Microtubule Motility on Reconstituted Meiotic Chromatin

Motor guidance by long-range communication on the microtubule highway

Coupling of motor proteins within arrays drives muscle contraction, flagellar beating, chromosome segregation, and other biological processes. Current models of motor coupling invoke either direct mechanical linkage or protein crowding, which rely on short-range motor-motor interactions. In contrast, coupling mechanisms that act at longer length scales remain largely unexplored. Here we report that microtubules can physically couple motor movement in the absence of detectable short-range interactions. The human kinesin-4 Kif4A changes the run length and velocity of other motors on the same microtubule in the dilute binding limit, when approximately 10-nm-sized motors are much farther apart than the motor size. This effect does not depend on specific motor-motor interactions because similar changes in Kif4A motility are induced by kinesin-1 motors. A micrometer-scale attractive interaction potential between motors is sufficient to recreate the experimental results in a biophysical model. Unexpectedly, our theory suggests that long-range microtubule-mediated coupling affects not only binding kinetics but also motor mechanochemistry. Therefore, the model predicts that motors can sense and respond to motors bound several micrometers away on a microtubule. Our results are consistent with a paradigm in which long-range motor interactions along the microtubule enable additional forms of collective motor behavior, possibly due to changes in the microtubule lattice.

Pathogenic mutations in the chromokinesin KIF22 disrupt anaphase chromosome segregation

The chromokinesin KIF22 generates forces that contribute to mitotic chromosome congression and alignment. Mutations in the α2 helix of the motor domain of KIF22 have been identified in patients with abnormal skeletal development, and we report the identification of a patient with a novel mutation in the KIF22 tail. We demonstrate that pathogenic mutations do not result in a loss of KIF22's functions in early mitosis. Instead, mutations disrupt chromosome segregation in anaphase, resulting in reduced proliferation, abnormal daughter cell nuclear morphology, and, in a subset of cells, cytokinesis failure. This phenotype could be explained by a failure of KIF22 to inactivate in anaphase. Consistent with this model, constitutive activation of the motor via a known site of phosphoregulation in the tail phenocopied the effects of pathogenic mutations. These results suggest that the motor domain α2 helix may be an important site for regulation of KIF22 activity at the metaphase to anaphase transition. In support of this conclusion, mimicking phosphorylation of α2 helix residue T158 also prevents inactivation of KIF22 in anaphase. These findings demonstrate the importance of both the head and tail of the motor in regulating the activity of KIF22 and offer insight into the cellular consequences of preventing KIF22 inactivation and disrupting force balance in anaphase.

Cytoskeletal form and function in mammalian oocytes and zygotes

The actin and microtubule cytoskeletons of mammalian oocytes and zygotes exist in distinct forms at various subcellular locations. This enables each cytoskeletal system to perform vastly different functions in time and space within the same cell. In recent years, key discovery enabling tools including light-sensitive microscopy assays have helped to illuminate cytoskeletal form and function in female reproductive cell biology. New findings include unexpected participation of F-actin in oocyte chromosome segregation, oocyte specific modes of spindle self-organization as well as existence of nuclear actin polymers whose functions are only starting to emerge. Functional actin-microtubule interactions have also been identified as an important feature that supports mammalian embryo development. Other advances have revealed reproductive age-related changes in chromosome structure and dynamics that predispose mammalian eggs to aneuploidy.

Modeling spatiotemporally varying protein-protein interactions in CyLaKS, the Cytoskeleton Lattice-based Kinetic Simulator

Interaction of cytoskeletal filaments, motor proteins, and crosslinking proteins drives important cellular processes such as cell division and cell movement. Cytoskeletal networks also exhibit nonequilibrium self-assembly in reconstituted systems. An emerging problem in cytoskeletal modeling and simulation is spatiotemporal alteration of the dynamics of filaments, motors, and associated proteins. This can occur due to motor crowding, obstacles along the filament, motor interactions and direction switching, and changes, defects, or heterogeneity in the filament binding lattice. How such spatiotemporally varying cytoskeletal filaments and motor interactions affect their collective properties is not fully understood. We developed the Cytoskeleton Lattice-based Kinetic Simulator (CyLaKS) to investigate such problems. The simulation model builds on previous work by incorporating motor mechanochemistry into a simulation with many interacting motors and/or associated proteins on a discretized lattice. CyLaKS also includes detailed balance in binding kinetics, movement, and lattice heterogeneity. The simulation framework is flexible and extensible for future modeling work and is available on GitHub for others to freely use or build upon. Here we illustrate the use of CyLaKS to study long-range motor interactions, microtubule lattice heterogeneity, motion of a heterodimeric motor, and how changing crosslinker number affects filament separation.

