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Wang Z, Zhao Y, You X, Liang J. Relationship Between the Parietal Cortex and Task Switching: Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Combined with an Event-related Potential Study. Neuroscience 2024; 546:41-52. [PMID: 38548166 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2024.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Task switching refers to a set of cognitive processes involved in shifting attention from one task to another. In recent years, researchers have applied transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to investigate the causal relationship between the parietal cortex and task switching. However, results from available studies are highly inconsistent. This may be due to the unclear understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Therefore, the current study utilized event-related potential (ERP) analysis to investigate the modulatory effects of tDCS on task-switching processes. Twenty-four subjects were recruited to perform both predictable and unpredictable parity/magnitude tasks under anodal (RA) and sham conditions. The results showed no significant changes in behavioral performance. However, marked tDCS-induced ERP changes were observed. Specifically, for the predictable task switching, compared with the sham condition, the target-N2 component occurred significantly earlier for switch trials than repeat trials under the RA condition in males, while no difference was found in females. For unpredictable task switching, under the sham condition, the P2 peak was significantly larger for switch trials compared with repeat trials, whereas this difference was not observed under the RA condition. These results indicated the causal relationship between the right parietal cortex and exogenous adjustment processes involved in task switching. Moreover, anodal tDCS over the right parietal cortex may lead to the manifestation of gender differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyu Wang
- School of Electronic Engineering, Xidian University, Xi'an 710071, China; School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710062, China.
| | - Yi Zhao
- School of Electronic Engineering, Xidian University, Xi'an 710071, China
| | - Xuqun You
- School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710062, China
| | - Jimin Liang
- School of Electronic Engineering, Xidian University, Xi'an 710071, China.
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2
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Du M, Peng Y, Li Y, Zhu Y, Yang S, Li J, Zou F, Wang Y, Wu X, Zhang Y, Zhang M. Effect of trait anxiety on cognitive flexibility: Evidence from event-related potentials and resting-state EEG. Biol Psychol 2022; 170:108319. [PMID: 35331781 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2022.108319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Individuals with anxiety often exhibit cognitive flexibility impairment; however, the neural underpinnings of this cognitive impairment remain unclear. In this study, 45 participants were instructed to complete a task-switching assessment of shifting function by EEG technology, and 200 participants were included in microstate analysis to study why cognitive flexibility is impaired and the neuromechanism. Behaviorally, a positive correlation between trait anxiety scores and set shifting cost was found. At the EEG level, there was a positive correlation between trait anxiety scores and frontal P2 peaks under the shifting condition, which was related to the activation of the stimulus-response associations by attention. Furthermore, microstate analysis was used to analyze EEG functional networks, and TA scores had significant positive correlations with the Occurrence of class D and the Contribution of class D, which was related to the dorsal attention network. These results provided direct neuroelectrophysiological evidence that trait anxiety impairs cognitive flexibility when shifting is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Du
- Department of Psychology, Xinxiang Medical University, Henan 453003, China
| | - Yunwen Peng
- Department of Psychology, Xinxiang Medical University, Henan 453003, China
| | - Yuwen Li
- Department of Psychology, Xinxiang Medical University, Henan 453003, China
| | - Yingying Zhu
- Department of Psychology, Xinxiang Medical University, Henan 453003, China
| | - Shiyan Yang
- Department of Psychology, Xinxiang Medical University, Henan 453003, China; Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China.
| | - Jiefan Li
- Department of Psychology, Xinxiang Medical University, Henan 453003, China
| | - Feng Zou
- Department of Psychology, Xinxiang Medical University, Henan 453003, China
| | - Yufeng Wang
- Department of Psychology, Xinxiang Medical University, Henan 453003, China
| | - Xin Wu
- Department of Psychology, Xinxiang Medical University, Henan 453003, China
| | - Yujiao Zhang
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Innovation Research Institute, Shandong University Of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong 250355, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- Department of Psychology, Xinxiang Medical University, Henan 453003, China.
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3
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Barceló F. A Predictive Processing Account of Card Sorting: Fast Proactive and Reactive Frontoparietal Cortical Dynamics during Inference and Learning of Perceptual Categories. J Cogn Neurosci 2021; 33:1636-1656. [PMID: 34375413 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
For decades, a common assumption in cognitive neuroscience has been that prefrontal executive control is mainly engaged during target detection [Posner, M. I., & Petersen, S. E. The attention system of the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 13, 25-42, 1990]. More recently, predictive processing theories of frontal function under the Bayesian brain hypothesis emphasize a key role of proactive control for anticipatory action selection (i.e., planning as active inference). Here, we review evidence of fast and widespread EEG and magnetoencephalographic fronto-temporo-parietal cortical activations elicited by feedback cues and target cards in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. This evidence is best interpreted when considering negative and positive feedback as predictive cues (i.e., sensory outcomes) for proactively updating beliefs about unknown perceptual categories. Such predictive cues inform posterior beliefs about high-level hidden categories governing subsequent response selection at target onset. Quite remarkably, these new views concur with Don Stuss' early findings concerning two broad classes of P300 cortical responses evoked by feedback cues and target cards in a computerized Wisconsin Card Sorting Test analogue. Stuss' discussion of those P300 responses-in terms of the resolution of uncertainty about response (policy) selection as well as the participants' expectancies for future perceptual or motor activities and their timing-was prescient of current predictive processing and active (Bayesian) inference theories. From these new premises, a domain-general frontoparietal cortical network is rapidly engaged during two temporarily distinct stages of inference and learning of perceptual categories that underwrite goal-directed card sorting behavior, and they each engage prefrontal executive functions in fundamentally distinct ways.
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4
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Anderson DI, Lohse KR, Lopes TCV, Williams AM. Individual differences in motor skill learning: Past, present and future. Hum Mov Sci 2021; 78:102818. [PMID: 34049152 DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2021.102818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Humans vary considerably in their ability to perform and learn new motor skills. In addition, they respond to different performance and practice conditions in varying ways. Historically, experimental psychologists have characterized these differences as 'experimental noise', yet for those who embrace differential psychology, the study of individual differences promises to deepen insights into the processes that mediate motor control and learning. In this paper, we highlight what we know about predicting motor learning based on individual difference characteristics and renew a call made by Lee Cronbach several decades ago to combine the methodologies used by experimental and differential psychologists to further our understanding of how to promote motor learning. The paper provides a brief historical overview of research on individual differences and motor learning followed by a systematic review of the last 20 years of research on this issue. The paper ends by highlighting some of the methodological challenges associated with conducting research on individual differences, as well as providing suggestions for future research. The study of individual differences has important implications for furthering our understanding of motor learning and when tailoring interventions for diverse learners at different stages of practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- David I Anderson
- Marian Wright Edelman Institute, San Francisco State University, USA.
| | - Keith R Lohse
- Department of Health & Kinesiology, University of Utah, USA
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5
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Trait anxiety modulates the temporal dynamics of Stroop task switching: An ERP study. Biol Psychol 2021; 163:108144. [PMID: 34242721 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2021.108144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2021] [Revised: 07/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The current study aimed to find neural evidence that trait anxiety interferes with one's shifting function processing efficiency. Twenty-five high trait-anxiety (HTA) and twenty-five low trait-anxiety (LTA) participants were instructed to complete a cue-based Stroop task-switching assessment of shifting function. No group difference in behavioral performance was shown, though event-related potential (ERP) results in the cue-locked period showed that only the LTA group had a general switch benefit in contingent negative variation (CNV) amplitude, indicating the LTA group exerted less task preparation effort. In the subsequent target-locked period, compared to the LTA group, the local switch cost of target-P3 was higher in the HTA group in incompatible trials, suggesting inefficient attentional resource allocation in the HTA group in incompatible trials. These ERP findings indicated that the HTA group ultimately achieved comparable behavioral performance with the LTA group at the expense of using more compensatory strategies at the neural level.
