1
|
Safaeizadeh M, Boller T, Becker C. Comparative RNA-seq analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana response to AtPep1 and flg22, reveals the identification of PP2-B13 and ACLP1 as new members in pattern-triggered immunity. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0297124. [PMID: 38833485 PMCID: PMC11149889 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0297124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2024] Open
Abstract
In this research, a high-throughput RNA sequencing-based transcriptome analysis technique (RNA-Seq) was used to evaluate differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the wild type Arabidopsis seedlings in response to AtPep1, a well-known peptide representing an endogenous damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP), and flg22, a well-known microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP). We compared and dissected the global transcriptional landscape of Arabidopsis thaliana in response to AtPep1 and flg22 and could identify shared and unique DEGs in response to these elicitors. We found that while a remarkable number of flg22 up-regulated genes were also induced by AtPep1, 256 genes were exclusively up-regulated in response to flg22, and 328 were exclusively up-regulated in response to AtPep1. Furthermore, among down-regulated DEGs upon flg22 treatment, 107 genes were exclusively down-regulated by flg22 treatment, while 411 genes were exclusively down-regulated by AtPep1. We found a number of hitherto overlooked genes to be induced upon treatment with either flg22 or with AtPep1, indicating their possible involvement general pathways in innate immunity. Here, we characterized two of them, namely PP2-B13 and ACLP1. pp2-b13 and aclp1 mutants showed increased susceptibility to infection by the virulent pathogen Pseudomonas syringae DC3000 and its mutant Pst DC3000 hrcC (lacking the type III secretion system), as evidenced by increased proliferation of the two pathogens in planta. Further, we present evidence that the aclp1 mutant is deficient in ethylene production upon flg22 treatment, while the pp2-b13 mutant is deficient in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The results from this research provide new information for a better understanding of the immune system in Arabidopsis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Safaeizadeh
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
- Zürich-Basel Plant Science Center, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Boller
- Zürich-Basel Plant Science Center, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Claude Becker
- LMU Biocentre, Faculty of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilian-University Munich, Martinsried, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Li GB, Liu J, He JX, Li GM, Zhao YD, Liu XL, Hu XH, Zhang X, Wu JL, Shen S, Liu XX, Zhu Y, He F, Gao H, Wang H, Zhao JH, Li Y, Huang F, Huang YY, Zhao ZX, Zhang JW, Zhou SX, Ji YP, Pu M, He M, Chen X, Wang J, Li W, Wu XJ, Ning Y, Sun W, Xu ZJ, Wang WM, Fan J. Rice false smut virulence protein subverts host chitin perception and signaling at lemma and palea for floral infection. THE PLANT CELL 2024; 36:2000-2020. [PMID: 38299379 PMCID: PMC11062437 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koae027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
The flower-infecting fungus Ustilaginoidea virens causes rice false smut, which is a severe emerging disease threatening rice (Oryza sativa) production worldwide. False smut not only reduces yield, but more importantly produces toxins on grains, posing a great threat to food safety. U. virens invades spikelets via the gap between the 2 bracts (lemma and palea) enclosing the floret and specifically infects the stamen and pistil. Molecular mechanisms for the U. virens-rice interaction are largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that rice flowers predominantly employ chitin-triggered immunity against U. virens in the lemma and palea, rather than in the stamen and pistil. We identify a crucial U. virens virulence factor, named UvGH18.1, which carries glycoside hydrolase activity. Mechanistically, UvGH18.1 functions by binding to and hydrolyzing immune elicitor chitin and interacting with the chitin receptor CHITIN ELICITOR BINDING PROTEIN (OsCEBiP) and co-receptor CHITIN ELICITOR RECEPTOR KINASE1 (OsCERK1) to impair their chitin-induced dimerization, suppressing host immunity exerted at the lemma and palea for gaining access to the stamen and pistil. Conversely, pretreatment on spikelets with chitin induces a defense response in the lemma and palea, promoting resistance against U. virens. Collectively, our data uncover a mechanism for a U. virens virulence factor and the critical location of the host-pathogen interaction in flowers and provide a potential strategy to control rice false smut disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guo-Bang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
- Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Jie Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Jia-Xue He
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Gao-Meng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Ya-Dan Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Xiao-Ling Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Xiao-Hong Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
- Ecological Security and Protection Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Mianyang Normal University, Mianyang 621023, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Jin-Long Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Shuai Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Xin-Xian Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Yong Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Feng He
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Han Gao
- College of Plant Protection and the Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - He Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Jing-Hao Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Yan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Fu Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Yan-Yan Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Zhi-Xue Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Ji-Wei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Shi-Xin Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Yun-Peng Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Mei Pu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Min He
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Xuewei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Weitao Li
- Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Xian-Jun Wu
- Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Yuese Ning
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Wenxian Sun
- College of Plant Protection and the Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zheng-Jun Xu
- Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Wen-Ming Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Jing Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
- Yazhouwan National Laboratory, Sanya 572024, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Lu Y, Mao X, Wang C, Zheng Y, Duo H, Sun E, Yu H, Chen Z, Zuo C. Inhibition of PbeXTH1 and PbeSEOB1 is required for the Valsa canker resistance contributed by Wall-associated kinase gene MbWAK1. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2024; 176:e14330. [PMID: 38698648 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.14330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
Wall-associated kinases (WAKs) have been determined to recognize pathogenic signals and initiate plant immune responses. However, the roles of the family members in host resistance against Valsa canker, a serious fungal disease of apples and pears, are largely unknown. Here, we identified MbWAK1 in Malus baccata, a resistant germplasm differentially expressed during infection by Valsa mali (Vm). Over-expression of MbWAK1 enhanced the Valsa canker resistance of apple and pear fruits and 'Duli-G03' (Pyrus betulifolia) suspension cells. A large number of phloem, cell wall, and lipid metabolic process-related genes were differentially expressed in overexpressed suspension cell lines in response to Valsa pyri (Vp) signals. Among these, the expression of xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase (XTH) gene PbeXTH1 and sieve element occlusion B-like (SEOB) gene PbeSEOB1 were significantly inhibited. Transient expression of PbeXTH1 or PbeSEOB1 compromised the expressional induction of MbWAK1 and the resistance contributed by MbWAK1. In addition, PbeXTH1 and PbeSEOB1 suppressed the immune response induced by MbWAK1. Our results enriched the molecular mechanisms for MbWAK1 against Valsa canker and resistant breeding.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Lu
- College of Horticulture, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xia Mao
- College of Horticulture, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Chao Wang
- College of Horticulture, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Yan Zheng
- College of Horticulture, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Hu Duo
- College of Horticulture, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - E Sun
- College of Horticulture, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Hongqiang Yu
- College of Horticulture, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Zhongjian Chen
- Agro-Biological Gene Research Center, Guangdong Academy of Agriculture, China
| | - Cunwu Zuo
- College of Horticulture, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory of Aridland Crop Science, Lanzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Mei Y, Hu T, Wang Y, Lozano-Durán R, Yang X, Zhou X. Two viral proteins translated from one open reading frame target different layers of plant defense. PLANT COMMUNICATIONS 2024; 5:100788. [PMID: 38160257 PMCID: PMC11009156 DOI: 10.1016/j.xplc.2023.100788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Multilayered defense responses are activated upon pathogen attack. Viruses utilize a number of strategies to maximize the coding capacity of their small genomes and produce viral proteins for infection, including suppression of host defense. Here, we reveal translation leakage as one of these strategies: two viral effectors encoded by tomato golden mosaic virus, chloroplast-localized C4 (cC4) and membrane-associated C4 (mC4), are translated from two in-frame start codons and function cooperatively to suppress defense. cC4 localizes in chloroplasts, to which it recruits NbPUB4 to induce ubiquitination of the outer membrane; as a result, this organelle is degraded, and chloroplast-mediated defenses are abrogated. However, chloroplast-localized cC4 induces the production of singlet oxygen (1O2), which in turn promotes translocation of the 1O2 sensor NbMBS1 from the cytosol to the nucleus, where it activates expression of the CERK1 gene. Importantly, an antiviral effect exerted by CERK1 is countered by mC4, localized at the plasma membrane. mC4, like cC4, recruits NbPUB4 and promotes the ubiquitination and subsequent degradation of CERK1, suppressing membrane-based, receptor-like kinase-dependent defenses. Importantly, this translation leakage strategy seems to be conserved in multiple viral species and is related to host range. This finding suggests that stacking of different cellular antiviral responses could be an effective way to abrogate viral infection and engineer sustainable resistance to major crop viral diseases in the field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuzhen Mei
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Tao Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Yaqin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Rosa Lozano-Durán
- Department of Plant Biochemistry, Center for Plant Molecular Biology (ZMBP), Eberhard Karls University, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Xiuling Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Xueping Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Hu L, Kvitko B, Severns PM, Yang L. Shoot Maturation Strengthens FLS2-Mediated Resistance to Pseudomonas syringae. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2023; 36:796-804. [PMID: 37638673 PMCID: PMC10989731 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-02-23-0018-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
Temporospatial regulation of immunity components is essential for properly activating plant defense response. Flagellin-sensing 2 (FLS2) is a surface-localized receptor that recognizes bacterial flagellin. The immune function of FLS2 is compromised in early stages of shoot development. However, the underlying mechanism for the age-dependent FLS2 signaling is not clear. Here, we show that the reduced basal immunity of juvenile leaves against Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 is independent of FLS2. The flg22-induced marker gene expression and reactive oxygen species activation were comparable in juvenile and adult stages, but callose deposition was more evident in the adult stage than the juvenile stage. We further demonstrated that microRNA156, a master regulator of plant aging, does not influence the expression of FLS2 and FRK1 (Flg22-induced receptor-like kinase 1) but mildly suppresses callose deposition in juvenile leaves. Our experiments revealed an intrinsic mechanism that regulates the amplitude of FLS2-mediated resistance during aging. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lanxi Hu
- Department of plant pathology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
| | - Brian Kvitko
- Department of plant pathology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
| | - Paul M. Severns
- Department of plant pathology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
| | - Li Yang
- Department of plant pathology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Xie JQ, Zhou X, Jia ZC, Su CF, Zhang Y, Fernie AR, Zhang J, Du ZY, Chen MX. Alternative Splicing, An Overlooked Defense Frontier of Plants with Respect to Bacterial Infection. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023. [PMID: 37916838 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c04163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
Disease represents a major problem in sustainable agricultural development. Plants interact closely with various microorganisms during their development and in response to the prevailing environment. In particular, pathogenic microorganisms can cause plant diseases, affecting the fertility, yield, and longevity of plants. During the long coevolution of plants and their pathogens, plants have evolved both molecular pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) and effector-triggered immunity (ETI) signaling networks in order to regulate host cells in response to pathogen infestation. Additionally, in the postgenomic era, alternative splicing (AS) has become uncovered as one of the major drivers of proteome diversity, and abnormal RNA splicing is closely associated with bacterial infections. Currently, the complexity of host-bacteria interactions is a much studied area of research that has shown steady progress over the past decade. Although the development of high-throughput sequencing technologies and their application in transcriptomes have revolutionized our understanding of AS, many mechanisms related to host-bacteria interactions remain still unclear. To this end, this review summarizes the changes observed in AS during host-bacteria interactions and outlines potential therapeutics for bacterial diseases based on existing studies. In doing so, we hope to provide guidelines for plant disease management in agriculture.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Qin Xie
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Germplasm Innovation in Mountainous Region (Ministry of Education), College of Life Sciences/Institute of Agro-bioengineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550025, China
| | - Xiang Zhou