Optogenetic control of PRC1 reveals its role in chromosome alignment on the spindle by overlap length-dependent forces

During metaphase, chromosome position at the spindle equator is regulated by the forces exerted by kinetochore microtubules and polar ejection forces. However, the role of forces arising from mechanical coupling of sister kinetochore fibers with bridging fibers in chromosome alignment is unknown. Here, we develop an optogenetic approach for acute removal of PRC1 to partially disassemble bridging fibers and show that they promote chromosome alignment. Tracking of the plus-end protein EB3 revealed longer antiparallel overlaps of bridging microtubules upon PRC1 removal, which was accompanied by misaligned and lagging kinetochores. Kif4A/kinesin-4 and Kif18A/kinesin-8 were found within the bridging fiber and largely lost upon PRC1 removal, suggesting that these proteins regulate the overlap length of bridging microtubules. We propose that PRC1-mediated crosslinking of bridging microtubules and recruitment of kinesins to the bridging fiber promote chromosome alignment by overlap length-dependent forces transmitted to the associated kinetochore fibers.

Before cells divide to create copies of themselves, they need to duplicate their genetic material. To help split their DNA evenly, they build a machine called the mitotic spindle. The mitotic spindle is made of fine, tube-like structures called microtubules, which catch the chromosomes containing the genetic information and line them up at the center of the spindle.

Microtubules push and pull the chromosomes by elongating or shortening their tips. But it remains unclear how the microtubules know when the chromosomes have reached center point. One way to find out is to remove proteins that accumulate in the middle of the spindle during division, such as the protein PRC1, which helps to assemble a subset of microtubules called bridging fibers, and the proteins Kif4A and Kif18A, which work like molecular rulers, shortening long microtubules. Usually, scientists would delete one of these proteins to see what impact this has. However, these experiments take days, giving the cell enough time to adapt and thus making it difficult to study the role of each of the proteins.

Here, Jagrić, Risteski, Martinčić et al. used light to manipulate proteins at the exact moment of chromosome alignment and to move PRC1 from the spindle to the cell membrane. Consequently, Kif4A and Kif18A were removed from the spindle center. This caused the bridging fibers, which overlap with the microtubules that connect to the chromosomes, to become thinner. Jagrić et al. discovered that without the molecular ruler proteins, the bridging fibers were also too long. This increased the overlap between the microtubules in the center of the spindle, causing the chromosomes to migrate away from the center. This suggests that the alignment of chromosomes in the middle of the spindle depends on the bridging microtubules, which need to be of a certain length to effectively move and keep the chromosomes at the center. Thus, forces that move the chromosomes are generated both at the tips of the microtubules and along the wall of microtubules.

These results might inspire other researchers to reassess the role of bridging fibers in cell division. The optogenetic technique described here could also help to determine the parts other proteins have to play. Ultimately, this might allow researchers to identify all the proteins needed to align the chromosomes.

Mechanisms of chromosome biorientation and bipolar spindle assembly analyzed by computational modeling

The essential functions required for mitotic spindle assembly and chromosome biorientation and segregation are not fully understood, despite extensive study. To illuminate the combinations of ingredients most important to align and segregate chromosomes and simultaneously assemble a bipolar spindle, we developed a computational model of fission-yeast mitosis. Robust chromosome biorientation requires progressive restriction of attachment geometry, destabilization of misaligned attachments, and attachment force dependence. Large spindle length fluctuations can occur when the kinetochore-microtubule attachment lifetime is long. The primary spindle force generators are kinesin-5 motors and crosslinkers in early mitosis, while interkinetochore stretch becomes important after biorientation. The same mechanisms that contribute to persistent biorientation lead to segregation of chromosomes to the poles after anaphase onset. This model therefore provides a framework to interrogate key requirements for robust chromosome biorientation, spindle length regulation, and force generation in the spindle.