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6
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Xi C, Liu Z, Zhong M, Yang H, Peng W, Yi J. Impaired set-shifting in drug-naïve patients with borderline personality disorder: an event-related potentials study. J Affect Disord 2021; 280:64-71. [PMID: 33202339 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2020.10.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 09/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neurocognitive impairments might play a key role in the development of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD), however, the pathophysiological mechanism underlying cognitive impairment of BPD is largely unknown. This study was aimed to examine the electrophysiological mechanism of deficits in set-shifting processing in patients with BPD. METHODS Twenty-seven drug-naïve patients with BPD and twenty-four healthy controls were recruited. Demographic variables and clinical characteristics of all subjects were collected. Behavioral data and event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded when subjects were performing the task-switching paradigm, which was applied to investigate the set-shifting function. The P2, N2 and P3 components in the task-switching paradigm would be analyzed. RESULTS Patients with BPD had significantly higher level of impulsivity, depression and anxiety than healthy controls. When performing the switching task, the BPD group had lower P2 amplitude and higher N2 amplitude than the control group. In the BPD group, the P2 latency at Fz electrode in repeat task was correlated positively with the level of depression, and P2 latency at Pz electrode in repeat task and switch task both had significantly negative relationships with the the level of anxiety. LIMITATIONS This cross-sectional designed study did not clarify the causal relationship of the electrophysiological characteristics and the development of BPD. CONCLUSIONS Patients with BPD might have abnormal brain activities when overcoming the inhibition of current task and inhibiting the effects of prior task, and their top-down control function might be impaired. These findings provide some useful clues for the underlying pathophysiological mechanism of BPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Xi
- Medical Psychological Center, the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Medical Psychological Institute, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Zhaoxia Liu
- Medical Psychological Center, the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Medical Psychological Institute, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Mingtian Zhong
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huihui Yang
- Medical Psychological Center, the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Medical Psychological Institute, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Wanrong Peng
- Medical Psychological Center, the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Medical Psychological Institute, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Jinyao Yi
- Medical Psychological Center, the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Medical Psychological Institute, Central South University, Changsha, China; National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, Changsha, 410011, China.
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7
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Rieker JA, Reales JM, Ballesteros S. The Effect of Bilingualism on Cue-Based vs. Memory-Based Task Switching in Older Adults. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 14:610548. [PMID: 33390921 PMCID: PMC7775305 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.610548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Findings suggest a positive impact of bilingualism on cognition, including the later onset of dementia. However, it is not clear to what extent these effects are influenced by variations in attentional control demands in response to specific task requirements. In this study, 20 bilingual and 20 monolingual older adults performed a task-switching task under explicit task-cuing vs. memory-based switching conditions. In the cued condition, task switches occurred in random order and a visual cue signaled the next task to be performed. In the memory-based condition, the task alternated after every second trial in a predictable sequence without presenting a cue. The performance of bilinguals did not vary across experimental conditions, whereas monolinguals experienced a pronounced increase in response latencies and error rates in the cued condition. Both groups produced similar switch costs (difference in performance on switch trials as opposed to repeating trials within the mixed-task block) and mixing costs (difference in performance on repeat trials of a mixed-task block as opposed to trials of a single-task block), but bilinguals produced them with lower response latencies. The cognitive benefits of bilingualism seem not to apply to executive functions per se but to affect specific cognitive processes that involve task-relevant context processing. The present results suggest that lifelong bilingualism could promote in older adults a flexible adjustment to environmental cues, but only with increased task demands. However, due to the small sample size, the results should be interpreted with caution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer A Rieker
- Studies on Aging and Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Group, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Basic Psychology II, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional, Madrid, Spain
| | - José Manuel Reales
- Studies on Aging and Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Group, Madrid, Spain.,Department Methodology of Behavioral Sciences, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain
| | - Soledad Ballesteros
- Studies on Aging and Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Group, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Basic Psychology II, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional, Madrid, Spain
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8
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Cespón J, Carreiras M. Is there electrophysiological evidence for a bilingual advantage in neural processes related to executive functions? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 118:315-330. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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9
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The neurocognitive underpinnings of the Simon effect: An integrative review of current research. COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2020; 20:1133-1172. [PMID: 33025513 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-020-00836-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
For as long as half a century the Simon task - in which participants respond to a nonspatial stimulus feature while ignoring its position - has represented a very popular tool to study a variety of cognitive functions, such as attention, cognitive control, and response preparation processes. In particular, the task generates two theoretically interesting effects: the Simon effect proper and the sequential modulations of this effect. In the present study, we review the main theoretical explanations of both kinds of effects and the available neuroscientific studies that investigated the neural underpinnings of the cognitive processes underlying the Simon effect proper and its sequential modulation using electroencephalogram (EEG) and event-related brain potentials (ERP), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Then, we relate the neurophysiological findings to the main theoretical accounts and evaluate their validity and empirical plausibility, including general implications related to processing interference and cognitive control. Overall, neurophysiological research supports claims that stimulus location triggers the creation of a spatial code, which activates a spatially compatible response that, in incompatible conditions, interferes with the response based on the task instructions. Integration of stimulus-response features plays a major role in the occurrence of the Simon effect (which is manifested in the selection of the response) and its modulation by sequential congruency effects. Additional neural mechanisms are involved in supporting the correct and inhibiting the incorrect response.
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10
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Chang WP, Shen IH, Wen CP, Chen CL. Age-Related Differences Between Young and Old Adults: Effects of Advance Information on Task Switching. Percept Mot Skills 2020; 127:985-1014. [DOI: 10.1177/0031512520930872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In this study we investigated the effects of advance information on task switching in young and old adults, using two forms of advance information (memory-based and cue-based) and a no advance information task. We compared 19 healthy young and 19 healthy older adults in terms of their behavioral performance and neural correlates under these three task-switching paradigms. We observed a significant difference in mixing cost between the two age groups. There was no switch cost group difference on the memory-based and cue-based tasks, but older adults showed a larger switch cost than younger adults on the no advance information task. On evoked potential measures, there was no group effect in P3 cue-locked positivity; but there was, a frontal shift of the target-locked P3, indexed as reactive control, among older adults. We observed an increased target-locked P3 in the no-information paradigm compared with the cue-based and memory-based paradigms in both groups. Task cue facilitated advance preparation and proactive control under the cue-based paradigm in both groups. Age-related decline and difficulty in control processes required for task goal maintenance were apparent among the older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Pin Chang
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Indiana University (IUPUI)
| | - I-Hsuan Shen
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Graduate Institute of Behavioral Science, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan
| | - Chien-Pei Wen
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Graduate Institute of Behavioral Science, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan
| | - Chia-Ling Chen
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan
- Graduate Institute of Early Intervention, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan
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11
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Gbadeyan O, Steinhauser M, Hunold A, Martin AK, Haueisen J, Meinzer M. Modulation of Adaptive Cognitive Control by Prefrontal High-Definition Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Older Adults. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2020; 74:1174-1183. [PMID: 31045231 DOI: 10.1093/geronb/gbz048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Revised: 04/14/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Adaptive cognitive control frequently declines in advanced age. Because high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation (HD-tDCS) of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) improved cognitive control in young adults, we investigated if this montage can also improve cognitive control in older individuals. METHOD In a double-blind, sham HD-tDCS controlled, cross-over design, 36 older participants received right DLPFC HD-tDCS during a visual flanker task. Conflict adaptation (CA) effects on response time (RT) and error rates (ER) assessed adaptive cognitive control. Biophysical modeling assessed the magnitude and distribution of induced current in older adults. RESULTS Active HD-tDCS enhanced CA in older adults. However, this positive behavioral effect was limited to CA in ER. Similar to results obtained in healthy young adults, current modeling analysis demonstrated focal current delivery to the DLPFC with sufficient magnitude of the induced current to modulate neural function in older adults. DISCUSSION This study confirms the effectiveness of HD-tDCS to modulate adaptive cognitive control in advanced age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oyetunde Gbadeyan
- Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Marco Steinhauser
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, Germany
| | - Alexander Hunold
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Informatics, Technical University Ilmenau, Germany
| | - Andrew K Martin
- Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Jens Haueisen
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Informatics, Technical University Ilmenau, Germany
| | - Marcus Meinzer
- Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.,Department of Neurology, University Medicine Greifswald, Germany
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12
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Ferdinand NK, Hilz M. Emotional feedback ameliorates older adults' feedback-induced learning. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0231964. [PMID: 32352992 PMCID: PMC7192411 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0231964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In older age, learning and feedback processing are usually impaired. This is thought to be due to impairments in the dopaminergic system and the anterior cingulate cortex. By contrast, processing of affective information seems to remain relatively intact. Recent research has also demonstrated that cognitive functioning can be influenced by affective materials or contexts and lead to an enhancement in diverse cognitive tasks. Hence, the aim of the present study was to explore, whether emotional feedback would counteract age-related learning deficits and strengthen early and later phases of feedback processing as reflected in the feedback-related negativity (FRN) and P3b of the event-related potential (ERP). Younger and older participants conducted a probabilistic reinforcement learning task in which the accurate responses had to be learned via feedback. In emotional trials, feedback stimuli consisted of faces with smiling and disgusted expressions, and in a non-emotional condition, positive and negative feedback was indicated by the background color of faces with neutral expressions. Our main results were that older adults showed better learning performance in the emotional feedback condition and a larger P3b after emotional than non-emotional feedback indexing heightened working memory updating after task relevant events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola K. Ferdinand