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
| | - Zi-Chang Jia
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
| | - Chang-Feng Su
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Germplasm Innovation in Mountainous Region (Ministry of Education), College of Life Sciences/Institute of Agro-bioengineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550025, China
| | - Youjun Zhang
- Center of Plant System Biology and Biotechnology, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
- Max-Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Golm, Germany
| | - Alisdair R Fernie
- Center of Plant System Biology and Biotechnology, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
- Max-Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Golm, Germany
| | - Jianhua Zhang
- Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, and State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Zhi-Yan Du
- Department of Molecular Biosciences & Bioengineering, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, United States
| | - Mo-Xian Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Hassan A, Akram W, Rizwana H, Aftab ZEH, Hanif S, Anjum T, Alwahibi MS. The Imperative Use of Bacillus Consortium and Quercetin Contributes to Suppress Fusarium Wilt Disease by Direct Antagonism and Induced Resistance. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2603. [PMID: 37894261 PMCID: PMC10609423 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11102603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Fusarium wilt diseases severely influence the growth and productivity of numerous crop plants. The consortium of antagonistic rhizospheric Bacillus strains and quercetin were evaluated imperatively as a possible remedy to effectively manage the Fusarium wilt disease of tomato plants. The selection of Bacillus strains was made based on in-vitro antagonistic bioassays against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycoprsici (FOL). Quercetin was selected after screening a library of phytochemicals during in-silico molecular docking analysis using tomato LysM receptor kinases "SILKY12" based on its dual role in symbiosis and plant defense responses. After the selection of test materials, pot trials were conducted where tomato plants were provided consortium of Bacillus strains as soil drenching and quercetin as a foliar spray in different concentrations. The combined application of consortium (Bacillus velezensis strain BS6, Bacillus thuringiensis strain BS7, Bacillus fortis strain BS9) and quercetin (1.0 mM) reduced the Fusarium wilt disease index up to 69%, also resulting in increased plant growth attributes. Likewise, the imperative application of the Bacillus consortium and quercetin (1.0 mM) significantly increased total phenolic contents and activities of the enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway. Non-targeted metabolomics analysis was performed to investigate the perturbation in metabolites. FOL pathogen negatively affected a range of metabolites including carbohydrates, amino acids, phenylpropanoids, and organic acids. Thereinto, combined treatment of Bacillus consortium and quercetin (1.0 mM) ameliorated the production of different metabolites in tomato plants. These findings prove the imperative use of Bacillus consortium and quercetin as an effective and sustainable remedy to manage Fusarium wilt disease of tomato plants and to promote the growth of tomato plants under pathogen stress conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Hassan
- Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
| | - Waheed Akram
- Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
| | - Humaira Rizwana
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11495, Saudi Arabia
| | - Zill-E-Huma Aftab
- Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
| | - Sana Hanif
- School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia
| | - Tehmina Anjum
- Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
| | - Mona S Alwahibi
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11495, Saudi Arabia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Man J, Harrington TA, Lally K, Bartlett ME. Asymmetric Evolution of Protein Domains in the Leucine-Rich Repeat Receptor-Like Kinase Family of Plant Signaling Proteins. Mol Biol Evol 2023; 40:msad220. [PMID: 37787619 PMCID: PMC10588794 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msad220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The coding sequences of developmental genes are expected to be deeply conserved, with cis-regulatory change driving the modulation of gene function. In contrast, proteins with roles in defense are expected to evolve rapidly, in molecular arms races with pathogens. However, some gene families include both developmental and defense genes. In these families, does the tempo and mode of evolution differ between genes with divergent functions, despite shared ancestry and structure? The leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinase (LRR-RLKs) protein family includes members with roles in plant development and defense, thus providing an ideal system for answering this question. LRR-RLKs are receptors that traverse plasma membranes. LRR domains bind extracellular ligands; RLK domains initiate intracellular signaling cascades in response to ligand binding. In LRR-RLKs with roles in defense, LRR domains evolve faster than RLK domains. To determine whether this asymmetry extends to LRR-RLKs that function primarily in development, we assessed evolutionary rates and tested for selection acting on 11 subfamilies of LRR-RLKs, using deeply sampled protein trees. To assess functional evolution, we performed heterologous complementation assays in Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis). We found that the LRR domains of all tested LRR-RLK proteins evolved faster than their cognate RLK domains. All tested subfamilies of LRR-RLKs had strikingly similar patterns of molecular evolution, despite divergent functions. Heterologous transformation experiments revealed that multiple mechanisms likely contribute to the evolution of LRR-RLK function, including escape from adaptive conflict. Our results indicate specific and distinct evolutionary pressures acting on LRR versus RLK domains, despite diverse organismal roles for LRR-RLK proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jarrett Man
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01002, USA
| | - T A Harrington
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01002, USA
| | - Kyra Lally
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01002, USA
| | - Madelaine E Bartlett
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01002, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Bialek W, Collawn JF, Bartoszewski R. Ubiquitin-Dependent and Independent Proteasomal Degradation in Host-Pathogen Interactions. Molecules 2023; 28:6740. [PMID: 37764516 PMCID: PMC10536765 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28186740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Ubiquitin, a small protein, is well known for tagging target proteins through a cascade of enzymatic reactions that lead to protein degradation. The ubiquitin tag, apart from its signaling role, is paramount in destabilizing the modified protein. Here, we explore the complex role of ubiquitin-mediated protein destabilization in the intricate proteolysis process by the 26S proteasome. In addition, the significance of the so-called ubiquitin-independent pathway and the role of the 20S proteasome are considered. Next, we discuss the ubiquitin-proteasome system's interplay with pathogenic microorganisms and how the microorganisms manipulate this system to establish infection by a range of elaborate pathways to evade or counteract host responses. Finally, we focus on the mechanisms that rely either on (i) hijacking the host and on delivering pathogenic E3 ligases and deubiquitinases that promote the degradation of host proteins, or (ii) counteracting host responses through the stabilization of pathogenic effector proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech Bialek
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, 50-383 Wrocław, Poland
| | - James F. Collawn
- Department of Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA;
| | - Rafal Bartoszewski
- Department of Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA;
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Roberts CG, Franklin TG, Pruneda JN. Ubiquitin-targeted bacterial effectors: rule breakers of the ubiquitin system. EMBO J 2023; 42:e114318. [PMID: 37555693 PMCID: PMC10505922 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2023114318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Regulation through post-translational ubiquitin signaling underlies a large portion of eukaryotic biology. This has not gone unnoticed by invading pathogens, many of which have evolved mechanisms to manipulate or subvert the host ubiquitin system. Bacteria are particularly adept at this and rely heavily upon ubiquitin-targeted virulence factors for invasion and replication. Despite lacking a conventional ubiquitin system of their own, many bacterial ubiquitin regulators loosely follow the structural and mechanistic rules established by eukaryotic ubiquitin machinery. Others completely break these rules and have evolved novel structural folds, exhibit distinct mechanisms of regulation, or catalyze foreign ubiquitin modifications. Studying these interactions can not only reveal important aspects of bacterial pathogenesis but also shed light on unexplored areas of ubiquitin signaling and regulation. In this review, we discuss the methods by which bacteria manipulate host ubiquitin and highlight aspects that follow or break the rules of ubiquitination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cameron G Roberts
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & ImmunologyOregon Health & Science UniversityPortlandORUSA
| | - Tyler G Franklin
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & ImmunologyOregon Health & Science UniversityPortlandORUSA
| | - Jonathan N Pruneda
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & ImmunologyOregon Health & Science UniversityPortlandORUSA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Yotsui I, Matsui H, Miyauchi S, Iwakawa H, Melkonian K, Schlüter T, Michavila S, Kanazawa T, Nomura Y, Stolze SC, Jeon HW, Yan Y, Harzen A, Sugano SS, Shirakawa M, Nishihama R, Ichihashi Y, Ibanez SG, Shirasu K, Ueda T, Kohchi T, Nakagami H. LysM-mediated signaling in Marchantia polymorpha highlights the conservation of pattern-triggered immunity in land plants. Curr Biol 2023; 33:3732-3746.e8. [PMID: 37619565 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.07.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Pattern-recognition receptor (PRR)-triggered immunity (PTI) wards off a wide range of pathogenic microbes, playing a pivotal role in angiosperms. The model liverwort Marchantia polymorpha triggers defense-related gene expression upon sensing components of bacterial and fungal extracts, suggesting the existence of PTI in this plant model. However, the molecular components of the putative PTI in M. polymorpha and the significance of PTI in bryophytes have not yet been described. We here show that M. polymorpha has four lysin motif (LysM)-domain-containing receptor homologs, two of which, LysM-receptor-like kinase (LYK) MpLYK1 and LYK-related (LYR) MpLYR, are responsible for sensing chitin and peptidoglycan fragments, triggering a series of characteristic immune responses. Comprehensive phosphoproteomic analysis of M. polymorpha in response to chitin treatment identified regulatory proteins that potentially shape LysM-mediated PTI. The identified proteins included homologs of well-described PTI components in angiosperms as well as proteins whose roles in PTI are not yet determined, including the blue-light receptor phototropin MpPHOT. We revealed that MpPHOT is required for negative feedback of defense-related gene expression during PTI. Taken together, this study outlines the basic framework of LysM-mediated PTI in M. polymorpha and highlights conserved elements and new aspects of pattern-triggered immunity in land plants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Izumi Yotsui
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Yokohama 230-0045, Kanagawa, Japan; Department of BioScience, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Setagaya, Tokyo 156-8502, Japan
| | - Hidenori Matsui
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Yokohama 230-0045, Kanagawa, Japan; Graduate School of Environmental and Life Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan
| | - Shingo Miyauchi
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany; Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna 904-0495, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Hidekazu Iwakawa
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany; School of Biological Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa 920-1192, Ishikawa, Japan
| | | | - Titus Schlüter
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany
| | - Santiago Michavila
- Department of Plant Molecular Genetics, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CNB-CSIC), 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Takehiko Kanazawa
- Division of Cellular Dynamics, National Institute for Basic Biology, Nishigonaka 38, Myodaiji, Okazaki 444-8585, Aichi, Japan; Department of Basic Biology, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Nishigonaka 38, Myodaiji, Okazaki 444-8585, Aichi, Japan
| | - Yuko Nomura
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Yokohama 230-0045, Kanagawa, Japan
| | | | - Hyung-Woo Jeon
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany
| | - Yijia Yan
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany
| | - Anne Harzen
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany
| | - Shigeo S Sugano
- Bioproduction Research Institute, The National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba 305-8566, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Makoto Shirakawa
- Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan; Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology (NAIST), Ikoma 630-0192, Nara, Japan
| | - Ryuichi Nishihama
- Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan; Department of Applied Biological Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science, Noda 278-8510, Chiba, Japan
| | - Yasunori Ichihashi
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Yokohama 230-0045, Kanagawa, Japan; RIKEN BioResource Research Center, Tsukuba 305-0074, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Selena Gimenez Ibanez
- Department of Plant Molecular Genetics, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CNB-CSIC), 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ken Shirasu
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Yokohama 230-0045, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Takashi Ueda
- Division of Cellular Dynamics, National Institute for Basic Biology, Nishigonaka 38, Myodaiji, Okazaki 444-8585, Aichi, Japan; Department of Basic Biology, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Nishigonaka 38, Myodaiji, Okazaki 444-8585, Aichi, Japan
| | - Takayuki Kohchi
- Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Nakagami
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Yokohama 230-0045, Kanagawa, Japan; Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Langin G, González-Fuente M, Üstün S. The Plant Ubiquitin-Proteasome System as a Target for Microbial Manipulation. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2023; 61:351-375. [PMID: 37253695 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-phyto-021622-110443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The plant immune system perceives pathogens to trigger defense responses. In turn, pathogens secrete effector molecules to subvert these defense responses. The initiation and maintenance of defense responses involve not only de novo synthesis of regulatory proteins and enzymes but also their regulated degradation. The latter is achieved through protein degradation pathways such as the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). The UPS regulates all stages of immunity, from the perception of the pathogen to the execution of the response, and, therefore, constitutes an ideal candidate for microbial manipulation of the host. Pathogen effector molecules interfere with the plant UPS through several mechanisms. This includes hijacking general UPS functions or perturbing its ability to degrade specific targets. In this review, we describe how the UPS regulates different immunity-related processes and how pathogens subvert this to promote disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gautier Langin