Before a cell divides, it must make a copy of its genetic material and then promptly split in two. This process, called mitosis, is coordinated by many different molecular machines. The DNA is copied, then the duplicated chromosomes line up at the middle of the cell. Next, an apparatus called the mitotic spindle latches onto the chromosomes before pulling them apart. The mitotic spindle is a bundle of long, thin filaments called microtubules. It attaches to chromosomes at the kinetochore, the point where two copied chromosomes are cinched together in their middle.

Proper cell division is vital for the healthy growth of all organisms, big and small, and yet some parts of the process remain poorly understood despite extensive study. Specifically, there is more to learn about how the mitotic spindle self-assembles, and how microtubules and kinetochores work together to correctly orient and segregate chromosomes into two sister cells. These nanoscale processes are happening a hundred times a minute, so computer simulations are a good way to test what we know.

Edelmaier et al. developed a computer model to simulate cell division in fission yeast, a species of yeast often used to study fundamental processes in the cell. The model simulates how the mitotic spindle assembles, how its microtubules attach to the kinetochore and the force required to pull two sister chromosomes apart. Building the simulation involved modelling interactions between the mitotic spindle and kinetochore, their movement and forces applied. To test its accuracy, model simulations were compared to recordings of the mitotic spindle – including its length, structure and position – imaged from dividing yeast cells.

Running the simulation, Edelmaier et al. found that several key effects are essential for the proper movement of chromosomes in mitosis. This includes holding chromosomes in the correct orientation as the mitotic spindle assembles and controlling the relative position of microtubules as they attach to the kinetochore. Misaligned attachments must also be readily deconstructed and corrected to prevent any errors. The simulations also showed that kinetochores must begin to exert more force (to separate the chromosomes) once the mitotic spindle is attached correctly.

Altogether, these findings improve the current understanding of how the mitotic spindle and its counterparts control cell division. Errors in chromosome segregation are associated with birth defects and cancer in humans, and this new simulation could potentially now be used to help make predictions about how to correct mistakes in the process.

Missense Pathogenic variants in KIF4A Affect Dental Morphogenesis Resulting in X-linked Taurodontism, Microdontia and Dens-Invaginatus

The etiology of dental anomalies is multifactorial; and genetic and environmental factors that affect the dental lamina have been implicated. We investigated two families of European ancestry in which males were affected by taurodontism, microdontia and dens invaginatus. In both families, males were related to each other via unaffected females. A linkage analysis was conducted in a New Zealand family, followed by exome sequencing and focused analysis of the X-chromosome. In a US family, exome sequencing of the X-chromosome was followed by Sanger sequencing to conduct segregation analyses. We identified two independent missense variants in KIF4A that segregate in affected males and female carriers. The variant in a New Zealand family (p.Asp371His) predicts the substitution of a residue in the motor domain of the protein while the one in a US family (p.Arg771Lys) predicts the substitution of a residue in the domain that interacts with Protein Regulator of Cytokinesis 1 (PRC1). We demonstrated that the gene is expressed in the developing tooth bud during development, and that the p.Arg771Lys variant influences cell migration in an in vitro assay. These data implicate missense variations in KIF4A in a pathogenic mechanism that causes taurodontism, microdontia and dens invaginatus phenotypes.

Cyclin Cyc2p is required for micronuclear bouquet formation in Tetrahymena thermophila

Meiotic bouquet formation (known as crescent formation in Tetrahymena thermophila) is indispensable for homologous pairing and recombination, but the regulatory mechanism of bouquet formation remains largely unknown. As a conjugation specific cyclin gene, CYC2 knockout mutants failed to form an elongated crescent structure and aborted meiosis progress in T. thermophila. γ-H2A.X staining revealed fewer micronuclear DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in cyc2Δ cells than in wild-type cells. Furthermore, cyc2Δ cells still failed to form a crescent structure even though DSBs were induced by exogenous agents, indicating that a lack of DSBs was not completely responsible for failure to enter the crescent stage. Tubulin staining showed that impaired perinuclear microtubule structure may contribute to the blockage in micronuclear elongation. At the same time, expression of microtubule-associated kinesin genes, KIN11 and KIN141, was significantly downregulated in cyc2Δ cells. Moreover, micronuclear specific accumulation of heterochromatin marker trimethylated H3K23 abnormally increased in the cyc2Δ mutants. Together, these results show that cyclin Cyc2p is required for micronuclear bouquet formation via controlling microtubule-directed nuclear elongation in Tetrahymena.