- Department of Psychology, Bergische Universität Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany
- Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Melanie Hilz
- Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
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13
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Zhu M, Zhuo B, Cao B, Li F. Distinct brain activation in response to negative feedback at different stages in a variant of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Biol Psychol 2020; 150:107810. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.107810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 11/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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14
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Massa E, Köpke B, El Yagoubi R. Age-related effect on language control and executive control in bilingual and monolingual speakers: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence. Neuropsychologia 2020; 138:107336. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Revised: 01/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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15
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The influence of task complexity and information value on feedback processing in younger and older adults: No evidence for a positivity bias during feedback-induced learning in older adults. Brain Res 2019; 1717:74-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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16
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Vásquez-Rosati A, Montefusco-Siegmund R, López V, Cosmelli D. Emotional Influences on Cognitive Flexibility Depend on Individual Differences: A Combined Micro-Phenomenological and Psychophysiological Study. Front Psychol 2019; 10:1138. [PMID: 31178787 PMCID: PMC6543930 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Imagine a scenario where you are cooking and suddenly, the contents of the pot start to come out, and the oven bell rings. You would have to stop what you are doing and start responding to the changing demands, switching between different objects, operations and mental sets. This ability is known as cognitive flexibility. Now, add to this scenario a strong emotional atmosphere that invades you as you spontaneously recall a difficult situation you had that morning. How would you behave? Recent studies suggest that emotional states do modulate cognitive flexibility, but these findings are still controversial. Moreover, there is a lack of evidence regarding the underlying brain processes. The purpose of the present study was, therefore, to examine such interaction while monitoring changes in ongoing cortical activity using EEG. In order to answer this question, we used two musical stimuli to induce emotional states (positive/high arousal/open stance and negative/high arousal/closed stance). Twenty-nine participants performed two blocks of the Madrid Card Sorting Task in a neutral silence condition and then four blocks while listening to the counterbalanced musical stimuli. To explore this interaction, we used a combination of first-person (micro-phenomenological interview) and third-person (behavior and EEG) approaches. Our results show that compared to the positive stimuli and silence condition, negative stimuli decrease reaction times (RTs) for the shift signal. Our data show that the valance of the first emotional block is determinant in the RTs of the subsequent blocks. Additionally, the analysis of the micro-phenomenological interview and the integration of first- and third-person data show that the emotional disposition generated by the music could facilitate task performance for some participants or hamper it for others, independently of its emotional valence. When the emotional disposition hampered task execution, RTs were slower, and the P300 potential showed a reduced amplitude compared to the facilitated condition. These findings show that the interaction between emotion and cognitive flexibility is more complex than previously thought and points to a new way of understanding the underlying mechanisms by incorporating an in-depth analysis of individual subjective experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra Vásquez-Rosati
- Escuela de Psicología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Laboratorio de Fenomenología Corporal, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Vladimir López
- Escuela de Psicología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencias, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Diego Cosmelli
- Escuela de Psicología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencias, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Instituto Milenio para la Investigación en Depresión y Personalidad, MIDAP, Santiago, Chile
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Yee DM, Adams S, Beck A, Braver TS. Age-Related Differences in Motivational Integration and Cognitive Control. COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2019; 19:692-714. [PMID: 30980339 PMCID: PMC6599483 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-019-00713-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Motivational incentives play an influential role in value-based decision-making and cognitive control. A compelling hypothesis in the literature suggests that the motivational value of diverse incentives are integrated in the brain into a common currency value signal that influences decision-making and behavior. To investigate whether motivational integration processes change during healthy aging, we tested older (N = 44) and younger (N = 54) adults in an innovative incentive integration task paradigm that establishes dissociable and additive effects of liquid (e.g., juice, neutral, saltwater) and monetary incentives on cognitive task performance. The results reveal that motivational incentives improve cognitive task performance in both older and younger adults, providing novel evidence demonstrating that age-related cognitive control deficits can be ameliorated with sufficient incentive motivation. Additional analyses revealed clear age-related differences in motivational integration. Younger adult task performance was modulated by both monetary and liquid incentives, whereas monetary reward effects were more gradual in older adults and more strongly impacted by trial-by-trial performance feedback. A surprising discovery was that older adults shifted attention from liquid valence toward monetary reward throughout task performance, but younger adults shifted attention from monetary reward toward integrating both monetary reward and liquid valence by the end of the task, suggesting differential strategic utilization of incentives. These data suggest that older adults may have impairments in incentive integration and employ different motivational strategies to improve cognitive task performance. The findings suggest potential candidate neural mechanisms that may serve as the locus of age-related change, providing targets for future cognitive neuroscience investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debbie M Yee
- Cognitive Control and Psychopathology Laboratory, Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1125, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA.
| | - Sarah Adams
- Cognitive Control and Psychopathology Laboratory, Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1125, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Asad Beck
- Cognitive Control and Psychopathology Laboratory, Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1125, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Todd S Braver
- Cognitive Control and Psychopathology Laboratory, Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1125, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
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18
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Han J, Xie L, Cao B, Li J, Chen Y, Li F. More abstract, more difficult to shift: Behavior and electrophysiological evidence. Behav Brain Res 2019; 362:273-278. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Revised: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 01/03/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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19
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López ME, Pusil S, Pereda E, Maestú F, Barceló F. Dynamic low frequency EEG phase synchronization patterns during proactive control of task switching. Neuroimage 2018; 186:70-82. [PMID: 30394328 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.10.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2018] [Revised: 10/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/26/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive flexibility is critical for humans living in complex societies with ever-growing multitasking demands. Yet the low-frequency neural dynamics of distinct task-specific and domain-general mechanisms sub-serving mental flexibility are still ill-defined. Here we estimated phase electroencephalogram synchronization by using inter-trial phase coherence (ITPC) at the source space while twenty six young participants were intermittently cued to switch or repeat their perceptual categorization rule of Gabor gratings varying in color and thickness (switch task). Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine whether a proactive control is associated with connectivity only in the frontoparietal theta network, or also involves distinct neural connectivity within the delta band, as distinct neural signatures while preparing to switch or repeat a task set, respectively. To this end, we focused the analysis on late-latencies (from 500 to 800 msec post-cue onset), since they are known to be associated with top-down cognitive control processes. We confirmed that proactive control during a task switch was associated with frontoparietal theta connectivity. But importantly, we also found a distinct role of delta band oscillatory synchronization in proactive control, engaging more posterior frontotemporal regions as opposed to frontoparietal theta connectivity. Additionally, we built a regression model by using the ITPC results in delta and theta bands as predictors, and the behavioral accuracy in the switch task as the criterion, obtaining significant results for both frequency bands. All these findings support the existence of distinct proactive cognitive control processes related to functionally distinct though highly complementary theta and delta frontoparietal and temporoparietal oscillatory networks at late-latency temporal scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Eugenia López
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Psychological Processes and Speech Therapy, Universidad Complutense of Madrid, Spain; Laboratory of Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience (UCM-UPM), Centre for Biomedical Technology (CTB), Madrid, Spain; Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain.
| | - Sandra Pusil
- Laboratory of Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience (UCM-UPM), Centre for Biomedical Technology (CTB), Madrid, Spain; Laboratory of Neuropsychology, University of the Balearic Islands, Spain
| | - Ernesto Pereda
- Laboratory of Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience (UCM-UPM), Centre for Biomedical Technology (CTB), Madrid, Spain; Electrical Engineering and Bioengineering Group, Department of Industrial Engineering & IUNE, Universidad de La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
| | - Fernando Maestú
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Psychological Processes and Speech Therapy, Universidad Complutense of Madrid, Spain; Laboratory of Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience (UCM-UPM), Centre for Biomedical Technology (CTB), Madrid, Spain; Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Barceló
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, University of the Balearic Islands, Spain.
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20
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Gajewski PD, Ferdinand NK, Kray J, Falkenstein M. Understanding sources of adult age differences in task switching: Evidence from behavioral and ERP studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 92:255-275. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.05.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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21
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Moretti L, Semenza C, Vallesi A. General Slowing and Education Mediate Task Switching Performance Across the Life-Span. Front Psychol 2018; 9:630. [PMID: 29780341 PMCID: PMC5945925 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: This study considered the potential role of both protective factors (cognitive reserve, CR) and adverse ones (general slowing) in modulating cognitive flexibility in the adult life-span. Method: Ninety-eight individuals performed a task-switching (TS) paradigm in which we adopted a manipulation concerning the timing between the cue and the target. Working memory demands were minimized by using transparent cues. Additionally, indices of cognitive integrity, depression, processing speed and different CR dimensions were collected and used in linear models accounting for TS performance under the different time constraints. Results: The main results showed similar mixing costs and higher switching costs in older adults, with an overall age-dependent effect of general slowing on these costs. The link between processing speed and TS performance was attenuated when participants had more time to prepare. Among the different CR indices, formal education only was associated with reduced switch costs under time pressure. Discussion: Even though CR is often operationalized as a unitary construct, the present research confirms the benefits of using tools designed to distinguish between different CR dimensions. Furthermore, our results provide empirical support to the assumption that processing speed influence on executive performance depends on time constraints. Finally, it is suggested that whether age differences appear in terms of switch or mixing costs depends on working memory demands (which were low in our tasks with transparent cues).