- Centre for Plant Molecular Biology (ZMBP), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany;
- Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | | | - Suayib Üstün
- Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Li P, Li W, Zhou X, Situ J, Xie L, Xi P, Yang B, Kong G, Jiang Z. Peronophythora litchii RXLR effector P. litchii avirulence homolog 202 destabilizes a host ethylene biosynthesis enzyme. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 193:756-774. [PMID: 37232407 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiad311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Oomycete pathogens can secrete hundreds of effectors into plant cells to interfere with the plant immune system during infection. Here, we identified a Arg-X-Leu-Arg (RXLR) effector protein from the most destructive pathogen of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.), Peronophythora litchii, and named it P. litchii avirulence homolog 202 (PlAvh202). PlAvh202 could suppress cell death triggered by infestin 1 or avirulence protein 3a/resistance protein 3a in Nicotiana benthamiana and was essential for P. litchii virulence. In addition, PlAvh202 suppressed plant immune responses and promoted the susceptibility of N. benthamiana to Phytophthora capsici. Further research revealed that PlAvh202 could suppress ethylene (ET) production by targeting and destabilizing plant S-adenosyl-L-methionine synthetase (SAMS), a key enzyme in the ET biosynthesis pathway, in a 26S proteasome-dependent manner without affecting its expression. Transient expression of LcSAMS3 induced ET production and enhanced plant resistance, whereas inhibition of ET biosynthesis promoted P. litchii infection, supporting that litchi SAMS (LcSAMS) and ET positively regulate litchi immunity toward P. litchii. Overall, these findings highlight that SAMS can be targeted by the oomycete RXLR effector to manipulate ET-mediated plant immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peng Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Microbial Signals and Disease Control/Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Wen Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Microbial Signals and Disease Control/Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Xiaofan Zhou
- Integrative Microbiology Research Centre, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Junjian Situ
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Microbial Signals and Disease Control/Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Lizhu Xie
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Microbial Signals and Disease Control/Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Pinggen Xi
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Microbial Signals and Disease Control/Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Bo Yang
- College of Grassland Science/Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Guanghui Kong
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Microbial Signals and Disease Control/Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Zide Jiang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Microbial Signals and Disease Control/Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Sharma S, Prasad A, Prasad M. Ubiquitination from the perspective of plant pathogens. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2023; 74:4367-4376. [PMID: 37226440 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erad191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The constant battle of survival between pathogens and host plants has played a crucial role in shaping the course of their co-evolution. However, the major determinants of the outcome of this ongoing arms race are the effectors secreted by pathogens into host cells. These effectors perturb the defense responses of plants to promote successful infection. In recent years, extensive research in the area of effector biology has reported an increase in the repertoire of pathogenic effectors that mimic or target the conserved ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. The role of the ubiquitin-mediated degradation pathway is well known to be indispensable for various aspects of a plant's life, and thus targeting or mimicking it seems to be a smart strategy adopted by pathogens. Therefore, this review summarizes recent findings on how some pathogenic effectors mimic or act as one of the components of the ubiquitin-proteasome machinery while others directly target the plant's ubiquitin-proteasome system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ashish Prasad
- Department of Botany, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India
| | - Manoj Prasad
- National Institute of Plant Genome Research, New Delhi, India
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Nomura K, Imboden LA, Tanaka H, He SY. Multiple host targets of Pseudomonas effector protein HopM1 form a protein complex regulating apoplastic immunity and water homeostasis. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.31.551310. [PMID: 37577537 PMCID: PMC10418078 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.31.551310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial type III effector proteins injected into the host cell play a critical role in mediating bacterial interactions with plant and animal hosts. Notably, some bacterial effectors are reported to target sequence-unrelated host proteins with unknown functional relationships. The Pseudomonas syringae effector HopM1 is such an example; it interacts with and/or degrades several HopM1-interacting (MIN) Arabidopsis proteins, including HopM1-interacting protein 2 (MIN2/RAD23), HopM1-interacting protein 7 (MIN7/BIG5), HopM1-interacting protein 10 (MIN10/14-3-3ĸ), and HopM1-interacting protein 13 (MIN13/BIG2). In this study, we purified the MIN7 complex formed in planta and found that it contains MIN7, MIN10, MIN13, as well as a tetratricopeptide repeat protein named HLB1. Mutational analysis showed that, like MIN7, HLB1 is required for pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP)-, effector-, and benzothiadiazole (BTH)-triggered immunity. HLB1 is recruited to the trans-Golgi network (TGN)/early endosome (EE) in a MIN7-dependent manner. Both min7 and hlb1 mutant leaves contained elevated water content in the leaf apoplast and artificial water infiltration into the leaf apoplast was sufficient to phenocopy immune-suppressing phenotype of HopM1. These results suggest that multiple HopM1-targeted MIN proteins form a protein complex with a dual role in modulating water level and immunity in the apoplast, which provides an explanation for the dual phenotypes of HopM1 during bacterial pathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kinya Nomura
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Lori Alice Imboden
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Hirokazu Tanaka
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Agriculture, Meiji University, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 214-0033, Japan
| | - Sheng Yang He
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Cheng YT, Thireault CA, Paasch BC, Zhang L, He SY. Roles of microbiota in autoimmunity in Arabidopsis. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.03.06.531303. [PMID: 36945461 PMCID: PMC10028843 DOI: 10.1101/2023.03.06.531303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
Abstract
Over the past three decades, researchers have isolated plant mutants that display constitutively activated defense responses in the absence of pathogen infection. These mutants are called autoimmune mutants and are typically dwarf and/or bearing chlorotic/necrotic lesions. From a genetic screen for Arabidopsis genes involved in maintaining a normal leaf microbiota, we identified TIP GROWTH DEFECTIVE 1 (TIP1), which encodes a S-acyltransferase, as a key player in guarding leaves against abnormal microbiota level and composition under high humidity conditions. The tip1 mutant has several characteristic phenotypes of classical autoimmune mutants, including a dwarf stature, displaying lesions, and having a high basal level of defense gene expression. Gnotobiotic experiments revealed that the autoimmune phenotypes of the tip1 mutant are largely dependent on the presence of microbiota as axenic tip1 plants have markedly reduced autoimmune phenotypes. We found that the microbiota dependency of autoimmune phenotypes is shared by several "lesion mimic"-type autoimmune mutants in Arabidopsis. Interestingly, autoimmune phenotypes caused by mutations in NLR genes do not require the presence of microbiota and can even be partially alleviated by microbiota. Our results therefore suggest the existence of two classes of autoimmunity (microbiota-dependent vs. microbiota-independent) in plants. The observed interplay between autoimmunity and microbiota in the lesion mimic class of autoimmunity is reminiscent of the interactions between autoimmunity and dysbiosis in the animal kingdom.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Ti Cheng
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Caitlin A. Thireault
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Bradley C. Paasch
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Li Zhang
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Sheng Yang He
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Sheikh AH, Zacharia I, Pardal AJ, Dominguez-Ferreras A, Sueldo DJ, Kim JG, Balmuth A, Gutierrez JR, Conlan BF, Ullah N, Nippe OM, Girija AM, Wu CH, Sessa G, Jones AME, Grant MR, Gifford ML, Mudgett MB, Rathjen JP, Ntoukakis V. Dynamic changes of the Prf/Pto tomato resistance complex following effector recognition. Nat Commun 2023; 14:2568. [PMID: 37142566 PMCID: PMC10160066 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-38103-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In both plants and animals, nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NLR) immune receptors play critical roles in pathogen recognition and activation of innate immunity. In plants, NLRs recognise pathogen-derived effector proteins and initiate effector-triggered immunity (ETI). However, the molecular mechanisms that link NLR-mediated effector recognition and downstream signalling are not fully understood. By exploiting the well-characterised tomato Prf/Pto NLR resistance complex, we identified the 14-3-3 proteins TFT1 and TFT3 as interacting partners of both the NLR complex and the protein kinase MAPKKKα. Moreover, we identified the helper NRC proteins (NLR-required for cell death) as integral components of the Prf /Pto NLR recognition complex. Notably our studies revealed that TFTs and NRCs interact with distinct modules of the NLR complex and, following effector recognition, dissociate facilitating downstream signalling. Thus, our data provide a mechanistic link between activation of immune receptors and initiation of downstream signalling cascades.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arsheed H Sheikh
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
- Center for Desert Agriculture, BESE Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Iosif Zacharia
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Alonso J Pardal
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | | | - Daniela J Sueldo
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Hogskoleringen 1, 7491, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jung-Gun Kim
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Alexi Balmuth
- J.R. Simplot Company, Boise, ID, USA
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Jose R Gutierrez
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Brendon F Conlan
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Acton, 2601, ACT, Australia
| | - Najeeb Ullah
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Olivia M Nippe
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Anil M Girija
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel-Aviv University, 69978, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Chih-Hang Wu
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Guido Sessa
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel-Aviv University, 69978, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | | | - Murray R Grant
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Miriam L Gifford
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
- Warwick Integrative Synthetic Biology Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Mary Beth Mudgett
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - John P Rathjen
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Acton, 2601, ACT, Australia
| | - Vardis Ntoukakis
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
- Warwick Integrative Synthetic Biology Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Sun L, Wu X, Diao J, Zhang J. Pathogenesis mechanisms of phytopathogen effectors. WIREs Mech Dis 2023; 15:e1592. [PMID: 36593734 DOI: 10.1002/wsbm.1592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Plants commonly face the threat of invasion by a wide variety of pathogens and have developed sophisticated immune mechanisms to defend against infectious diseases. However, successful pathogens have evolved diverse mechanisms to overcome host immunity and cause diseases. Different cell structures and unique cellular organelles carried by plant cells endow plant-specific defense mechanisms, in addition to the common framework of innate immune system shared by both plants and animals. Effectors serve as crucial virulence weapons employed by phytopathogens to disarm the plant immune system and promote infection. Here we summarized the many diverse strategies by which phytopathogen effectors overcome plant defense and prospected future perspectives. This article is categorized under: Infectious Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lifan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoyun Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jian Diao
- Northeast Forestry University, College of Forestry, Harbin, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Hu L, Kvitko B, Yang L. Shoot maturation strengthens FLS2-mediated resistance to Pseudomonas syringae. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.02.14.528542. [PMID: 36824838 PMCID: PMC9949054 DOI: 10.1101/2023.02.14.528542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
A temporal-spatial regulation of immunity components is essential for properly activating plant defense response. Flagellin-sensing 2 (FLS2) is a surface-localized receptor that recognizes bacterial flagellin. The immune function of FLS2 is compromised in early stages of shoot development. However, the underlying mechanism for the age-dependent FLS2 signaling is not clear. Here, we show that the reduced basal immunity of juvenile leaves against Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 is independent of FLS2. The flg22-induced marker gene expression and ROS activation were comparable in juvenile and adult stage, but callose deposition was more evident in the adult stage than that of juvenile stage. We further demonstrated that microRNA156, a master regulator of plant aging, suppressed callose deposition in juvenile leaves in response to flg22 but not the expression of FLS2 and FRK1 (Flg22-induced receptor-like kinase 1) . Altogether, we revealed an intrinsic mechanism that regulates the amplitude of FLS2-mediated resistance during aging.