NOD is a plus end-directed motor that binds EB1 via a new microtubule tip localization sequence

The mechanism by which the Drosophila chromokinesin NOD promotes chromosome congression is unknown. Ye et al. demonstrate that NOD generates force by two mechanisms: plus end–directed motility and microtubule plus-tip tracking via interaction with EB1 through a newly identified motif.

Chromosome congression, the process of positioning chromosomes in the midspindle, promotes the stable transmission of the genome to daughter cells during cell division. Congression is typically facilitated by DNA-associated, microtubule (MT) plus end–directed motors called chromokinesins. The Drosophila melanogaster chromokinesin NOD contributes to congression, but the means by which it does so are unknown in large part because NOD has been classified as a nonmotile, orphan kinesin. It has been postulated that NOD promotes congression, not by conventional plus end–directed motility, but by harnessing polymerization forces by end-tracking on growing MT plus ends via a mechanism that is also uncertain. Here, for the first time, it is demonstrated that NOD possesses MT plus end–directed motility. Furthermore, NOD directly binds EB1 through unconventional EB1-interaction motifs that are similar to a newly characterized MT tip localization sequence. We propose NOD produces congression forces by MT plus end–directed motility and tip-tracking on polymerizing MT plus ends via association with EB1.

Two spatially distinct kinesin-14 proteins, Pkl1 and Klp2, generate collaborative inward forces against kinesin-5 Cut7 in S. pombe

Kinesin motors play central roles in bipolar spindle assembly. In many eukaryotes, spindle pole separation is driven by kinesin-5, which generates outward force. This outward force is balanced by antagonistic inward force elicited by kinesin-14 and/or dynein. In fission yeast, two kinesin-14 proteins, Pkl1 and Klp2, play an opposing role against the kinesin-5 motor protein Cut7. However, how the two kinesin-14 proteins coordinate individual activities remains elusive. Here, we show that although deletion of either pkl1 or klp2 rescues temperature-sensitive cut7 mutants, deletion of only pkl1 can bypass the lethality caused by cut7 deletion. Pkl1 is tethered to the spindle pole body, whereas Klp2 is localized along the spindle microtubule. Forced targeting of Klp2 to the spindle pole body, however, compensates for Pkl1 functions, indicating that cellular localizations, rather than individual motor specificities, differentiate between the two kinesin-14 proteins. Interestingly, human kinesin-14 (KIFC1 or HSET) can replace either Pkl1 or Klp2. Moreover, overproduction of HSET induces monopolar spindles, reminiscent of the phenotype of Cut7 inactivation. Taken together, this study has uncovered the biological mechanism whereby two different Kinesin-14 motor proteins exert their antagonistic roles against kinesin-5 in a spatially distinct manner.

Activation of mammalian cytoplasmic dynein in multi-motor motility assays

Long-range intracellular transport is facilitated by motor proteins like kinesin-1 and cyto-plasmic dynein walking along microtubules (MTs). These motors often work in teams for the transport of various intracellular cargos. While transport by multiple kinesin-1 motors has been studied extensively in the past, collective effects of cytoplasmic dynein are less well understood. On the level of single molecules, mammalian cytoplasmic dynein is not active in the absence of dynactin and adaptor proteins. However, when assembled into a team bound to the same cargo, processive motility has been observed. The underlying mechanism of this activation is not known. Here, we found that in MT gliding motility assays the gliding velocity increased with dynein surface density and MT length. Developing a mathematical model based on single-molecule parameters, we were able to simulate the observed behavior. Integral to our model is the usage of an activation term, which describes a mechanical activation of individual dynein motors when being stretched by the other motors. We hypothesize this activation to be similar to the activation of single dynein motors by dynactin and adaptor proteins.

A microtubule polymerase cooperates with the kinesin-6 motor and a microtubule cross-linker to promote bipolar spindle assembly in the absence of kinesin-5 and kinesin-14 in fission yeast

Kinesin-5 is required for bipolar spindle assembly; yet in the absence of kinesins-5 and -14, cells can form spindles. In fission yeast, three distinct pathways compensate for their loss. Microtubule polymerase, kinesin-6, and microtubule cross-linker execute individual roles in concert at different mitotic stages in place of the two kinesins.