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Moretti
- Padova Neuroscience Center, Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Carlo Semenza
- Padova Neuroscience Center, Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- IRCCS San Camillo Hospital Foundation, Venice, Italy
| | - Antonino Vallesi
- Padova Neuroscience Center, Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- IRCCS San Camillo Hospital Foundation, Venice, Italy
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22
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Han J, Dai Y, Xie L, Li F. Brain responses associated with different hierarchical effects on cues and targets during rule shifting. Biol Psychol 2018; 134:52-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Revised: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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23
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Methqal I, Pinsard B, Amiri M, Wilson MA, Monchi O, Provost JS, Joanette Y. Age-Related Brain Activation Changes during Rule Repetition in Word-Matching. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11:543. [PMID: 29180957 PMCID: PMC5693847 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 10/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: The purpose of this study was to explore the age-related brain activation changes during a word-matching semantic-category-based task, which required either repeating or changing a semantic rule to be applied. In order to do so, a word-semantic rule-based task was adapted from the Wisconsin Sorting Card Test, involving the repeated feedback-driven selection of given pairs of words based on semantic category-based criteria. Method: Forty healthy adults (20 younger and 20 older) performed a word-matching task while undergoing a fMRI scan in which they were required to pair a target word with another word from a group of three words. The required pairing is based on three word-pair semantic rules which correspond to different levels of semantic control demands: functional relatedness, moderately typical-relatedness (which were considered as low control demands), and atypical-relatedness (high control demands). The sorting period consisted of a continuous execution of the same sorting rule and an inferred trial-by-trial feedback was given. Results: Behavioral performance revealed increases in response times and decreases of correct responses according to the level of semantic control demands (functional vs. typical vs. atypical) for both age groups (younger and older) reflecting graded differences in the repetition of the application of a given semantic rule. Neuroimaging findings of significant brain activation showed two main results: (1) Greater task-related activation changes for the repetition of the application of atypical rules relative to typical and functional rules, and (2) Changes (older > younger) in the inferior prefrontal regions for functional rules and more extensive and bilateral activations for typical and atypical rules. Regarding the inter-semantic rules comparison, only task-related activation differences were observed for functional > typical (e.g., inferior parietal and temporal regions bilaterally) and atypical > typical (e.g., prefrontal, inferior parietal, posterior temporal, and subcortical regions). Conclusion: These results suggest that healthy cognitive aging relies on the adaptive changes of inferior prefrontal resources involved in the repetitive execution of semantic rules, thus reflecting graded differences in support of task demands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ikram Methqal
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Basile Pinsard
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Mahnoush Amiri
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Maximiliano A Wilson
- Centre de Recherche CERVO - CIUSSS de la Capitale-Nationale et Département de Réadaptation, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Oury Monchi
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Jean-Sebastien Provost
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Yves Joanette
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
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24
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Gema Díaz-Blancat, Juan García-Prieto, Fernando Maestú, Francisco Barceló. Fast Neural Dynamics of Proactive Cognitive Control in a Task-Switching Analogue of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Brain Topogr 2017; 31:407-418. [PMID: 29124546 DOI: 10.1007/s10548-017-0607-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
One common assumption has been that prefrontal executive control is mostly required for target detection (Posner and Petersen in Ann Rev Neurosci 13:25-42, 1990). Alternatively, cognitive control has also been related to anticipatory updating of task-set (contextual) information, a view that highlights proactive control processes. Frontoparietal cortical networks contribute to both proactive control and reactive target detection, although their fast dynamics are still largely unexplored. To examine this, we analyzed rapid magnetoencephalographic (MEG) source activations elicited by task cues and target cards in a task-cueing analogue of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. A single-task (color sorting) condition with equivalent perceptual and motor demands was used as a control. Our results revealed fast, transient and largely switch-specific MEG activations across frontoparietal and cingulo-opercular regions in anticipation of target cards, including (1) early (100-200 ms) cue-locked MEG signals at visual, temporo-parietal and prefrontal cortices of the right hemisphere (i.e., calcarine sulcus, precuneus, inferior frontal gyrus, anterior insula and supramarginal gyrus); and (2) later cue-locked MEG signals at the right anterior and posterior insula (200-300 ms) and the left temporo-parietal junction (300-500 ms). In all cases larger MEG signal intensity was observed in switch relative to repeat cueing conditions. Finally, behavioral restart costs and test scores of working memory capacity (forward digit span) correlated with cue-locked MEG activations at key nodes of the frontoparietal network. Together, our findings suggest that proactive cognitive control of task rule updating can be fast and transiently implemented within less than a second and in anticipation of target detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gema Díaz-Blancat
- Laboratory of Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience (UCM-UPM), Centre for Biomedical Technology, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan García-Prieto
- Laboratory of Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience (UCM-UPM), Centre for Biomedical Technology, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Laboratory of Electrical Engineering and Bioengineering, Department of Industrial Engineering, Universidad de La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
| | - Fernando Maestú
- Laboratory of Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience (UCM-UPM), Centre for Biomedical Technology, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Basic Psychology II, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Barceló
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, University of the Balearic Islands, 07122, Palma de Mallorca, Spain.
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25
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Tsai CL, Pan CY, Chen FC, Tseng YT. Open- and Closed-Skill Exercise Interventions Produce Different Neurocognitive Effects on Executive Functions in the Elderly: A 6-Month Randomized, Controlled Trial. Front Aging Neurosci 2017; 9:294. [PMID: 28959200 PMCID: PMC5604064 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2017.00294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 08/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to explore the effects of open- and closed-skill exercise interventions on the neurocognitive performance of executive functions in the elderly. Sixty-four healthy elderly males were randomly assigned to either a closed-skill (bike riding or brisk walking/jogging, n = 22), open-skill (table tennis, n = 21), or control (n = 21) group. Various neuropsychological [e.g., accuracy rates (AR) and reaction time (RT)] and electrophysiological [e.g., event-related potential (ERP) P3 component] measures were assessed during a variant of the task-switching paradigm, as well as an N-back task at baseline and after either a 6-month exercise intervention or control period. The results showed that, when performing the task-switching paradigm, the two exercise groups relative to control group showed significantly faster RTs in the switch trials after the exercise intervention. However, the RT facilitation in the non-switch and switch trials post-exercise relative to pre-exercise only emerged in the open-skill group. In terms of the N-back task, the two exercise groups significantly increased ARs in the 1-back condition after the exercise intervention, and the beneficial AR effect on the 2-back condition only emerged in the closed-skill group. In addition, the two exercise groups exhibited significantly larger P3 amplitudes on the frontal-to-parietal cortex areas after the exercise intervention relative to the baseline when performing the two cognitive tasks. These neurocognitive results still remained unchanged even when the confounding factors (e.g., cardiorespiratory fitness, social participation, and BMI) were controlled for. The present study concluded that, although 6-month open- and closed-skill exercise interventions facilitate overall electrophysiological effects (i.e., increased ERP P3 amplitudes) on the frontal-to-parietal cortices in the elderly, the two exercise modes produced different levels of neuropsychologically beneficial effects on RTs of the task-switching paradigm (i.e., lessened RTs) and ARs of the N-back task (i.e., enhanced ARs). The distinctive neurocognitive changes induced by open- and closed-skill exercise have implications for task switching and working memory in elderly individuals, especially with such cognitive functioning impairments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Liang Tsai
- Institute of Physical Education, Health and Leisure Studies, National Cheng Kung UniversityTainan, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Yu Pan
- Department of Physical Education, National Kaohsiung Normal UniversityKaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Fu-Chen Chen
- Department of Physical Education, National Kaohsiung Normal UniversityKaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Ting Tseng
- Institute of Physical Education, Health and Leisure Studies, National Cheng Kung UniversityTainan, Taiwan.,School of Kinesiology, University of MinnesotaMinneapolis, MN, United States
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26
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Lange F, Seer C, Müller-Vahl K, Kopp B. Cognitive flexibility and its electrophysiological correlates in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2017; 27:78-90. [PMID: 28863370 PMCID: PMC6987949 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2017.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2017] [Revised: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) may involve cognitive inflexibility. A meta-analysis reveals GTS-related deficits on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Card-sorting deficits are larger in children than in adults with GTS. Adults with GTS show electrophysiological signs of enhanced cognitive control. This change may underlie the normalization of cognitive flexibility in adult GTS.