Collapse
|
20
|
Sakata N, Ishiga Y. Prevention of Stomatal Entry as a Strategy for Plant Disease Control against Foliar Pathogenic Pseudomonas Species. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:plants12030590. [PMID: 36771673 PMCID: PMC9919041 DOI: 10.3390/plants12030590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 01/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The genus Pseudomonas includes some of the most problematic and studied foliar bacterial pathogens. Generally, in a successful disease cycle there is an initial epiphytic lifestyle on the leaf surface and a subsequent aggressive endophytic stage inside the leaf apoplast. Leaf-associated bacterial pathogens enter intercellular spaces and internal leaf tissues by natural surface opening sites, such as stomata. The stomatal crossing is complex and dynamic, and functional genomic studies have revealed several virulence factors required for plant entry. Currently, treatments with copper-containing compounds, where authorized and admitted, and antibiotics are commonly used against bacterial plant pathogens. However, strains resistant to these chemicals occur in the fields. Therefore, the demand for alternative control strategies has been increasing. This review summarizes efficient strategies to prevent bacterial entry. Virulence factors required for entering the leaf in plant-pathogenic Pseudomonas species are also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nanami Sakata
- Correspondence: (N.S.); (Y.I.); Tel./Fax: (+81)-029-853-4792 (Y.I.)
| | - Yasuhiro Ishiga
- Correspondence: (N.S.); (Y.I.); Tel./Fax: (+81)-029-853-4792 (Y.I.)
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Yu X, Meng C, Tan X, Su Y, Cao Z, Hwang TS, Li L. RsmA3 modulates RpoS through the RetS-Gac-Rsm signaling pathway in response to H 2 O 2 stress in the phytopathogen Pseudomonas syringae. Environ Microbiol 2022; 24:4755-4770. [PMID: 35837862 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.16132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species are a fatal challenge to the plant pathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae. In this study, we reveal that the global regulatory protein RsmA3 from the RetS-Gac/Rsm signaling pathway modulates RpoS in the early-log growth phase in the P. syringae wild-type strain MB03, thereby regulating oxidative tolerance to H2 O2 and ultimately affecting pathogenicity to the host plant. Following increased H2 O2 by external addition or endogenous induction by menadione, the resistance of the mutant strain ΔretS to H2 O2 is significantly enhanced due to rapid increases in the transcription of Rsm-related non-coding small RNAs (nc sRNAs), a sigma factor RpoS, and H2 O2 -detoxifying enzymes. Moreover, the ΔretS mutant is significantly less pathogenic in cucumber leaves. Seven Rsm-related nc sRNAs (namely, rsmZ, rsmY, and rsmX1-5 ) show functional redundancy in the RetS-Gac-Rsm signaling pathway. External addition of H2 O2 stimulates increases in the transcription of both rsmY and rsmZ. Thus, we propose a regulatory model of the RetS-Gac-Rsm signaling pathway in P. syringae MB03 for the regulation of H2 O2 tolerance and phytopathogenicity in the host plant.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xun Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan, PR China
| | - Cui Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan, PR China
| | - Xiaocheng Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan, PR China
| | - Yuwei Su
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan, PR China
| | - Zhiping Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan, PR China
| | - Tzann-Shun Hwang
- Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, Chinese Culture University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Lin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan, PR China
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Poulaki EG, Triviza MF, Malai M, Tjamos SE. A Case of Plant Vaccination: Enhancement of Plant Immunity against Verticillium dahliae by Necrotized Spores of the Pathogen. PLANTS 2022; 11:plants11131691. [PMID: 35807643 PMCID: PMC9269021 DOI: 10.3390/plants11131691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 06/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The soil-borne fungus Verticillium dahliae is causing a devastating vascular disease in more than 200 species of dicotyledonous plants. The pathogen attacks susceptible plants through the roots, colonizes the plant vascular system, and causes the death of aerial tissues. In this study, we used Arabidopsis and eggplants to examine the plant protective and immunization effects of autoclaved V. dahliae spores against V. dahliae. We observed that the application of V. dahliae autoclaved spores in eggplants and Arabidopsis resulted in enhanced protection against V. dahliae, since the disease severity and pathogen colonization were lower in the plants treated with V. dahliae autoclaved spores when compared to controls. In addition, upregulation of the defense related genes PR1 and PDF1.2 in the Arabidopsis plants treated with the V. dahliae autoclaved spores was revealed. Furthermore, pathogenicity experiments in the Arabidopsis mutant cerk1, defective in chitin perception, revealed a loss of protection against V. dahliae in the cerk1 treated with the V. dahliae autoclaved spores. The participation of the chitin receptor CERK1 is evident in Arabidopsis immunization against V. dahliae using autoclaved spores of the pathogen.
Collapse
|
23
|
What's new in protein kinase/phosphatase signalling in the control of plant immunity? Essays Biochem 2022; 66:621-634. [PMID: 35723080 PMCID: PMC9528078 DOI: 10.1042/ebc20210088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Plant immunity is crucial to plant health but comes at an expense. For optimal plant growth, tight immune regulation is required to prevent unnecessary rechannelling of valuable resources. Pattern- and effector-triggered immunity (PTI/ETI) represent the two tiers of immunity initiated after sensing microbial patterns at the cell surface or pathogen effectors secreted into plant cells, respectively. Recent evidence of PTI-ETI cross-potentiation suggests a close interplay of signalling pathways and defense responses downstream of perception that is still poorly understood. This review will focus on controls on plant immunity through phosphorylation, a universal and key cellular regulatory mechanism. Rather than a complete overview, we highlight “what’s new in protein kinase/phosphatase signalling” in the immunity field. In addition to phosphoregulation of components in the pattern recognition receptor (PRR) complex, we will cover the actions of the major immunity-relevant intracellular protein kinases/phosphatases in the ‘signal relay’, namely calcium-regulated kinases (e.g. calcium-dependent protein kinases, CDPKs), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and various protein phosphatases. We discuss how these factors define a phosphocode that generates cellular decision-making ‘logic gates’, which contribute to signalling fidelity, amplitude, and duration. To underscore the importance of phosphorylation, we summarize strategies employed by pathogens to subvert plant immune phosphopathways. In view of recent game-changing discoveries of ETI-derived resistosomes organizing into calcium-permeable pores, we speculate on a possible calcium-regulated phosphocode as the mechanistic control of the PTI-ETI continuum.
Collapse
|
24
|
Action Mechanisms of Effectors in Plant-Pathogen Interaction. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23126758. [PMID: 35743201 PMCID: PMC9224169 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant pathogens are one of the main factors hindering the breeding of cash crops. Pathogens, including oomycetes, fungus, and bacteria, secrete effectors as invasion weapons to successfully invade and propagate in host plants. Here, we review recent advances made in the field of plant-pathogen interaction models and the action mechanisms of phytopathogenic effectors. The review illustrates how effectors from different species use similar and distinct strategies to infect host plants. We classify the main action mechanisms of effectors in plant-pathogen interactions according to the infestation process: targeting physical barriers for disruption, creating conditions conducive to infestation, protecting or masking themselves, interfering with host cell physiological activity, and manipulating plant downstream immune responses. The investigation of the functioning of plant pathogen effectors contributes to improved understanding of the molecular mechanisms of plant-pathogen interactions. This understanding has important theoretical value and is of practical significance in plant pathology and disease resistance genetics and breeding.
Collapse
|
25
|
Smalley S, Hellmann H. Review: Exploring possible approaches using ubiquitylation and sumoylation pathways in modifying plant stress tolerance. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 319:111275. [PMID: 35487671 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2022.111275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Ubiquitin and similar proteins, such as SUMO, are utilized by plants to modify target proteins to rapidly change their stability and activity in cells. This review will provide an overview of these crucial protein interactions with a focus on ubiquitylation and sumoylation in plants and how they contribute to stress tolerance. The work will also explore possibilities to use these highly conserved pathways for novel approaches to generate more robust crop plants better fit to cope with abiotic and biotic stress situations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Smalley
- Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, United States
| | - Hanjo Hellmann
- Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Trenner J, Monaghan J, Saeed B, Quint M, Shabek N, Trujillo M. Evolution and Functions of Plant U-Box Proteins: From Protein Quality Control to Signaling. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 73:93-121. [PMID: 35226816 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-102720-012310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Posttranslational modifications add complexity and diversity to cellular proteomes. One of the most prevalent modifications across eukaryotes is ubiquitination, which is orchestrated by E3 ubiquitin ligases. U-box-containing E3 ligases have massively expanded in the plant kingdom and have diversified into plant U-box proteins (PUBs). PUBs likely originated from two or three ancestral forms, fusing with diverse functional subdomains that resulted in neofunctionalization. Their emergence and diversification may reflect adaptations to stress during plant evolution, reflecting changes in the needs of plant proteomes to maintain cellular homeostasis. Through their close association with protein kinases, they are physically linked to cell signaling hubs and activate feedback loops by dynamically pairing with E2-ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes to generate distinct ubiquitin polymers that themselves act as signals. Here, we complement current knowledgewith comparative genomics to gain a deeper understanding of PUB function, focusing on their evolution and structural adaptations of key U-box residues, as well as their various roles in plant cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jana Trenner
- Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany; ,
| | | | - Bushra Saeed
- Institute of Biology II, Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; ,
| | - Marcel Quint
- Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany; ,
| | - Nitzan Shabek
- Department of Plant Biology, College of Biological Sciences, University of California, Davis, California, USA;
| | - Marco Trujillo
- Institute of Biology II, Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; ,
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Fonseca JP, Lakshmanan V, Boschiero C, Mysore KS. The Pattern Recognition Receptor FLS2 Can Shape the Arabidopsis Rhizosphere Microbiome β-Diversity but Not EFR1 and CERK1. PLANTS 2022; 11:plants11101323. [PMID: 35631748 PMCID: PMC9147754 DOI: 10.3390/plants11101323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Pathogen associated molecular pattern (PAMP) triggered immunity (PTI) is the first line of plant defense. We hypothesized that the absence of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in plants could influence the rhizosphere microbiome. Here, we report sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene and the fungal ribosomal RNA internal transcribed spacer region of rhizosphere DNA from three Arabidopsis PRR mutants involved in plant innate immunity (efr1, fls2, and cerk1). We conducted experiments in a growth chamber using native soil from the Red River Farm (Terral, OK, USA) to detect microbial community shifts in the rhizosphere that may occur in the absence of PRR receptors compared to wild-type (WT; Col-0) plants. No difference in the α-diversity of the rhizosphere microbial population was observed between the PRR mutants tested and the WT. Plant host genotype had a significant impact in bacterial β-diversity only between the fls2 mutant and the WT. Surprisingly, no significant changes in fungal β-diversity were observed between the PRR mutants and WT, although we observed an increase in relative abundance for the cup fungi (Pezizaceae) in the cerk1 mutant. This finding suggests that the FLS2 receptor can modulate the rhizosphere-associated microbiome β-diversity and expands the list of current known genotypes that can modulate the rhizosphere microbiota.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jose P. Fonseca
- The Noble Research Institute, Ardmore, OK 73401, USA; (V.L.); (C.B.)
- Correspondence: (J.P.F.); (K.S.M.)
| | | | | | - Kirankumar S. Mysore
- The Noble Research Institute, Ardmore, OK 73401, USA; (V.L.); (C.B.)
- Institute for Agricultural Biosciences, Oklahoma State University, Ardmore, OK 73401, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
- Correspondence: (J.P.F.); (K.S.M.)