Accurate chromosome segregation relies on the bipolar mitotic spindle. In many eukaryotes, spindle formation is driven by the plus-end–directed motor kinesin-5 that generates outward force to establish spindle bipolarity. Its inhibition leads to the emergence of monopolar spindles with mitotic arrest. Intriguingly, simultaneous inactivation of the minus-end–directed motor kinesin-14 restores spindle bipolarity in many systems. Here we show that in fission yeast, three independent pathways contribute to spindle bipolarity in the absence of kinesin-5/Cut7 and kinesin-14/Pkl1. One is kinesin-6/Klp9 that engages with spindle elongation once short bipolar spindles assemble. Klp9 also ensures the medial positioning of anaphase spindles to prevent unequal chromosome segregation. Another is the Alp7/TACC-Alp14/TOG microtubule polymerase complex. Temperature-sensitive alp7cut7pkl1 mutants are arrested with either monopolar or very short spindles. Forced targeting of Alp14 to the spindle pole body is sufficient to render alp7cut7pkl1 triply deleted cells viable and promote spindle assembly, indicating that Alp14-mediated microtubule polymerization from the nuclear face of the spindle pole body could generate outward force in place of Cut7 during early mitosis. The third pathway involves the Ase1/PRC1 microtubule cross-linker that stabilizes antiparallel microtubules. Our study, therefore, unveils multifaceted interplay among kinesin-dependent and -independent pathways leading to mitotic bipolar spindle assembly.

Motor Protein Accumulation on Antiparallel Microtubule Overlaps

Biopolymers serve as one-dimensional tracks on which motor proteins move to perform their biological roles. Motor protein phenomena have inspired theoretical models of one-dimensional transport, crowding, and jamming. Experiments studying the motion of Xklp1 motors on reconstituted antiparallel microtubule overlaps demonstrated that motors recruited to the overlap walk toward the plus end of individual microtubules and frequently switch between filaments. We study a model of this system that couples the totally asymmetric simple exclusion process for motor motion with switches between antiparallel filaments and binding kinetics. We determine steady-state motor density profiles for fixed-length overlaps using exact and approximate solutions of the continuum differential equations and compare to kinetic Monte Carlo simulations. Overlap motor density profiles and motor trajectories resemble experimental measurements. The phase diagram of the model is similar to the single-filament case for low switching rate, while for high switching rate we find a new (to our knowledge) low density-high density-low density-high density phase. The overlap center region, far from the overlap ends, has a constant motor density as one would naïvely expect. However, rather than following a simple binding equilibrium, the center motor density depends on total overlap length, motor speed, and motor switching rate. The size of the crowded boundary layer near the overlap ends is also dependent on the overlap length and switching rate in addition to the motor speed and bulk concentration. The antiparallel microtubule overlap geometry may offer a previously unrecognized mechanism for biological regulation of protein concentration and consequent activity.

Kinesin-5-independent mitotic spindle assembly requires the antiparallel microtubule crosslinker Ase1 in fission yeast

Bipolar spindle assembly requires a balance of forces where kinesin-5 produces outward pushing forces to antagonize the inward pulling forces from kinesin-14 or dynein. Accordingly, Kinesin-5 inactivation results in force imbalance leading to monopolar spindle and chromosome segregation failure. In fission yeast, force balance is restored when both kinesin-5 Cut7 and kinesin-14 Pkl1 are deleted, restoring spindle bipolarity. Here we show that the cut7Δpkl1Δ spindle is fully competent for chromosome segregation independently of motor activity, except for kinesin-6 Klp9, which is required for anaphase spindle elongation. We demonstrate that cut7Δpkl1Δ spindle bipolarity requires the microtubule antiparallel bundler PRC1/Ase1 to recruit CLASP/Cls1 to stabilize microtubules. Brownian dynamics-kinetic Monte Carlo simulations show that Ase1 and Cls1 activity are sufficient for initial bipolar spindle formation. We conclude that pushing forces generated by microtubule polymerization are sufficient to promote spindle pole separation and the assembly of bipolar spindle in the absence of molecular motors.

Bipolar spindle assembly requires a balance of kinesin 14 pulling and kinesin 5 pushing forces. Here, the authors show that in fission yeast, spindle formation can occur in the absence of kinesin 5 (Cut7) and 14 (Pkl1) but requires the microtubule-associated protein Ase1 for spindle bipolarity.