Motor symptoms in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) have been related to changes in frontostriatal brain networks. These changes may also give rise to alterations in cognitive flexibility. However, conclusive evidence for altered cognitive flexibility in patients with GTS is still lacking. Here, we meta-analyzed data from 20 neuropsychological studies that investigated cognitive flexibility in GTS using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Results revealed medium-sized GTS-related performance deficits, which were significantly modulated by age: Whilst being substantial in children and adolescents with GTS, WCST deficits seem to dissolve in adult patients with GTS. This age-related normalization of WCST performance might result from the compensatory recruitment of cognitive control in adult patients with GTS. We addressed this possibility by examining neural correlates of proactive and reactive cognitive control in an event-related potential (ERP) study. We analyzed cue- and target-locked ERPs from 23 adult patients with GTS and 26 matched controls who completed a computerized version of the WCST. Compared to controls, patients with GTS showed a marked increase in parietal cue-locked P3 activity, indicating enhanced proactive cognitive control. We conclude that the additional recruitment of proactive cognitive control might ensure flexible cognitive functioning in adult patients with GTS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Lange
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany; Behavioral Engineering Research Group, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Caroline Seer
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany; Movement Control & Neuroplasticity Research Group, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Kirsten Müller-Vahl
- Clinic of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Bruno Kopp
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
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27
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Methqal I, Provost JS, Wilson MA, Monchi O, Amiri M, Pinsard B, Ansado J, Joanette Y. Age-Related Shift in Neuro-Activation during a Word-Matching Task. Front Aging Neurosci 2017; 9:265. [PMID: 28848422 PMCID: PMC5554371 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2017.00265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Growing evidence from the neuroscience of aging suggests that executive function plays a pivotal role in maintaining semantic processing performance. However, the presumed age-related activation changes that sustain executive semantic processing remain poorly understood. The aim of this study was to explore the executive aspects of semantic processing during a word-matching task with regard to age-related neuro-functional reorganization, as well as to identify factors that influence executive control profiles. Twenty younger and 20 older participants underwent fMRI scanning. The experimental task was based on word-matching, wherein visual feedback was used to instruct participants to either maintain or switch a semantic-matching rule. Response time and correct responses were assessed for each group. A battery of cognitive tests was administrated to all participants and the older group was divided into two subgroups based on their cognitive control profiles. Even though the percentage of correct responses was equivalent in the task performance between both groups and within the older groups, neuro-functional activation differed in frontoparietal regions with regards to age and cognitive control profiles. A correlation between behavioral measures (correct responses and response times) and brain signal changes was found in the left inferior parietal region in older participants. Results indicate that the shift in age-related activation from frontal to parietal regions can be viewed as another form of neuro-functional reorganization. The greater reliance on inferior parietal regions in the older compared to the younger group suggests that the executive control system is still efficient and sustains semantic processing in the healthy aging brain. Additionally, cognitive control profiles underlie executive ability differences in healthy aging appear to be associated with specific neuro-functional reorganization throughout frontal and parietal regions. These findings demonstrate that changes in neural support for executive semantic processing during a word-matching task are not only influenced by age, but also by cognitive control profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ikram Methqal
- Laboratory of Communication and Aging, Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal, MontrealQC, Canada.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Montreal, MontrealQC, Canada
| | - Jean-Sebastien Provost
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, BerkeleyCA, United States
| | - Maximiliano A Wilson
- Centre de Recherche CERVO - CIUSSS de la Capitale-Nationale et Département de Réadaptation, Université Laval, Québec CityQC, Canada
| | - Oury Monchi
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, CalgaryAB, Canada
| | - Mahnoush Amiri
- Laboratory of Communication and Aging, Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal, MontrealQC, Canada
| | - Basile Pinsard
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Montreal, MontrealQC, Canada
| | - Jennyfer Ansado
- Department of Psychology, Université du Québec en Outaouais, GatineauQC, Canada
| | - Yves Joanette
- Laboratory of Communication and Aging, Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal, MontrealQC, Canada.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Montreal, MontrealQC, Canada
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28
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Kropotov JD, Ponomarev VA, Pronina M, Jäncke L. Functional indexes of reactive cognitive control: ERPs in cued go/no-go tasks. Psychophysiology 2017; 54:1899-1915. [PMID: 28771747 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Revised: 05/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
We aimed to determine the functional meaning of latent (hidden) components decomposed from ERPs, in the context of a go/no-go paradigm. To accomplish this, we used a new group blind source separation method, based on joint diagonalization of covariance matrices of ERPs. Four variants of a frequently used go/no-go paradigm were designed, in which operations of reactive cognitive control, such as conflict detection and action inhibition, were independently manipulated. The results showed that a latent component, generated in the anterior cingulate cortex, induced N2/P3 fluctuation only in conditions in which the prepotent model was violated, and thus can be associated with conflict detection operations. In contrast, the two latent components generated in the vicinity of the central sulcus induced P3-like fluctuations in conditions in which the prepared action was suppressed, and thus can be associated with action inhibition operations. The advantages and limitations of the new blind source separation method in relation to ERP research are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juri D Kropotov
- N. P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia.,Department of Neuropsychology, Andrzej Frycz-Modrzewski Krakow University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Valery A Ponomarev
- N. P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Marina Pronina
- N. P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Lutz Jäncke
- Department of Psychology, Division of Neuropsychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,International Normal Aging and Plasticity Research Centre (INAPIC), Zurich, Switzerland.,University Research Priority Program "Dynamics of Healthy Aging," University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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29
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Lin HY, Zhao YP, Xu GP, Li YS, Xie WY, Bai LH, Jin H. Weaker cognitive control abilities of Pi (Spleen) qi-deficient individuals supported Chinese medicine diagnosis. Chin J Integr Med 2017:10.1007/s11655-017-2967-x. [PMID: 28755078 DOI: 10.1007/s11655-017-2967-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2013] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate whether Pi (Spleen) qi-deficiency affected psychological and neural responses in relevance to cognitive control. METHODS Pi qi-deficient and balanced participants were asked to perform the Stroop task, a classical cognitive control paradigm. In this paradigm, participants had to judge the color of the prompted word. The word's meaning indicated the color (the consistent condition) or not (the inconsistent condition), or were unrelated to the color (the neutral condition). Electroencephalograph (EEG) was recorded during the task. RESULTS Event-related potential (ERP) results showed that Pi qi-deficient individuals failed to exhibit a normal Stroop effect as Balanced individuals did, such as the accuracy differences between the consistent and the inconsistent conditions as well as the N450 effect (P>0.05). Meanwhile, Pi qi-deficient individuals displayed larger P2 and P3 amplitudes than balanced individuals did during performing the cognitive control task (P<0.05). CONCLUSION Pi qi-deficiency had psychological and neural basis at least in cognitive control aspect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Yan Lin
- Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300074, China
- Institute of Applied Psychology, Guangdong University of Finance, Guangzhou, 510521, China
| | - Yan-Ping Zhao
- SATCM Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine and Photonics Technology and Photonic Chinese Medicine, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
| | - Gui-Ping Xu
- School of Education, Guangdong University of Education, Guangzhou, 510303, China
| | - Yun-Si Li
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
| | - Wei-Yun Xie
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
| | - Li-Hua Bai
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
| | - Hua Jin
- Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300074, China.
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Elke S, Wiebe SA. Proactive control in early and middle childhood: An ERP study. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2017; 26:28-38. [PMID: 28436833 PMCID: PMC6987837 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2017.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2016] [Revised: 04/05/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Children experience important cognitive control improvements in the transition to school. This study examined 4–5-year-olds’ (n = 17) and 7–8-year-olds’ (n = 22) ability to proactively deploy cognitive control. Children performed a cued task-switching paradigm presenting them with a cue indicating which attribute, color or shape, they should use to sort the upcoming stimulus. Following both cue and stimulus, we analyzed two event-related potentials: the P2 and P3, positive peaks reflecting sensory and attentional components of cognitive control, respectively. Following the cue, we also analyzed a positive slow-wave, indexing working memory engagement. We predicted that on switch trials, which required switching tasks, proactive control would result in larger cue-P3 amplitudes, reflecting recognition of the need to switch, and larger slow-wave amplitudes, reflecting maintenance of the new task-sets over the post-cue delay. This pattern was observed in both age groups. At the stimulus, in switch trials, both age groups had shorter stimulus-P2 latencies, consistent with processing facilitation. These results suggest that both 4–5- and 7–8-year-olds engaged cognitive control proactively. Older children, however, demonstrated better performance and larger cue-P2 amplitudes, suggesting more effective proactive control engagement in middle childhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Elke
- University of Alberta, P217 Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E9, Canada.
| | - Sandra A Wiebe
- University of Alberta, P217 Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E9, Canada.