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Kitazawa Y, Iwabuchi N, Maejima K, Sasano M, Matsumoto O, Koinuma H, Tokuda R, Suzuki M, Oshima K, Namba S, Yamaji Y. A phytoplasma effector acts as a ubiquitin-like mediator between floral MADS-box proteins and proteasome shuttle proteins. THE PLANT CELL 2022; 34:1709-1723. [PMID: 35234248 PMCID: PMC9048881 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koac062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Plant pathogenic bacteria have developed effectors to manipulate host cell functions to facilitate infection. A certain number of effectors use the conserved ubiquitin-proteasome system in eukaryotic to proteolyze targets. The proteasome utilization mechanism is mainly mediated by ubiquitin interaction with target proteins destined for degradation. Phyllogens are a family of protein effectors produced by pathogenic phytoplasmas that transform flowers into leaves in diverse plants. Here, we present a noncanonical mechanism for phyllogen action that involves the proteasome and is ubiquitin-independent. Phyllogens induce proteasomal degradation of floral MADS-box transcription factors (MTFs) in the presence of RADIATION-SENSITIVE23 (RAD23) shuttle proteins, which recruit ubiquitinated proteins to the proteasome. Intracellular localization analysis revealed that phyllogen induced colocalization of MTF with RAD23. The MTF/phyllogen/RAD23 ternary protein complex was detected not only in planta but also in vitro in the absence of ubiquitin, showing that phyllogen directly mediates interaction between MTF and RAD23. A Lys-less nonubiquitinated phyllogen mutant induced degradation of MTF or a Lys-less mutant of MTF. Furthermore, the method of sequential formation of the MTF/phyllogen/RAD23 protein complex was elucidated, first by MTF/phyllogen interaction and then RAD23 recruitment. Phyllogen recognized both the evolutionarily conserved tetramerization region of MTF and the ubiquitin-associated domain of RAD23. Our findings indicate that phyllogen functionally mimics ubiquitin as a mediator between MTF and RAD23.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yugo Kitazawa
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Biology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Nozomu Iwabuchi
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Biology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | | | - Momoka Sasano
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Biology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Oki Matsumoto
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Biology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Koinuma
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Biology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Tokuda
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Biology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Masato Suzuki
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Biology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Kenro Oshima
- Faculty of Bioscience and Applied Chemistry, Hosei University, Tokyo 184-8584, Japan
| | - Shigetou Namba
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Biology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Yamaji
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Biology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Chen MM, Yang SR, Wang J, Fang YL, Peng YL, Fan J. Fungal oxysterol-binding protein-related proteins promote pathogen virulence and activate plant immunity. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2022; 73:2125-2141. [PMID: 34864987 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erab530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Oxysterol-binding protein-related proteins (ORPs) are a conserved class of lipid transfer proteins that are closely involved in multiple cellular processes in eukaryotes, but their roles in plant-pathogen interactions are mostly unknown. We show that transient expression of ORPs of Magnaporthe oryzae (MoORPs) in Nicotiana benthamina plants triggered oxidative bursts and cell death; treatment of tobacco Bright Yellow-2 suspension cells with recombinant MoORPs elicited the production of reactive oxygen species. Despite ORPs being normally described as intracellular proteins, we detected MoORPs in fungal culture filtrates and intercellular fluids from barley plants infected with the fungus. More importantly, infiltration of Arabidopsis plants with recombinant Arabidopsis or fungal ORPs activated oxidative bursts, callose deposition, and PR1 gene expression, and enhanced plant disease resistance, implying that ORPs may function as endogenous and exogenous danger signals triggering plant innate immunity. Extracellular application of fungal ORPs exerted an opposite impact on salicylic acid and jasmonic acid/ethylene signaling pathways. Brassinosteroid Insensitive 1-associated Kinase 1 was dispensable for the ORP-activated defense. Besides, simultaneous knockout of MoORP1 and MoORP3 abolished fungal colony radial growth and conidiation, whereas double knockout of MoORP1 and MoORP2 compromised fungal virulence on barley and rice plants. These observations collectively highlight the multifaceted role of MoORPs in the modulation of plant innate immunity and promotion of fungal development and virulence in M. oryzae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Meng Chen
- Department of Plant Pathology, MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Si-Ru Yang
- Department of Plant Pathology, MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Jian Wang
- Department of Plant Pathology, MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Ya-Li Fang
- Department of Plant Pathology, MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - You-Liang Peng
- Department of Plant Pathology, MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Jun Fan
- Department of Plant Pathology, MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Tiwari R, Bisht NC. The multifaceted roles of heterotrimeric G-proteins: lessons from models and crops. PLANTA 2022; 255:88. [PMID: 35304667 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-022-03868-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The review summarizes our advanced understanding of the heterotrimeric G-protein research from model plants and their emerging roles in modulating various plant architecture and agronomical traits in crop species. Heterotrimeric G-proteins (hereafter G-proteins), consisting of G-alpha (Gα), G-beta (Gβ) and G-gamma (Gγ) subunits, are key signal transducers conserved across different forms of life. The discovery of plant lineage-specific G-protein components (extra-large G-proteins and type-C Gγ subunits), inherent polyploidy in angiosperms, and unique modes of G-protein cycle regulation in plants pointed out to a few fundamental differences of plant G-protein signaling from its animal counterpart. Over the last 2 decades, extensive studies in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana have confirmed the involvement of G-proteins in a wide range of plant growth and development, and stress adaptation processes. The G-protein research in crop species, however, is still in its infancy, and a handful of studies suggest important roles of G-proteins in regulating plant architectural and key agronomical traits including plant's response to abiotic and biotic factors. We propose that the advancement made in plant G-proteins research will facilitate the development of novel approaches to manage plant yield and fitness in changing environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruchi Tiwari
- National Institute of Plant Genome Research (NIPGR), Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Naveen C Bisht
- National Institute of Plant Genome Research (NIPGR), Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, 110067, India.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Ubiquitination of Receptorsomes, Frontline of Plant Immunity. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23062937. [PMID: 35328358 PMCID: PMC8948693 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23062937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Sessile plants are constantly exposed to myriads of unfavorable invading organisms with different lifestyles. To survive, plants have evolved plasma membrane-resident pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and intracellular nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat receptors (NLRs) to initiate sophisticated downstream immune responses. Ubiquitination serves as one of the most important and prevalent posttranslational modifications (PTMs) to fine-tune plant immune responses. Over the last decade, remarkable progress has been made in delineating the critical roles of ubiquitination in plant immunity. In this review, we highlight recent advances in the understanding of ubiquitination in the modulation of plant immunity, with a particular focus on ubiquitination in the regulation of receptorsomes, and discuss how ubiquitination and other PTMs act in concert to ensure rapid, proper, and robust immune responses.
Collapse
|
32
|
Niu Y, Fu S, Chen G, Wang H, Wang Y, Hu J, Jin X, Zhang M, Lu M, He Y, Wang D, Chen Y, Zhang Y, Coll NS, Valls M, Zhao C, Chen Q, Lu H. Different epitopes of Ralstonia solanacearum effector RipAW are recognized by two Nicotiana species and trigger immune responses. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2022; 23:188-203. [PMID: 34719088 PMCID: PMC8743020 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Diverse pathogen effectors convergently target conserved components in plant immunity guarded by intracellular nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat receptors (NLRs) and activate effector-triggered immunity (ETI), often causing cell death. Little is known of the differences underlying ETI in different plants triggered by the same effector. In this study, we demonstrated that effector RipAW triggers ETI on Nicotiana benthamiana and Nicotiana tabacum. Both the first 107 amino acids (N1-107 ) and RipAW E3-ligase activity are required but not sufficient for triggering ETI on N. benthamiana. However, on N. tabacum, the N1-107 fragment is essential and sufficient for inducing cell death. The first 60 amino acids of the protein are not essential for RipAW-triggered cell death on either N. benthamiana or N. tabacum. Furthermore, simultaneous mutation of both R75 and R78 disrupts RipAW-triggered ETI on N. tabacum, but not on N. benthamiana. In addition, N. tabacum recognizes more RipAW orthologs than N. benthamiana. These data showcase the commonalities and specificities of RipAW-activated ETI in two evolutionally related species, suggesting Nicotiana species have acquired different abilities to perceive RipAW and activate plant defences during plant-pathogen co-evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yang Niu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid AreasCollege of AgronomyNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Shouyang Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid AreasCollege of AgronomyNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Gong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid AreasCollege of AgronomyNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Huijuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid AreasCollege of AgronomyNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Yisa Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid AreasCollege of AgronomyNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - JinXue Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid AreasCollege of AgronomyNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Xin Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid AreasCollege of AgronomyNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Mancang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid AreasCollege of AgronomyNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Mingxia Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid AreasCollege of AgronomyNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Yizhe He
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid AreasCollege of AgronomyNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Dongdong Wang
- Shaanxi Key State Laboratory of Crop HeterosisNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Yue Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid AreasCollege of AgronomyNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Yong Zhang
- College of Food Science and EngineeringNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
- College of Resources and EnvironmentSouthwest UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Núria S. Coll
- Interdisciplinary Research Center for Agriculture Green Development in Yangtze River BasinSoutheast UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Marc Valls
- Interdisciplinary Research Center for Agriculture Green Development in Yangtze River BasinSoutheast UniversityChongqingChina
- Centre for Research in Agricultural GenomicsCSIC‐IRTA‐UAB‐UBBellaterraCataloniaSpain
| | - Cuizhu Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid AreasCollege of AgronomyNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Qin Chen
- Shaanxi Key State Laboratory of Crop HeterosisNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
| | - Haibin Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid AreasCollege of AgronomyNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingChina
- Department of GeneticsUniversity of BarcelonaBarcelonaSpain
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Rebolledo-Prudencio OG, Estrada-Rivera M, Dautt-Castro M, Arteaga-Vazquez MA, Arenas-Huertero C, Rosendo-Vargas MM, Jin H, Casas-Flores S. The small RNA-mediated gene silencing machinery is required in Arabidopsis for stimulation of growth, systemic disease resistance, and suppression of the nitrile-specifier gene NSP4 by Trichoderma atroviride. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 109:873-890. [PMID: 34807478 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Trichoderma atroviride is a root-colonizing fungus that confers multiple benefits to plants. In plants, small RNA (sRNA)-mediated gene silencing (sRNA-MGS) plays pivotal roles in growth, development, and pathogen attack. Here, we explored the role of core components of Arabidopsis thaliana sRNA-MGS pathways during its interaction with Trichoderma. Upon interaction with Trichoderma, sRNA-MGS-related genes paralleled the expression of Arabidopsis defense-related genes, linked to salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA) pathways. SA- and JA-related genes were primed by Trichoderma in leaves after the application of the well-known pathogen-associated molecular patterns flg22 and chitin, respectively. Defense-related genes were primed in roots as well, but to different extents and behaviors. Phenotypical characterization of mutants in AGO genes and components of the RNA-dependent DNA methylation (RdDM) pathway revealed that different sets of sRNA-MGS-related genes are essential for (i) the induction of systemic acquired resistance against Botrytis cinerea, (ii) the activation of the expression of plant defense-related genes, and (iii) root colonization by Trichoderma. Additionally, plant growth induced by Trichoderma depends on functional RdDM. Profiling of DNA methylation and histone N-tail modification patterns at the Arabidopsis Nitrile-Specifier Protein-4 (NSP4) locus, which is responsive to Trichoderma, showed altered epigenetic modifications in RdDM mutants. Furthermore, NSP4 is required for the induction of systemic acquired resistance against Botrytis and avoidance of enhanced root colonization by Trichoderma. Together, our results indicate that RdDM is essential in Arabidopsis to establish a beneficial relationship with Trichoderma. We propose that DNA methylation and histone modifications are required for plant priming by the beneficial fungus against B. cinerea.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oscar Guillermo Rebolledo-Prudencio
- División de Biología Molecular, IPICYT, Camino a la presa San José No. 2055, Colonia Lomas 4ª Sección, San Luis Potosí, S.L.P., C.P. 78216, Mexico
| | - Magnolia Estrada-Rivera
- División de Biología Molecular, IPICYT, Camino a la presa San José No. 2055, Colonia Lomas 4ª Sección, San Luis Potosí, S.L.P., C.P. 78216, Mexico
| | - Mitzuko Dautt-Castro
- División de Biología Molecular, IPICYT, Camino a la presa San José No. 2055, Colonia Lomas 4ª Sección, San Luis Potosí, S.L.P., C.P. 78216, Mexico
| | - Mario A Arteaga-Vazquez
- Universidad Veracruzana, INBIOTECA-Instituto de Biotecnología y Ecología Aplicada, Av. de las Culturas Veracruzanas No. 101, Colonia Emiliano Zapata, Xalapa, Veracruz, C.P. 91090, Mexico
| | - Catalina Arenas-Huertero
- Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Chapultepec #1570, Priv del Pedregal., San Luis Potosí, S.L.P., C.P. 78295, Mexico
| | - Maria Montserrat Rosendo-Vargas
- División de Biología Molecular, IPICYT, Camino a la presa San José No. 2055, Colonia Lomas 4ª Sección, San Luis Potosí, S.L.P., C.P. 78216, Mexico
| | - Hailing Jin
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Center for Plant Cell Biology, Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Sergio Casas-Flores
- División de Biología Molecular, IPICYT, Camino a la presa San José No. 2055, Colonia Lomas 4ª Sección, San Luis Potosí, S.L.P., C.P. 78216, Mexico
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Xie L, Wu Y, Duan X, Li T, Jiang Y. Proteomic and physiological analysis provides an elucidation of Fusarium proliferatum infection causing crown rot on banana fruit. Microbiol Res 2021; 256:126952. [PMID: 34968824 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2021.126952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Fusarium proliferatum causes the crown rot of harvested banana fruit but the underling infection mechanism remains unclear. Here, proteomic changes of the banana peel with and without inoculation of F. proliferatum were evaluated. In addition, we investigated the effects of F. proliferatum infection on cell structure, hormone content, primary metabolites and defense-related enzyme activities in the banana peel. Our results showed that F. proliferatum infection mainly affects cell wall components and inhibits the activities of polyphenoloxidase, peroxidase, and chitinase. Gel free quantitative proteomic analysis showed 92 down-regulated and 29 up-regulated proteins of banana peel after F. proliferatum infection. These proteins were mainly related to defense response to biotic stress, chloroplast structure and function, JA signaling pathway, and primary metabolism. Although jasmonic acid (JA) content and JA signaling component coronatine-insensitive (COI) protein were induced by F. proliferatum infection, JA-responsible defense genes/proteins were downregulated. In contrast, expression of senescence-related genes was induced by F. proliferatum, indicating that F. proliferatum modulated the JA signaling to accelerate the senescence of banana fruit. Additionally, salicylic acid (SA) content and SA signaling for resistance acquisition were inhibited by F. proliferatum. Taken together, these results suggest that F. proliferatum depolymerizes the cell wall barrier, impairs the defense system in banana fruit, and activates non-defensive JA-signaling pathway accelerated the senescence of banana fruit. This study provided the elucidation of the prominent pathways disturbed by F. proliferatum in banana fruit, which will facilitate the development of a new strategy to control crown rot of banana fruit and improvement of banana cultivars.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lihong Xie
- Key Laboratory of South China Agricultural Plant Molecular Analysis and Genetic Improvement/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, China
| | - Yanfei Wu
- Key Laboratory of South China Agricultural Plant Molecular Analysis and Genetic Improvement/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, China
| | - Xuewu Duan
- Key Laboratory of South China Agricultural Plant Molecular Analysis and Genetic Improvement/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Taotao Li
- Key Laboratory of South China Agricultural Plant Molecular Analysis and Genetic Improvement/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China.
