodulatory receptor, although P2X1 and P2X4 receptors also appear to be involved. ATP released from damaged or infected cells causes inflammation by release of inflammatory cytokines via P2X7 receptors and acts as a danger signal by occupying upregulated P2X receptors on immune cells to increase immune responses. The purinergic involvement in inflammation is being explored for the development of novel therapeutic strategies.

Purinergic Mechanisms and Pain

There is a brief introductory summary of purinergic signaling involving ATP storage, release, and ectoenzymatic breakdown, and the current classification of receptor subtypes for purines and pyrimidines. The review then describes purinergic mechanosensory transduction involved in visceral, cutaneous, and musculoskeletal nociception and on the roles played by receptor subtypes in neuropathic and inflammatory pain. Multiple purinoceptor subtypes are involved in pain pathways both as an initiator and modulator. Activation of homomeric P2X3 receptors contributes to acute nociception and activation of heteromeric P2X2/3 receptors appears to modulate longer-lasting nociceptive sensitivity associated with nerve injury or chronic inflammation. In neuropathic pain activation of P2X4, P2X7, and P2Y12 receptors on microglia may serve to maintain nociceptive sensitivity through complex neural-glial cell interactions and antagonists to these receptors reduce neuropathic pain. Potential therapeutic approaches involving purinergic mechanisms will be discussed.

Hypercholesterolemia and Ecto-enzymes of Purinergic System: Effects of Paullinia cupana

Hypercholesterolemia is a metabolic disorder characterized by high levels of low-density lipoprotein and blood cholesterol, causing inflammatory lesion. Purinergic signaling modulates the inflammatory and immune responses through adenine nucleotides and nucleoside. Guaraná has hypocholesterolemic and antiinflammatory properties. Considering that there are few studies demonstrating the effects of guaraná powder on the metabolism of adenine nucleotides, we investigated its effects on the activity of ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase) and ecto-adenosine deaminase activity in lymphocytes of rats with diet-induced hypercholesterolemia. The rats were divided into hypercholesterolemic and normal diet groups. Each group was subdivided by treatment: saline, guaraná powder 12.5, 25, or 50 mg/kg/day and caffeine concentration equivalent to highest dose of guaraná, fed orally for 30 days. An increase in adenosine triphosphate hydrolysis was observed in the lymphocytes of rats with hypercholesterolemia and treated with 25 or 50 mg/kg/day when compared with the other groups. The hypercholesterolemic group treated with the highest concentration of guaraná powder showed decreased ecto-adenosine deaminase activity compared with the normal diet groups. Guaraná was able to reduce the total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol to basal levels in hypercholesterolemic rats. High concentrations of guaraná associated with a hypercholesterolemic diet are likely to have contributed to the reduction of the inflammatory process.

Effect of Uncaria tomentosa extract on purinergic enzyme activities in lymphocytes of rats submitted to experimental adjuvant arthritis model

BACKGROUND

Considering that adjuvant arthritis is an experimental model of arthritis widely used for preclinical testing of numerous anti-arthritic agents, which were taken by a large number of patients worldwide, it is of great interest to investigate the therapeutic action of compounds with anti-inflammatory properties, such as Uncaria tomentosa extract. Moreover, there are no studies demonstrating the effect of U. tomentosa on the metabolism of adenine nucleotides published so far. Thus, the purpose of the present study is to investigate the effects of U. tomentosa extract on E-NTPDase and E-ADA activities in lymphocytes of Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) arthritis induced rats.

METHODS

To evaluate the effect of U. tomentosa extract on the activity of E-NTPDase and ADA in lymphocytes, the rats were submitted to an experimental adjuvant arthritis model. Peripheral lymphocytes were isolated and E-NTPDase and E-ADA activities were determined. Data were analyzed by a one- or two-way ANOVA. Post hoc analyses were carried out by the Student-Newman-Keuls (SNK) Multiple Comparison Test.

RESULTS

E-NTPDase activity was increased in arthritic untreated. Arthritic rats which received U. tomentosa extract, presented similar results to the control group. However, results obtained for adenosine hydrolysis by E-ADA were not altered in arthritic rats. U. tomentosa extract did not alter E-NTPDase and E-ADA activity in healthy animals.

CONCLUSIONS

The present investigation supports the hypothesis that the increased E-NTPDase activity verified in arthritic rats might be an attempt to maintain basal levels of ATP and ADP in the extracellular medium, since the arthritis induction causes tissue damage and, consequently, large amounts of ATP are released into this milieu. Also, it highlights the possibility to use U. tomentosa extract as an adjuvant to treat arthritis.

Extracellular ATP Selectively Upregulates Ecto-Nucleoside Triphosphate Diphosphohydrolase 2 and Ecto-5'-Nucleotidase by Rat Cortical Astrocytes In Vitro

Extracellular ATP (eATP) acts as a danger-associated molecular pattern which induces reactive response of astrocytes after brain insult, including morphological remodeling of astrocytes, proliferation, chemotaxis, and release of proinflammatory cytokines. The responses induced by eATP are under control of ecto-nucleotidases, which catalyze sequential hydrolysis of ATP to adenosine. In the mammalian brain, ecto-nucleotidases comprise three enzyme families: ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolases 1-3 (NTPDase1-3), ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phospodiesterases 1-3 (NPP1-3), and ecto-5'-nucleotidase (eN), which crucially determine ATP/adenosine ratio in the pericellular milieu. Altered expression of ecto-nucleotidases has been demonstrated in several experimental models of human brain dysfunctions. In the present study, we have explored the pattern of NTPDase1-3, NPP1-3, and eN expression by cultured cortical astrocytes challenged with 1 mmol/L ATP (eATP). At the transcriptional level, eATP upregulated expression of NTPDase1, NTPDase2, NPP2, and eN, while, at translational and functional levels, these were paralleled only by the induction of NTPDase2 and eN. Additionally, eATP altered membrane topology of eN, from clusters localized in membrane domains to continuous distribution along the cell membrane. Our results suggest that eATP, by upregulating NTPDase2 and eN and altering the enzyme membrane topology, affects local kinetics of ATP metabolism and signal transduction that may have important roles in the process related to inflammation and reactive gliosis.

Systematic tracking of dysregulated modules identifies disrupted pathways in narcolepsy

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this work is to identify disrupted pathways in narcolepsy according to systematically tracking the dysregulated modules of reweighted Protein-Protein Interaction (PPI) networks. Here, we performed systematic identification and comparison of modules across normal and narcolepsy conditions by integrating PPI and gene-expression data.

METHODS

Firstly, normal and narcolepsy PPI network were inferred and reweighted based on Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC). Then, modules in PPI network were explored by clique-merging algorithm and we identified altered modules using a maximum weight bipartite matching and in non-increasing order. Finally, pathways enrichment analyses of genes in altered modules were carried out based on Expression Analysis Systematic Explored (EASE) test to illuminate the biological pathways in narcolepsy.

RESULTS

Our analyses revealed that 235 altered modules were identified by comparing modules in normal and narcolepsy PPI network. Pathway functional enrichment analysis of disrupted module genes showed 59 disrupted pathways within threshold P < 0.001. The most significant five disrupted pathways were: oxidative phosphorylation, T cell receptor signaling pathway, cell cycle, Alzheimer's disease and focal adhesion.

CONCLUSIONS

We successfully identified disrupted pathways and these pathways might be potential biological processes for treatment and etiology mechanism in narcolepsy.