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Küper K, Gajewski PD, Frieg C, Falkenstein M. A Randomized Controlled ERP Study on the Effects of Multi-Domain Cognitive Training and Task Difficulty on Task Switching Performance in Older Adults. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11:184. [PMID: 28446870 PMCID: PMC5388694 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Executive functions are subject to a marked age-related decline, but have been shown to benefit from cognitive training interventions. As of yet, it is, however, still relatively unclear which neural mechanism can mediate training-related performance gains. In the present electrophysiological study, we examined the effects of multi-domain cognitive training on performance in an untrained cue-based task switch paradigm featuring Stroop color words: participants either had to indicate the word meaning of Stroop stimuli (word task) or perform the more difficult task of color naming (color task). One-hundred and three older adults (>65 years old) were randomly assigned to a training group receiving a 4-month multi-domain cognitive training, a passive no-contact control group or an active (social) control group receiving a 4-month relaxation training. For all groups, we recorded performance and EEG measures before and after the intervention. For the cognitive training group, but not for the two control groups, we observed an increase in response accuracy at posttest, irrespective of task and trial type. No training-related effects on reaction times were found. Cognitive training was also associated with an overall increase in N2 amplitude and a decrease of P2 latency on single trials. Training-related performance gains were thus likely mediated by an enhancement of response selection and improved access to relevant stimulus-response mappings. Additionally, cognitive training was associated with an amplitude decrease in the time window of the target-locked P3 at fronto-central electrodes. An increase in the switch positivity during advance task preparation emerged after both cognitive and relaxation training. Training-related behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) effects were not modulated by task difficulty. The data suggest that cognitive training increased slow negative potentials during target processing which enhanced the N2 and reduced a subsequent P3-like component on both switch and non-switch trials and irrespective of task difficulty. Our findings further corroborate the effectiveness of multi-domain cognitive training in older adults and indicate that ERPs can be instrumental in uncovering the neural processes underlying training-related performance gains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Küper
- Aging Research Group, Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human FactorsDortmund, Germany
| | - Patrick D Gajewski
- Aging Research Group, Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human FactorsDortmund, Germany
| | - Claudia Frieg
- Aging Research Group, Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human FactorsDortmund, Germany
| | - Michael Falkenstein
- Aging Research Group, Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human FactorsDortmund, Germany
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Baniqued PL, Low KA, Fletcher MA, Gratton G, Fabiani M. Shedding light on gray(ing) areas: Connectivity and task switching dynamics in aging. Psychophysiology 2017; 55. [DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 11/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pauline L. Baniqued
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute; University of California; Berkeley, Berkeley California
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Urbana Illinois
| | - Kathy A. Low
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Urbana Illinois
| | - Mark A. Fletcher
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Urbana Illinois
| | - Gabriele Gratton
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Urbana Illinois
| | - Monica Fabiani
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Urbana Illinois
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Sombric CJ, Harker HM, Sparto PJ, Torres-Oviedo G. Explicit Action Switching Interferes with the Context-Specificity of Motor Memories in Older Adults. Front Aging Neurosci 2017; 9:40. [PMID: 28321188 PMCID: PMC5337495 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2017.00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Healthy aging impairs the ability to adapt movements to novel situations and to switch choices according to the context in cognitive tasks, indicating resistance to changes in motor and cognitive behaviors. Here we examined if this lack of “flexibility” in old subjects observed in motor and cognitive domains were related. To this end, we evaluated subjects' performance in a motor task that required switching walking patterns and its relation to performance in a cognitive switching task. Specifically, a group of old (>73 years old) and young subjects learned a new locomotor pattern on a split-belt treadmill, which drives the legs at different speeds. In both groups, we assessed the ability to disengage the walking pattern learned on the treadmill when walking overground. Then, we determined if this motor context-specificity was related to subjects' cognitive ability to switch actions in a set-shift task. Motor and cognitive behaviors were tested twice on separate visits to determine if age-related differences were maintained with exposure. Consistent with previous studies, we found that old adults adapted slower and had deficits in retention. Most importantly, we found that older subjects could not switch locomotor patterns when transitioning across walking contexts. Interestingly, cognitive switching performance was inversely related to subjects' ability to switch walking patterns. Thus, cognitive mediated switching interfered with locomotor switching. These findings were maintained across testing sessions. Our results suggest that distinct neural substrates mediate motor and cognitive action selection, and that these processes interfere with each other as we age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carly J Sombric
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Harrison M Harker
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Patrick J Sparto
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Gajewski PD, Freude G, Falkenstein M. Cognitive Training Sustainably Improves Executive Functioning in Middle-Aged Industry Workers Assessed by Task Switching: A Randomized Controlled ERP Study. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11:81. [PMID: 28275347 PMCID: PMC5319973 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, we reported results of a cross-sectional study investigating executive functions in dependence of aging and type of work. That study showed deficits in performance and electrophysiological activity in middle-aged workers with long-term repetitive and unchallenging work. Based on these findings, we conducted a longitudinal study that aimed at ameliorating these cognitive deficits by means of a trainer-guided cognitive training (CT) in 57 further middle-aged workers with repetitive type of work from the same factory. This study was designed as a randomized controlled trail with pre- (t1), post- (t2), and a 3-month follow-up (t3) measure. The waiting control group was trained between t2 and t3. The training lasted 3 months (20 sessions) and was evaluated with the same task switching paradigm used in the previous cross-sectional study. The CT improved performance in accuracy at the behavioral level and affected the electrophysiological correlates of retrieval of stimulus-response sets (P2), response selection (N2), and error detection (Ne), thus unveiling the neuronal background of the behavioral effects. The same training effects were observed in the waiting control group after CT at t3. Moreover, at t3, most of the behavioral and electrophysiological training-induced changes were found stable. Hence, CT appears to be an important intervention for compensating cognitive deficits in executive functions in middle-aged employees with cognitively unchallenging work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick D Gajewski
- Ageing Research Group, Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Technical University of Dortmund Dortmund, Germany
| | - Gabriele Freude
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael Falkenstein
- Ageing Research Group, Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Technical University of DortmundDortmund, Germany; Institute for Working, Learning and AgingBochum, Germany
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Kropotov J, Ponomarev V, Tereshchenko EP, Müller A, Jäncke L. Effect of Aging on ERP Components of Cognitive Control. Front Aging Neurosci 2016; 8:69. [PMID: 27092074 PMCID: PMC4821853 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2016.00069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2015] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
As people age, their performance on tasks requiring cognitive control often declines. Such a decline is frequently explained as either a general or specific decline in cognitive functioning with age. In the context of hypotheses suggesting a general decline, it is often proposed that processing speed generally declines with age. A further hypothesis is that an age-related compensation mechanism is associated with a specific cognitive decline. One prominent theory is the compensation hypothesis, which proposes that deteriorated functions are compensated for by higher performing functions. In this study, we used event-related potentials (ERPs) in the context of a GO/NOGO task to examine the age-related changes observed during cognitive control in a large group of healthy subjects aged between 18 and 84 years. The main question we attempted to answer was whether we could find neurophysiological support for either a general decline in processing speed or a compensation strategy. The subjects performed a relatively demanding cued GO/NOGO task with similar omissions and reaction times across the five age groups. The ERP waves of cognitive control, such as N2, P3cue and CNV, were decomposed into latent components by means of a blind source separation method. Based on this decomposition, it was possible to more precisely delineate the different neurophysiological and psychological processes involved in cognitive control. These data support the processing speed hypothesis because the latencies of all cognitive control ERP components increased with age, by 8 ms per decade for the early components (<200 ms) and by 20 ms per decade for the late components. At the same time, the compensatory hypothesis of aging was also supported, as the amplitudes of the components localized in posterior brain areas decreased with age, while those localized in the prefrontal cortical areas increased with age in order to maintain performance on this simple task at a relatively stable level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juri Kropotov
- Norwegian University of Science and TechnologyTrondheim, Norway; Department of Neuropsychology, Andrzej Frycz-Modrzewski Krakow UniversityKrakow, Poland; Laboratory of Neurobiology of Action Programming, N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of SciencesSt. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Valery Ponomarev
- Laboratory of Neurobiology of Action Programming, N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of Sciences St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Ekaterina P Tereshchenko
- Laboratory of Neurobiology of Action Programming, N.P. Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, Russian Academy of Sciences St. Petersburg, Russia
| | | | - Lutz Jäncke
- Department of Psychology, Division of Neuropsychology, University of ZurichChur, Switzerland; International Normal Aging and Plasticity Research Centre (INAPIC) ZurichChur, Switzerland; University Research Priority Program "Dynamics of Healthy Aging", University of ZurichChur, Switzerland
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Capizzi M, Ambrosini E, Arbula S, Mazzonetto I, Vallesi A. Electrophysiological Evidence for Domain-General Processes in Task-Switching. Front Hum Neurosci 2016; 10:124. [PMID: 27047366 PMCID: PMC4800168 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to flexibly switch between tasks is a hallmark of cognitive control. Despite previous studies that have investigated whether different task-switching types would be mediated by distinct or overlapping neural mechanisms, no definitive consensus has been reached on this question yet. Here, we aimed at directly addressing this issue by recording the event-related potentials (ERPs) elicited by two types of task-switching occurring in the context of spatial and verbal cognitive domains. Source analysis was also applied to the ERP data in order to track the spatial dynamics of brain activity underlying task-switching abilities. In separate blocks of trials, participants had to perform either spatial or verbal switching tasks both of which employed the same type of stimuli. The ERP analysis, which was carried out through a channel- and time-uninformed mass univariate approach, showed no significant differences between the spatial and verbal domains in the modulation of switch and repeat trials. Specifically, relative to repeat trials, switch trials in both domains were associated with a first larger positivity developing over left parieto-occipital electrodes and with a subsequent larger negativity distributed over mid-left fronto-central sites. The source analysis reconstruction for the two ERP components complemented these findings by highlighting the involvement of left-lateralized prefrontal areas in task-switching. Overall, our results join and extend recent research confirming the existence of left-lateralized domain-general task-switching processes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ettore Ambrosini
- Department of Neuroscience, Universitá degli Studi di Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Sandra Arbula
- Department of Neuroscience, Universitá degli Studi di PadovaPadova, Italy; Department of General Psychology, Universitá degli Studi di PadovaPadova, Italy
| | - Ilaria Mazzonetto
- Department of Neuroscience, Universitá degli Studi di PadovaPadova, Italy; Department of Information Engineering, Universitá degli Studi di PadovaPadova, Italy
| | - Antonino Vallesi
- Department of Neuroscience, Universitá degli Studi di PadovaPadova, Italy; Centro Neuroscienze Cognitive, Universitá degli Studi di PadovaPadova, Italy
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37
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Capizzi M, Fehér K, Penolazzi B, Vallesi A. Task-switching preparation across semantic and spatial domains: An event-related potential study. Biol Psychol 2015; 110:148-58. [PMID: 26144740 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2014] [Revised: 05/14/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Previous event-related potential (ERP) studies have identified the specific electrophysiological markers of advance preparation in cued task-switching paradigms. However, it is not yet completely clear whether there is a single task-independent preparatory mechanism for task-switching or whether preparation for a switch can be selectively influenced by the domain of the task to be performed. To address this question, we employed a cued-task switching paradigm requiring participants to repeat or to switch between a semantic and a spatial task. The behavioural results showed a significant switch cost for both domains. The ERP findings, however, revealed that switch and repeat trials for semantic and spatial domains differed in the amplitude modulation of an early P2 and a sustained negativity both expressed over fronto-central scalp regions. Further differences between the two domains also emerged over posterior-parietal electrodes. This pattern of data thus shows that advance preparation in task-switching can be selectively modulated by the domain of the task to be performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariagrazia Capizzi
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Degli Studi di Padova, Padova, Italy.