| | - Yueming Jiang
- Key Laboratory of South China Agricultural Plant Molecular Analysis and Genetic Improvement/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China.
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Ma A, Zhang D, Wang G, Wang K, Li Z, Gao Y, Li H, Bian C, Cheng J, Han Y, Yang S, Gong Z, Qi J. Verticillium dahliae effector VDAL protects MYB6 from degradation by interacting with PUB25 and PUB26 E3 ligases to enhance Verticillium wilt resistance. THE PLANT CELL 2021; 33:3675-3699. [PMID: 34469582 PMCID: PMC8643689 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koab221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Verticillium wilt is a severe plant disease that causes massive losses in multiple crops. Increasing the plant resistance to Verticillium wilt is a critical challenge worldwide. Here, we report that the hemibiotrophic Verticillium dahliae-secreted Asp f2-like protein VDAL causes leaf wilting when applied to cotton leaves in vitro but enhances the resistance to V. dahliae when overexpressed in Arabidopsis or cotton without affecting the plant growth and development. VDAL protein interacts with Arabidopsis E3 ligases plant U-box 25 (PUB25) and PUB26 and is ubiquitinated by PUBs in vitro. However, VDAL is not degraded by PUB25 or PUB26 in planta. Besides, the pub25 pub26 double mutant shows higher resistance to V. dahliae than the wild-type. PUBs interact with the transcription factor MYB6 in a yeast two-hybrid screen. MYB6 promotes plant resistance to Verticillium wilt while PUBs ubiquitinate MYB6 and mediate its degradation. VDAL competes with MYB6 for binding to PUBs, and the role of VDAL in increasing Verticillium wilt resistance depends on MYB6. Taken together, these results suggest that plants evolute a strategy to utilize the invaded effector protein VDAL to resist the V. dahliae infection without causing a hypersensitive response (HR); alternatively, hemibiotrophic pathogens may use some effectors to keep plant cells alive during its infection in order to take nutrients from host cells. This study provides the molecular mechanism for plants increasing disease resistance when overexpressing some effector proteins without inducing HR, and may promote searching for more genes from pathogenic fungi or bacteria to engineer plant disease resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aifang Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Dingpeng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
| | - Guangxing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Kai Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng 475001, China
| | - Zhen Li
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yuanhui Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Hengchang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Chao Bian
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
- Department of Plant Biology and Genome Center, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Jinkui Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yinan Han
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Shuhua Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zhizhong Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
- College of Life Science, Hebei University, Baoding 071002, China
| | - Junsheng Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Denne NL, Hiles RR, Kyrysyuk O, Iyer-Pascuzzi AS, Mitra RM. Ralstonia solanacearum Effectors Localize to Diverse Organelles in Solanum Hosts. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2021; 111:2213-2226. [PMID: 33720750 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-10-20-0483-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Phytopathogenic bacteria secrete type III effector (T3E) proteins directly into host plant cells. T3Es can interact with plant proteins and frequently manipulate plant host physiological or developmental processes. The proper subcellular localization of T3Es is critical for their ability to interact with plant targets, and knowledge of T3E localization can be informative for studies of effector function. Here we investigated the subcellular localization of 19 T3Es from the phytopathogenic bacteria Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum and Ralstonia solanacearum. Approximately 45% of effectors in our library localize to both the plant cell periphery and the nucleus, 15% exclusively to the cell periphery, 15% exclusively to the nucleus, and 25% to other organelles, including tonoplasts and peroxisomes. Using tomato hairy roots, we show that T3E localization is similar in both leaves and roots and is not impacted by Solanum species. We find that in silico prediction programs are frequently inaccurate, highlighting the value of in planta localization experiments. Our data suggest that Ralstonia targets a wide diversity of cellular organelles and provides a foundation for developing testable hypotheses about Ralstonia effector function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nina L Denne
- Department of Biology, Carleton College, Northfield, MN 55057
| | - Rachel R Hiles
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology and Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
| | | | - Anjali S Iyer-Pascuzzi
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology and Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
| | - Raka M Mitra
- Department of Biology, Carleton College, Northfield, MN 55057
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
A novel ATPase gene, Ab-atps, plays an important role in the interaction of rice and white tip nematode, Aphelenchoides besseyi. Sci Rep 2021; 11:18521. [PMID: 34531469 PMCID: PMC8446066 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97981-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant kinases containing the LysM domain play important roles in pathogen recognition and self-defense reactions. And it could recognize microbe-associated molecules including chitin and other polypeptides. The white tip nematode Aphelenchoides besseyi is a migratory parasitic nematode that infects plant shoots. It is distributed over almost all rice-producing areas and causes up to 50% economic losses. The rice OsRLK3 gene was a defense-related LysM kinase gene of rice. This study showed that the rice LysM kinase OsRLK3 could be induced by flg22, jasmonic acid, salicylic acid, and chitin. An interaction gene, Ab-atps from A. besseyi, was identified by screening the interaction between the rice gene OsRLK3 and an A. besseyi cDNA library using yeast two-hybrid screening. Ab-atps is a novel ATP synthase gene with a full length of 1341 bp, coding for 183 amino acids. The mRNA of Ab-atps was located in the esophagus and reproductive system of A. besseyi. The expression of Ab-atps was assessed at different developmental stages of the nematode and found to be the highest in the juvenile, followed by the egg, female, and male. Reproduction was significantly decreased in nematodes treated with Ab-atps double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) (p < 0.05). Transient expression experiments showed that Ab-ATPS-GFP was distributed in the nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell membrane, and Ab-ATPS-GFP triggered plant cell death. OsRLK3 was expressed significantly higher at 0.5 day and 1 day (p < 0.05) in rice plants inoculated with nematodes treated with Ab-atps dsRNA and gfp dsRNA for 0.5-7 days, respectively. Further, OsRLK3 expression under Ab-atps dsRNA treatment was significantly lower than with gfp dsRNA treatment at 0.5 day (p < 0.05) and significantly higher than with gfp dsRNA treatment at 1 day (p < 0.05). These results suggest that rice OsRLK3 could interact with A. besseyi Ab-atps, which plays an important role in growth, reproduction, and infection of the nematode. Our findings provide a theoretical basis to further understand the parasitic strategy of A. besseyi and its interaction mechanism with host plants, suggesting new ideas and targets for controlling A. besseyi.