| | - Kristoffer Fehér
- Department of Psychiatric Neurophysiology, University Hospital of Psychiatry, University of Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Barbara Penolazzi
- Department of General Psychology, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padova, Italy; Department of Life Sciences, Università di Trieste, Trieste, Italy.
| | - Antonino Vallesi
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Degli Studi di Padova, Padova, Italy; Centro di Neuroscienze Cognitive, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padova, Italy.
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38
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Lifelong physical activity and executive functions in older age assessed by memory based task switching. Neuropsychologia 2015; 73:195-207. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2015] [Revised: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Tsai CL, Wang WL. Exercise-mode-related changes in task-switching performance in the elderly. Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:56. [PMID: 25798097 PMCID: PMC4351633 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2014] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of the current study was to explore the relationships between exercise modes and executive functions in the elderly. Twenty-one elderly individuals in the open-skill group, 22 in the closed-skill group, and 21 in the sedentary-behavior (control) group were recruited in the current study, and performed a task-switching paradigm during which the switches occurred unpredictably and infrequently, while the behavioral and electrophysiological performances were assessed simultaneously. The results indicated that although there were no group differences in accuracy rates, the two exercise groups exhibited shorter reaction times (RTs), and larger P2 and P3 amplitudes across all conditions compared to the control group. In addition, the exercise-mode differences revealed a relatively smaller specific cost, and faster motor RTs and larger P3 amplitudes, in the switch condition for the open-skill group in comparison with the closed-skill and control groups. These findings suggest that regularly participating in physical exercise can enhance behavioral and electrophysiological performance with regard to executive control in the elderly, and provide further evidence for the beneficial effects of open-skill exercise on the task-switching paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Liang Tsai
- Lab of Cognitive Neurophysiology, Institute of Physical Education, Health and Leisure Studies, National Cheng Kung University Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Liang Wang
- Lab of Cognitive Neurophysiology, Institute of Physical Education, Health and Leisure Studies, National Cheng Kung University Tainan, Taiwan
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40
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Schapkin SA, Gajewski PD, Freude G. Age Differences in Memory-Based Task Switching With and Without Cues. J PSYCHOPHYSIOL 2014. [DOI: 10.1027/0269-8803/a000125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The study investigated the neuronal mechanisms of age-related changes in mixing costs during memory-based task switching with two levels of working memory (WM) load. Forty-eight healthy younger and 45 healthy older participants performed a memory based (high WM load) and a memory plus cue based (low WM load) switching task while event-related brain potentials (ERPs) were registered. Older adults revealed larger mixing costs in both reaction time (RT) and accuracy at higher WM loads than younger adults. The presence of explicit cues substantially reduced age differences in mixing costs for accuracy but not for RT. Similarly, no age differences regarding local switch costs were found at lower WM load. Surprisingly, larger RT local costs in younger adults than in older adults were found in the memory-based block. The CNV was reduced under high WM load and positively correlated with accuracy mixing costs in older adults. The target-locked occipital N1 and fronto-central P2 were larger in older adults relative to younger adults irrespective of WM load. The P2 latency reflected the pattern of switch costs observed in behavioral data. Moreover, P2 latency positively correlated with RT mixing costs in older adults. Elderly also showed a delayed N2 and a delayed and reduced P3b. The results suggest that age-related differences in mixing costs may be partially due to a less efficient task preparation and task set maintenance (CNV) in elderly. However, elderly attempted to compensate for these deficits by permanent activation of mechanisms relating to stimulus encoding (N1) and task-set retrieval (P2). Finally, the delayed fronto-central N2 as well as the delayed and reduced parietal P3b strongly suggest delays of response selection and working memory updating in elderly due to an increase in selection threshold or in response selection variability constituting the performance decline.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Patrick D. Gajewski
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Gabriele Freude
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Berlin, Germany
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41
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Schmitt H, Wolff MC, Ferdinand NK, Kray J. Age Differences in the Processing of Context Information. J PSYCHOPHYSIOL 2014. [DOI: 10.1027/0269-8803/a000126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The dual mechanisms of control theory (DMC; Braver & Barch, 2002 ) assumes that age-related changes in the temporal structure of context processing underlie age differences in numerous cognitive control tasks. Younger adults usually exhibit a proactive control mode, characterized by cue-related context updating, while older adults show a reactive control mode, updating information when interference is detected. This study aimed at determining whether age differences in electrophysiological correlates of context updating in a pro-and reactive manner are independent of individual differences in task performance. To this end, younger and older adults were split into four groups according to their updating efficiency in behavioral data. Nineteen younger and 18 older adults completed a modified AX-Continuous-Performance Task ( Lenartowicz, Escobedo-Quiroz, & Cohen, 2010 ) in which correct responses to probes were either dependent (c-dep) or independent (c-indep) on a preceding contextual cue. Analysis of the behavioral data showed no differences in context updating when performance was matched, that is, between low performing younger and high performing older adults. However, low performing younger adults showed larger cue-locked parietal P3b amplitudes on c-dep than c-indep trials, indicating c-dep trials to require context updating to a larger extent, while high performing older adults exhibited a specific control strategy and continuously updated context information, as reflected in comparable P3b amplitudes on c-dep and c-indep trials. The persistent age effect in the P3b when controlling for performance differences suggests context updating to be fundamental to cognitive aging. High performing in contrast to low performing older adults also showed a larger negative N450 to ambiguous probes on c-dep trials associated with conflict detection. According to the DMC, this finding suggests late conflict detection at the time interference is detected, indicative of a reactive control style particular in high performing elderly.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jutta Kray
- Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
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42
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Mapelli D, Di Rosa E, Cavalletti M, Schiff S, Tamburin S. Decision and dopaminergic system: an ERPs study of Iowa gambling task in Parkinson's disease. Front Psychol 2014; 5:684. [PMID: 25071654 PMCID: PMC4080179 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2014] [Accepted: 06/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent researches reported behavioral and emotional impairment in Parkinson's disease (PD), even in the earliest stages. This impairment affects also decision-making and learning processes. The Iowa gambling task (IGT) is commonly used to examine the decision-making capacity. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the neural correlates of feedback evaluation in the decision-making process into a learning context, using IGT and event-related potentials (ERPs) in a group of non-demented medicated PD patients. Fifteen PD patients and 15 healthy controls were recruited for the study. PD patients were administrated a basic neuropsychological assessment oriented to exclude cognitive impairments. Both groups underwent the computerized IGT during electroencephalography (EEG) registration. To analyse ERPs, continuous EEG data were epoched within a time-window starting 1000 ms before and ending 1000 ms after feedback presentation and averaged separately for positive (i.e., win condition) and negative (i.e., loss condition) feedbacks. Behavioral data revealed a significant lower performance of PD patients (p < 0.05) compared with the controls. While controls demonstrated a correct feedback evaluation, PD patients did not show any learning, selecting more disadvantageous decks even in the last part of task. Furthermore, ERPs results revealed that controls showed a significant difference (p < 0.05) in ERPs morphology recorded after the win and the loss conditions, suggesting that positive and negative feedbacks were differently evaluated and processed. PD patients showed a different pattern: their ERPs morphology was the same for positive and negative feedback. Interestingly, our ERPs results suggest that in PD patients an incorrect evaluation of context-relevant outcomes could be the reason of a poor performance in decision-making tasks, and could explain cognitive and behavioral problems related to impulse control disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Mapelli
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova Padova, Italy ; Human Inspired Technologies Research Center, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Elisa Di Rosa
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Matteo Cavalletti
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Sami Schiff
- Department of Medicine, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Stefano Tamburin
- Department of Neurological and Movement Sciences, Neurology Section, University of Verona Verona, Italy
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43