Collapse
|
38
|
Gorshkov V, Tsers I. Plant susceptible responses: the underestimated side of plant-pathogen interactions. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 97:45-66. [PMID: 34435443 PMCID: PMC9291929 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Plant susceptibility to pathogens is usually considered from the perspective of the loss of resistance. However, susceptibility cannot be equated with plant passivity since active host cooperation may be required for the pathogen to propagate and cause disease. This cooperation consists of the induction of reactions called susceptible responses that transform a plant from an autonomous biological unit into a component of a pathosystem. Induced susceptibility is scarcely discussed in the literature (at least compared to induced resistance) although this phenomenon has a fundamental impact on plant-pathogen interactions and disease progression. This review aims to summarize current knowledge on plant susceptible responses and their regulation. We highlight two main categories of susceptible responses according to their consequences and indicate the relevance of susceptible response-related studies to agricultural practice. We hope that this review will generate interest in this underestimated aspect of plant-pathogen interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Gorshkov
- Kazan Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Federal Research Center Kazan Scientific Center of Russian Academy of Sciences, Kazan, 420111, Russia.,Laboratory of Plant Infectious Diseases, Federal Research Center Kazan Scientific Center of Russian Academy of Sciences, Kazan, 420111, Russia
| | - Ivan Tsers
- Laboratory of Plant Infectious Diseases, Federal Research Center Kazan Scientific Center of Russian Academy of Sciences, Kazan, 420111, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Kumar J, Ramlal A, Kumar K, Rani A, Mishra V. Signaling Pathways and Downstream Effectors of Host Innate Immunity in Plants. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22169022. [PMID: 34445728 PMCID: PMC8396522 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22169022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytopathogens, such as biotrophs, hemibiotrophs and necrotrophs, pose serious stress on the development of their host plants, compromising their yields. Plants are in constant interaction with such phytopathogens and hence are vulnerable to their attack. In order to counter these attacks, plants need to develop immunity against them. Consequently, plants have developed strategies of recognizing and countering pathogenesis through pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) and effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Pathogen perception and surveillance is mediated through receptor proteins that trigger signal transduction, initiated in the cytoplasm or at the plasma membrane (PM) surfaces. Plant hosts possess microbe-associated molecular patterns (P/MAMPs), which trigger a complex set of mechanisms through the pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and resistance (R) genes. These interactions lead to the stimulation of cytoplasmic kinases by many phosphorylating proteins that may also be transcription factors. Furthermore, phytohormones, such as salicylic acid, jasmonic acid and ethylene, are also effective in triggering defense responses. Closure of stomata, limiting the transfer of nutrients through apoplast and symplastic movements, production of antimicrobial compounds, programmed cell death (PCD) are some of the primary defense-related mechanisms. The current article highlights the molecular processes involved in plant innate immunity (PII) and discusses the most recent and plausible scientific interventions that could be useful in augmenting PII.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jitendra Kumar
- Bangalore Bioinnovation Centre, Life Sciences Park, Electronics City Phase 1, Bengaluru 560100, India;
| | - Ayyagari Ramlal
- Division of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110012, India;
| | - Kamal Kumar
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110066, India;
| | - Anita Rani
- Department of Botany, Dyal Singh College, University of Delhi, Delhi 110003, India;
| | - Vachaspati Mishra
- Department of Botany, Dyal Singh College, University of Delhi, Delhi 110003, India;
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Gough C, Sadanandom A. Understanding and Exploiting Post-Translational Modifications for Plant Disease Resistance. Biomolecules 2021; 11:1122. [PMID: 34439788 PMCID: PMC8392720 DOI: 10.3390/biom11081122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants are constantly threatened by pathogens, so have evolved complex defence signalling networks to overcome pathogen attacks. Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are fundamental to plant immunity, allowing rapid and dynamic responses at the appropriate time. PTM regulation is essential; pathogen effectors often disrupt PTMs in an attempt to evade immune responses. Here, we cover the mechanisms of disease resistance to pathogens, and how growth is balanced with defence, with a focus on the essential roles of PTMs. Alteration of defence-related PTMs has the potential to fine-tune molecular interactions to produce disease-resistant crops, without trade-offs in growth and fitness.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ari Sadanandom
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, Stockton Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK;
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Liu L, Chen F, Chen S, Fang W, Liu Y, Guan Z. Dual species dynamic transcripts reveal the interaction mechanisms between Chrysanthemum morifolium and Alternaria alternata. BMC Genomics 2021; 22:523. [PMID: 34243707 PMCID: PMC8268330 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-021-07709-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) black spot disease caused by Alternaria alternata is one of the plant's most destructive diseases. Dual RNA-seq was performed to simultaneously assess their transcriptomes to analyze the potential interaction mechanism between the two species, i.e., host and pathogen. RESULTS C. morifolium and A. alternata were subjected to dual RNA-seq at 1, 12, and 24 h after inoculation, and differential expression genes (DEGs) in both species were identified. This analysis confirmed 153,532 DEGs in chrysanthemum and 14,932 DEGs in A. alternata, which were involved in plant-fungal interactions and phytohormone signaling. Fungal DEGs such as toxin synthesis related enzyme and cell wall degrading enzyme genes played important roles during chrysanthemum infection. Moreover, a series of key genes highly correlated with the early, middle, or late infection stage were identified, together with the regulatory network of key genes annotated in the Plant Resistance Genes database (PRGdb) or Pathogen-Host Interactions database (PHI-base). Highly correlated genes were identified at the late infection stage, expanding our understanding of the interplay between C. morifolium and A. alternata. Additionally, six DEGs each from chrysanthemum and A. alternata were selected for quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) assays to validate the RNA-seq output. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, data obtained in this study enriches the resources available for research into the interactions that exist between chrysanthemum and A. alternata, thereby providing a theoretical basis for the development of new chrysanthemum cultivars with resistance to pathogen.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lina Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Key Laboratory of Landscaping, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Biology of Ornamental Plants in East China, College of Horticulture, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Nanjing Agricultural University, 210095, Nanjing, China
| | - Fadi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Key Laboratory of Landscaping, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Biology of Ornamental Plants in East China, College of Horticulture, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Nanjing Agricultural University, 210095, Nanjing, China
| | - Sumei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Key Laboratory of Landscaping, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Biology of Ornamental Plants in East China, College of Horticulture, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Nanjing Agricultural University, 210095, Nanjing, China
| | - Weimin Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Key Laboratory of Landscaping, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Biology of Ornamental Plants in East China, College of Horticulture, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Nanjing Agricultural University, 210095, Nanjing, China
| | - Ye Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Key Laboratory of Landscaping, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Biology of Ornamental Plants in East China, College of Horticulture, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Nanjing Agricultural University, 210095, Nanjing, China.
| | - Zhiyong Guan
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Key Laboratory of Landscaping, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Biology of Ornamental Plants in East China, College of Horticulture, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Nanjing Agricultural University, 210095, Nanjing, China.
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Schreiber KJ, Chau-Ly IJ, Lewis JD. What the Wild Things Do: Mechanisms of Plant Host Manipulation by Bacterial Type III-Secreted Effector Proteins. Microorganisms 2021; 9:1029. [PMID: 34064647 PMCID: PMC8150971 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9051029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Phytopathogenic bacteria possess an arsenal of effector proteins that enable them to subvert host recognition and manipulate the host to promote pathogen fitness. The type III secretion system (T3SS) delivers type III-secreted effector proteins (T3SEs) from bacterial pathogens such as Pseudomonas syringae, Ralstonia solanacearum, and various Xanthomonas species. These T3SEs interact with and modify a range of intracellular host targets to alter their activity and thereby attenuate host immune signaling. Pathogens have evolved T3SEs with diverse biochemical activities, which can be difficult to predict in the absence of structural data. Interestingly, several T3SEs are activated following injection into the host cell. Here, we review T3SEs with documented enzymatic activities, as well as T3SEs that facilitate virulence-promoting processes either indirectly or through non-enzymatic mechanisms. We discuss the mechanisms by which T3SEs are activated in the cell, as well as how T3SEs modify host targets to promote virulence or trigger immunity. These mechanisms may suggest common enzymatic activities and convergent targets that could be manipulated to protect crop plants from infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karl J. Schreiber
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94710, USA; (K.J.S.); (I.J.C.-L.)
| | - Ilea J. Chau-Ly
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94710, USA; (K.J.S.); (I.J.C.-L.)
| | - Jennifer D. Lewis
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94710, USA; (K.J.S.); (I.J.C.-L.)
- Plant Gene Expression Center, United States Department of Agriculture, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94710, USA
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Pal KK, Dey R, Sherathia DN, Devidayal, Mangalassery S, Kumar A, Rupapara RB, Mandaliya M, Rawal P, Bhadania RA, Thomas M, Patel MB, Maida P, Nawade BD, Ahmad S, Dash P, Radhakrishnan T. Alleviation of Salinity Stress in Peanut by Application of Endophytic Bacteria. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:650771. [PMID: 33936008 PMCID: PMC8079962 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.650771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of salinity affects 7% of the world’s land surface, acting as a major constraint to crop productivity. This study attempted to use the co-evolving endophytes of peanut to alleviate salinity stress and enhance the yield of peanut. Diverse and different tissue colonizing endophytes were isolated from peanut and screened in vitro by seed germination bioassay imposing gradients of salinity, with two cultivars TG37A (susceptible) and GG2 (moderately resistant), in potted conditions using saline irrigation water. Finally, nine endophytes capable of producing IAA and ACC-deaminase, promoting root growth and yield in potted conditions were selected for further evaluation in field conditions. They were evaluated with saline water (1.5–2.0 dS/m) in saline soil with susceptible cultivar TG37A. Simultaneously, three endophytes (Bacillus firmus J22N; Bacillus tequilensis SEN15N; and Bacillus sp. REN51N) were evaluated with two cultivars, GG2 and TG37A, during rainy and post-rainy seasons with elevated salinity. The application of endophytes like Bacillus firmus J22N and Bacillus sp. REN51N enhanced the pod and haulm yield of peanuts by 14–19% across cultivars, salinity, and seasons. In addition, there was significant modulation in parameters like relative water content; production of enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), lipid peroxidase (POD), and H2O2 content in leaf; and uptake of potassium. The activities of the enzymes involved in scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) increased with salinity, and further increased with endophytes like Bacillus firmus J22N, Bacillus tequilensis SEN15N, and Bacillus sp. REN51N. There was an enhanced accumulation of proline, reduced level of phenol and H2O2, and enhanced uptake of potassium with the inoculation of endophytes. This improved scavenging capacity of plants by endophytic modulation of ROS scavengers, uptake of K, production of ACC deaminase and IAA, root and biomass growth, modulation in relative water content, and enhanced accumulation of osmoprotectant might be the reasons of alleviation of salinity stress. Endophytes could have alleviated salinity stress in peanuts, indicating the mechanisms and potential of peanuts at the field level. These endophytes could be applied to bring agricultural sustainability to salinity-affected areas in the future. Furthermore, few genera viz. Kocuria, Brevundimonas, Agrococcus, Dietzia, and Kytococcus were observed in peanut tissue for the first time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kamal K Pal
- Section of Microbiology, ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh, India
| | - Rinku Dey
- Section of Microbiology, ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh, India
| | - Dharmesh N Sherathia
- Section of Microbiology, ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh, India
| | - Devidayal
- ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Kukma, India
| | | | - Arvind Kumar
- Division of Crop Improvement, ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, India
| | - Rupal B Rupapara
- Section of Microbiology, ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh, India
| | - Mona Mandaliya
- Section of Microbiology, ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh, India
| | - Priya Rawal
- Section of Microbiology, ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh, India
| | - Roshani A Bhadania
- Section of Microbiology, ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh, India
| | - Manesh Thomas
- Section of Microbiology, ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh, India
| | - Mili B Patel
- Section of Microbiology, ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh, India
| | - Priyanka Maida
- Section of Microbiology, ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh, India
| | - Bhagwat D Nawade
- Section of Microbiology, ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh, India
| | - Suhail Ahmad
- Section of Microbiology, ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh, India
| | - Pitabas Dash
- Section of Microbiology, ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh, India
| | - T Radhakrishnan
- Section of Microbiology, ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh, India
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Polonio Á, Fernández‐Ortuño D, de Vicente A, Pérez‐García A. A haustorial-expressed lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase from the cucurbit powdery mildew pathogen Podosphaera xanthii contributes to the suppression of chitin-triggered immunity. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2021; 22:580-601. [PMID: 33742545 PMCID: PMC8035642 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Podosphaera xanthii is the main causal agent of cucurbit powdery mildew and a limiting factor of crop productivity. The lifestyle of this fungus is determined by the development of specialized parasitic structures inside epidermal cells, termed haustoria, that are responsible for the acquisition of nutrients and the release of effectors. A typical function of fungal effectors is the manipulation of host immunity, for example the suppression of pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP)-triggered immunity (PTI). Chitin is a major component of fungal cell walls, and chitin oligosaccharides are well-known PAMP elicitors. In this work, we examined the role of PHEC27213, the most highly expressed, haustorium-specific effector candidate of P. xanthii. According to different computational predictions, the protein folding of PHEC27213 was similar to that of lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) and included a conserved histidine brace; however, PHEC27213 had low sequence similarity with LPMO proteins and displayed a putative chitin-binding domain that was different from the canonical carbohydrate-binding module. Binding and enzymatic assays demonstrated that PHEC27213 was able to bind and catalyse colloidal chitin, as well as chitooligosaccharides, acting as an LPMO. Furthermore, RNAi silencing experiments showed the potential of this protein to prevent the activation of chitin-triggered immunity. Moreover, proteins with similar features were found in other haustorium-forming fungal pathogens. Our results suggest that this protein is a new fungal LPMO that catalyses chitooligosaccharides, thus contributing to the suppression of plant immunity during haustorium development. To our knowledge, this is the first mechanism identified in the haustorium to suppress chitin signalling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Álvaro Polonio