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Whitson LR, Karayanidis F, Fulham R, Provost A, Michie PT, Heathcote A, Hsieh S. Reactive control processes contributing to residual switch cost and mixing cost across the adult lifespan. Front Psychol 2014; 5:383. [PMID: 24817859 PMCID: PMC4012181 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2013] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In task-switching paradigms, performance is better when repeating the same task than when alternating between tasks (switch cost) and when repeating a task alone rather than intermixed with another task (mixing cost). These costs remain even after extensive practice and when task cues enable advanced preparation (residual costs). Moreover, residual reaction time mixing cost has been consistently shown to increase with age. Residual switch and mixing costs modulate the amplitude of the stimulus-locked P3b. This mixing effect is disproportionately larger in older adults who also prepare more for and respond more cautiously on these “mixed” repeat trials (Karayanidis et al., 2011). In this paper, we analyze stimulus-locked and response-locked P3 and lateralized readiness potentials to identify whether residual switch and mixing cost arise from the need to control interference at the level of stimulus processing or response processing. Residual mixing cost was associated with control of stimulus-level interference, whereas residual switch cost was also associated with a delay in response selection. In older adults, the disproportionate increase in mixing cost was associated with greater interference at the level of decision-response mapping and response programming for repeat trials in mixed-task blocks. These findings suggest that older adults strategically recruit greater proactive and reactive control to overcome increased susceptibility to post-stimulus interference. This interpretation is consistent with recruitment of compensatory strategies to compensate for reduced repetition benefit rather than an overall decline on cognitive flexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa R Whitson
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, School of Psychology, University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights NSW, Australia
| | - Frini Karayanidis
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, School of Psychology, University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights NSW, Australia
| | - Ross Fulham
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, School of Psychology, University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights NSW, Australia
| | - Alexander Provost
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, School of Psychology, University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights NSW, Australia
| | - Patricia T Michie
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, School of Psychology, University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights NSW, Australia
| | - Andrew Heathcote
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, School of Psychology, University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights NSW, Australia
| | - Shulan Hsieh
- Department of Psychology and Institute of Allied Health Sciences, National Cheng Kung University Tainan City, Taiwan
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Prada L, Barceló F, Herrmann CS, Escera C. EEG delta oscillations index inhibitory control of contextual novelty to both irrelevant distracters and relevant task-switch cues. Psychophysiology 2014; 51:658-72. [DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2013] [Accepted: 02/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Prada
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology; University of Illes Balears; Mallorca Spain
- Asociación de Neuropsicología Balear (ANEBA); Mallorca Spain
| | - Francisco Barceló
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology; University of Illes Balears; Mallorca Spain
- Asociación de Neuropsicología Balear (ANEBA); Mallorca Spain
| | - Christoph S. Herrmann
- Experimental Psychology Lab, Center for Excellence ‘Hearing4all,’ European Medical School; Carl von Ossietzky Universität; Oldenburg Germany
- Research Center Neurosensory Science; Carl von Ossietzky Universität; Oldenburg Germany
| | - Carles Escera
- Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour (IR3C); University of Barcelona; Catalonia Spain
- Cognitive Neuroscience Research Group, Department of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychobiology; University of Barcelona; Catalonia Spain
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45
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Extensive occupational finger use delays age effects in tactileperception—an ERP study. Atten Percept Psychophys 2014; 76:1160-75. [DOI: 10.3758/s13414-014-0634-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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46
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Kopp B, Lange F, Howe J, Wessel K. Age-related changes in neural recruitment for cognitive control. Brain Cogn 2014; 85:209-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2013.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2012] [Revised: 12/18/2013] [Accepted: 12/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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47
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Ferdinand NK, Kray J. Age-related changes in processing positive and negative feedback: Is there a positivity effect for older adults? Biol Psychol 2013; 94:235-41. [PMID: 23886960 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2013] [Revised: 06/10/2013] [Accepted: 07/15/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Fraser S, Bherer L. Age-related decline in divided-attention: from theoretical lab research to practical real-life situations. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2013; 4:623-640. [PMID: 26304268 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2013] [Revised: 07/04/2013] [Accepted: 07/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this advanced review is to provide readers with an up-to-date synopsis of age-related changes in divided-attention abilities. An interdisciplinary approach is taken, supplying readers with evidence from very structured laboratory studies and findings from more ecological research studies that target real-life divided-attention situations (i.e., walking and talking). The review goes beyond the reported age-related declines in divided-attention abilities and offers the reader an overview of current cognitive (dual-task) training findings which suggest that these declines can be diminished with training. The contents of this review and the future directions proposed demonstrate that divided-attention research and its recent application to aging and mobility has become a major and fast growing scientific field of investigation. WIREs Cogn Sci 2013, 4:623-640. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1252 CONFLICT OF INTEREST: The authors have declared no conflicts of interest for this article. For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Fraser
- Centre de recherche Institut Universitaire de gériatrie de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Department of Psychology, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Louis Bherer
- Centre de recherche Institut Universitaire de gériatrie de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada.,PERFORM Centre and Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, Canada
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49
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Anguera JA, Lyman K, Zanto TP, Bollinger J, Gazzaley A. Reconciling the influence of task-set switching and motor inhibition processes on stop signal after-effects. Front Psychol 2013; 4:649. [PMID: 24069010 PMCID: PMC3781352 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2013] [Accepted: 08/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Executive response functions can be affected by preceding events, even if they are no longer associated with the current task at hand. For example, studies utilizing the stop signal task have reported slower response times to “GO” stimuli when the preceding trial involved the presentation of a “STOP” signal. However, the neural mechanisms that underlie this behavioral after-effect are unclear. To address this, behavioral and electroencephalography (EEG) measures were examined in 18 young adults (18–30 years) on “GO” trials following a previously “Successful Inhibition” trial (pSI), a previously “Failed Inhibition” trial (pFI), and a previous “GO” trial (pGO). Like previous research, slower response times were observed during both pSI and pFI trials (i.e., “GO” trials that were preceded by a successful and unsuccessful inhibition trial, respectively) compared to pGO trials (i.e., “GO” trials that were preceded by another “GO” trial). Interestingly, response time slowing was greater during pSI trials compared to pFI trials, suggesting executive control is influenced by both task set switching and persisting motor inhibition processes. Follow-up behavioral analyses indicated that these effects resulted from between-trial control adjustments rather than repetition priming effects. Analyses of inter-electrode coherence (IEC) and inter-trial coherence (ITC) indicated that both pSI and pFI trials showed greater phase synchrony during the inter-trial interval compared to pGO trials. Unlike the IEC findings, differential ITC was present within the beta and alpha frequency bands in line with the observed behavior (pSI > pFI > pGO), suggestive of more consistent phase synchrony involving motor inhibition processes during the ITI at a regional level. These findings suggest that between-trial control adjustments involved with task-set switching and motor inhibition processes influence subsequent performance, providing new insights into the dynamic nature of executive control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joaquin A Anguera
- Departments of Neurology, Physiology and Psychiatry, Center for Integrative Neurosciences, University of California San Francisco San Francisco, CA, USA
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50
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Capa RL, Bouquet CA, Dreher JC, Dufour A. Long-lasting effects of performance-contingent unconscious and conscious reward incentives during cued task-switching. Cortex 2013; 49:1943-54. [PMID: 22770561 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2012] [Revised: 05/15/2012] [Accepted: 05/16/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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