- Departamento de MicrobiologíaFacultad de CienciasUniversidad de MálagaMálagaSpain
- Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea ‘La Mayora’Universidad de MálagaConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM−UMA−CSIC)MálagaSpain
| | - Dolores Fernández‐Ortuño
- Departamento de MicrobiologíaFacultad de CienciasUniversidad de MálagaMálagaSpain
- Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea ‘La Mayora’Universidad de MálagaConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM−UMA−CSIC)MálagaSpain
| | - Antonio de Vicente
- Departamento de MicrobiologíaFacultad de CienciasUniversidad de MálagaMálagaSpain
- Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea ‘La Mayora’Universidad de MálagaConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM−UMA−CSIC)MálagaSpain
| | - Alejandro Pérez‐García
- Departamento de MicrobiologíaFacultad de CienciasUniversidad de MálagaMálagaSpain
- Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea ‘La Mayora’Universidad de MálagaConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM−UMA−CSIC)MálagaSpain
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Zhang H, Xie P, Xu X, Xie Q, Yu F. Heterotrimeric G protein signalling in plant biotic and abiotic stress response. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2021; 23 Suppl 1:20-30. [PMID: 33533569 DOI: 10.1111/plb.13241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Heterotrimeric G proteins act as molecular switches to participate in transmitting various stimuli signals from outside of cells. G proteins have three subunits, Gα, Gβ and Gγ, which function mutually to modulate many biological processes in plants, including plant growth and development, as well as biotic and abiotic stress responses. In plants, the number of Gγ subunits is larger than that of the α and β subunits. Based on recent breakthroughs in studies of plant G protein signal perception, transduction and downstream effectors, this review summarizes and analyses the connections between different subunits and the interactions of G proteins with other signalling pathways, especially in plant biotic and abiotic stress responses. Based on current progress and unresolved questions in the field, we also suggest future research directions on G proteins in plants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Zhang
- School of Agriculture, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, China
| | - P Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - X Xu
- School of Agriculture, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, China
- Breeding Base of State Key Laboratory of Land Degradation and Ecological Restoration of North Western China, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, China
| | - Q Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - F Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Holmes DR, Bredow M, Thor K, Pascetta SA, Sementchoukova I, Siegel KR, Zipfel C, Monaghan J. A novel allele of the Arabidopsis thaliana MACPF protein CAD1 results in deregulated immune signaling. Genetics 2021; 217:6144930. [PMID: 33779749 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/iyab022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune recognition in plants is governed by two major classes of receptors: pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat receptors (NLRs). Located at the cell surface, PRRs bind extracellular ligands originating from microbes (indicative of "non-self") or damaged plant cells (indicative of "infected-self"), and trigger signaling cascades to protect against infection. Located intracellularly, NLRs sense pathogen-induced physiological changes and trigger localized cell death and systemic resistance. Immune responses are under tight regulation in order to maintain homeostasis and promote plant health. In a forward-genetic screen to identify regulators of PRR-mediated immune signaling, we identified a novel allele of the membrane-attack complex and perforin (MACPF)-motif containing protein CONSTITUTIVE ACTIVE DEFENSE 1 (CAD1) resulting from a missense mutation in a conserved N-terminal cysteine. We show that cad1-5 mutants display deregulated immune signaling and symptoms of autoimmunity dependent on the lipase-like protein ENHANCED DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY 1 (EDS1), suggesting that CAD1 integrity is monitored by the plant immune system. We further demonstrate that CAD1 localizes to both the cytosol and plasma membrane using confocal microscopy and subcellular fractionation. Our results offer new insights into immune homeostasis and provide tools to further decipher the intriguing role of MACPF proteins in plants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Danalyn R Holmes
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston K7L 3N6, Ontario, Canada
| | - Melissa Bredow
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston K7L 3N6, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kathrin Thor
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, UK
| | - Sydney A Pascetta
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston K7L 3N6, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Kristen R Siegel
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston K7L 3N6, Ontario, Canada
| | - Cyril Zipfel
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, UK.,Department of Plant and Microbial Biology and Zurich-Basel Plant Science Center, University of Zurich, Zurich CH-8008, Switzerland
| | - Jacqueline Monaghan
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston K7L 3N6, Ontario, Canada.,The Sainsbury Laboratory, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, UK
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Kawaguchi T, Nakamura M, Hirai H, Furukawa T, Kondo M, Che FS. AKSF1 Isolated From the Rice-Virulent Strain Acidovorax avenae K1 Is a Novel Effector That Suppresses PAMP-Triggered Immunity in Rice. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2021; 34:186-197. [PMID: 33135963 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-10-20-0271-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Microbial pathogens deliver effectors into plant cells to suppress plant immune responses and modulate host metabolism in order to support infection processes. We sought to determine if the Acidovorax avenae rice-virulent K1 strain can suppress pathogen-associated molecular pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) induced by flagellin isolated from the rice-avirulent N1141 strain. The flagellin-triggered PTI, including H2O2 generation, callose deposition, and expression of several immune-related genes were strongly suppressed in K1 preinoculated cultured rice cells in a type III secretion system (T3SS)-dependent manner. By screening 4,562 transposon-tagged mutants based on their suppression ability, we found that 156 transposon-tagged K1 mutants lost the ability to suppress PTI induction. Mutant sequence analysis, comprehensive expression analysis using RNA sequencing, and the prediction of secretion through T3SS showed that a protein named A. avenae K1 suppression factor 1 (AKSF1) suppresses flagellin-triggered PTI in rice. Translocation of AKSF1 protein into rice cells is dependent on the T3SS during infection, an AKSF1-disruption mutant lost the ability to suppress PTI responses, and expression of AKSF1 in the AKSF1-disruption mutant complemented the suppression activity. When AKSF1-disruption mutants were inoculated into the host rice plant, reduction of the disease symptoms and suppression of bacterial growth were observed. Taken together, our results demonstrate that AKSF1 is a novel effector that can suppress the PTI in a host rice plant.[Formula: see text] The author(s) have dedicated the work to the public domain under the Creative Commons CC0 "No Rights Reserved" license by waiving all of his or her rights to the work worldwide under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights, to the extent allowed by law. 2021.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Takemasa Kawaguchi
- Department of Bio-Science, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, 1266, Tamura, Nagahama, Shiga 526-0829, Japan
| | - Minami Nakamura
- Graduate School of Biosciences, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, 1266, Tamura, Nagahama, Shiga 526-0829, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Hirai
- Department of Bio-Science, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, 1266, Tamura, Nagahama, Shiga 526-0829, Japan
| | - Takehito Furukawa
- Department of Bio-Science, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, 1266, Tamura, Nagahama, Shiga 526-0829, Japan
| | - Machiko Kondo
- Department of Bio-Science, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, 1266, Tamura, Nagahama, Shiga 526-0829, Japan
| | - Fang-Sik Che
- Department of Bio-Science, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, 1266, Tamura, Nagahama, Shiga 526-0829, Japan
- Graduate School of Biosciences, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, 1266, Tamura, Nagahama, Shiga 526-0829, Japan
- Genome Editing Research Institute, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, 1281-8, Tamura, Nagahama, Shiga 526-0829, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Gao C, Sun P, Wang W, Tang D. Arabidopsis E3 ligase KEG associates with and ubiquitinates MKK4 and MKK5 to regulate plant immunity. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 63:327-339. [PMID: 32877006 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.13007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades are highly conserved signaling modules that regulate plant immune responses. The Arabidopsis thaliana Raf-like MAPK kinase kinase ENHANCED DISEASE RESISTANCE1 (EDR1) is a key negative regulator of plant immunity that affects the protein levels of MKK4 and MKK5, two important MAPK cascade members, but the underlying mechanism is poorly understood. Here, genome-wide phosphorylation analysis demonstrated that the E3 ligase KEEP ON GOING (KEG) is phosphorylated in the edr1 mutant but not the wild type, suggesting that EDR1 negatively affects KEG phosphorylation. The identified phosphorylation sites in KEG appear to be important for its accumulation. The keg-4 mutant, a previously identified edr1 suppressor, enhances susceptibility to the powdery mildew pathogen Golovinomyces cichoracearum. In addition, MKK4 and MKK5 protein levels are reduced in the keg-4 mutant. Furthermore, we demonstrate that MKK4 and MKK5 associate with full-length KEG, but not with truncated KEG-RK or KEG-RKA, and that KEG ubiquitinates and mediates the degradation of MKK4 and MKK5. Taken together, these results indicate that MKK4 and MKK5 protein levels are regulated by KEG via ubiquitination, uncovering a mechanism by which plants fine-tune immune responses by regulating the homeostasis of key MAPK cascade members via ubiquitination and degradation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chenyang Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Control of Fujian-Taiwan Crop Pests, Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Genetics, Breeding and Multiple Utilization of Crops, Plant Immunity Center, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
- Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Pengwei Sun
- Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Control of Fujian-Taiwan Crop Pests, Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Genetics, Breeding and Multiple Utilization of Crops, Plant Immunity Center, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Dingzhong Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Control of Fujian-Taiwan Crop Pests, Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Genetics, Breeding and Multiple Utilization of Crops, Plant Immunity Center, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Song W, Forderer A, Yu D, Chai J. Structural biology of plant defence. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 229:692-711. [PMID: 32880948 DOI: 10.1111/nph.16906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Plants employ the innate immune system to discriminate between self and invaders through two types of immune receptors, one on the plasma membrane and the other in the intracellular space. The immune receptors on the plasma membrane are pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that can perceive pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or host-derived damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) leading to pattern-triggered immunity (PTI). Particular pathogens are capable of overcoming PTI by secreting specific effectors into plant cells to perturb different components of PTI signalling through various mechanisms. Most of the immune receptors from the intracellular space are the nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat receptors (NLRs), which specifically recognize pathogen-secreted effectors to mediate effector-triggered immunity (ETI). In this review, we will summarize recent progress in structural studies of PRRs, NLRs, and effectors, and discuss how these studies shed light on ligand recognition and activation mechanisms of the two types of immune receptors and the diversified mechanisms used by effectors to manipulate plant immune signalling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wen Song
- Max-Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, 50829, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Cologne, 50923, Germany
| | - Alexander Forderer
- Max-Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, 50829, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Cologne, 50923, Germany
| | - Dongli Yu
- Max-Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, 50829, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Cologne, 50923, Germany
| | - Jijie Chai
- Max-Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, 50829, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Cologne, 50923, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Zhou Y, Jing M, Levy A, Wang H, Jiang S, Dou D. Molecular mechanism of nanochitin whisker elicits plant resistance against Phytophthora and the receptors in plants. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 165:2660-2667. [PMID: 33096175 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.10.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2020] [Revised: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Rod-like nanochitin (NC) whisker with cationic nature has a strong synergistic effect with fungicides on inhibition of tobacco root rot disease. This study we explored the activity of NC against Phytophthora and the mechanism for eliciting plant defense response and the receptors in planta. P. capsici isolates, model Nicotiana benthamiana plants and Arabidopsis thaliana were treated with 0.005% of NC suspension and 1 μM of flg22. Infection control efficacy against P. capsici isolates, biosynthetic enzyme activities and the PR genes expression were determined at different hours post treatment in plant. The infection control efficacy, ROS generation, and PTI maker gene expression were re-analyzed in A. thaliana Col-0, bak1 and cerk1 mutants. The results showed that NC did not exhibit inhibitory effect on vegetative growth of P. capsici, but enhanced the resistance against P. capsici by systemically enhanced phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activity and PR gene expression. P. capsici resistance, PTI maker gene promotion, and ROS production in A. thaliana induced by NC depended not only on chitin receptor CERK1, but also BAK1. NC and flg22 induced oomycete immunity through a mechanism of a cross-microbe protection via the BAK1-CERK1 pathway in plant, pointing to the complexity of the plant immunity system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhou
- Department of Plant Pathology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China; College of Plant Protection, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450002, China
| | - Maofeng Jing
- Department of Plant Pathology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China
| | - Amit Levy
- Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred, FL 33850, USA
| | - Hezhong Wang
- College of Plant Protection, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450002, China; NanoAgro Center, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450002, China.
| | - Shijun Jiang
- College of Plant Protection, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450002, China; NanoAgro Center, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450002, China
| | - Daolong Dou
- Department of Plant Pathology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China.
| |
Collapse
|