Mechanisms of Chromosome Congression during Mitosis

Chromosome congression during prometaphase culminates with the establishment of a metaphase plate, a hallmark of mitosis in metazoans. Classical views resulting from more than 100 years of research on this topic have attempted to explain chromosome congression based on the balance between opposing pulling and/or pushing forces that reach an equilibrium near the spindle equator. However, in mammalian cells, chromosome bi-orientation and force balance at kinetochores are not required for chromosome congression, whereas the mechanisms of chromosome congression are not necessarily involved in the maintenance of chromosome alignment after congression. Thus, chromosome congression and maintenance of alignment are determined by different principles. Moreover, it is now clear that not all chromosomes use the same mechanism for congressing to the spindle equator. Those chromosomes that are favorably positioned between both poles when the nuclear envelope breaks down use the so-called "direct congression" pathway in which chromosomes align after bi-orientation and the establishment of end-on kinetochore-microtubule attachments. This favors the balanced action of kinetochore pulling forces and polar ejection forces along chromosome arms that drive chromosome oscillatory movements during and after congression. The other pathway, which we call "peripheral congression", is independent of end-on kinetochore microtubule-attachments and relies on the dominant and coordinated action of the kinetochore motors Dynein and Centromere Protein E (CENP-E) that mediate the lateral transport of peripheral chromosomes along microtubules, first towards the poles and subsequently towards the equator. How the opposite polarities of kinetochore motors are regulated in space and time to drive congression of peripheral chromosomes only now starts to be understood. This appears to be regulated by position-dependent phosphorylation of both Dynein and CENP-E and by spindle microtubule diversity by means of tubulin post-translational modifications. This so-called "tubulin code" might work as a navigation system that selectively guides kinetochore motors with opposite polarities along specific spindle microtubule populations, ultimately leading to the congression of peripheral chromosomes. We propose an integrated model of chromosome congression in mammalian cells that depends essentially on the following parameters: (1) chromosome position relative to the spindle poles after nuclear envelope breakdown; (2) establishment of stable end-on kinetochore-microtubule attachments and bi-orientation; (3) coordination between kinetochore- and arm-associated motors; and (4) spatial signatures associated with post-translational modifications of specific spindle microtubule populations. The physiological consequences of abnormal chromosome congression, as well as the therapeutic potential of inhibiting chromosome congression are also discussed.

Kif4 Is Essential for Mouse Oocyte Meiosis

Progression through the meiotic cell cycle must be strictly regulated in oocytes to generate viable embryos and offspring. During mitosis, the kinesin motor protein Kif4 is indispensable for chromosome condensation and separation, midzone formation and cytokinesis. Additionally, the bioactivity of Kif4 is dependent on phosphorylation via Aurora Kinase B and Cdk1, which regulate Kif4 function throughout mitosis. Here, we examine the role of Kif4 in mammalian oocyte meiosis. Kif4 localized in the cytoplasm throughout meiosis I and II, but was also observed to have a dynamic subcellular distribution, associating with both microtubules and kinetochores at different stages of development. Co-localization and proximity ligation assays revealed that the kinetochore proteins, CENP-C and Ndc80, are potential Kif4 interacting proteins. Functional analysis of Kif4 in oocytes via antisense knock-down demonstrated that this protein was not essential for meiosis I completion. However, Kif4 depleted oocytes displayed enlarged polar bodies and abnormal metaphase II spindles, indicating an essential role for this protein for correct asymmetric cell division in meiosis I. Further investigation of the phosphoregulation of meiotic Kif4 revealed that Aurora Kinase and Cdk activity is critical for Kif4 kinetochore localization and interaction with Ndc80 and CENP-C. Finally, Kif4 protein but not gene expression was found to be upregulated with age, suggesting a role for this protein in the decline of oocyte quality with age.

Physical determinants of bipolar mitotic spindle assembly and stability in fission yeast

Mitotic spindles use an elegant bipolar architecture to segregate duplicated chromosomes with high fidelity. Bipolar spindles form from a monopolar initial condition; this is the most fundamental construction problem that the spindle must solve. Microtubules, motors, and cross-linkers are important for bipolarity, but the mechanisms necessary and sufficient for spindle assembly remain unknown. We describe a physical model that exhibits de novo bipolar spindle formation. We began with physical properties of fission-yeast spindle pole body size and microtubule number, kinesin-5 motors, kinesin-14 motors, and passive cross-linkers. Our model results agree quantitatively with our experiments in fission yeast, thereby establishing a minimal system with which to interrogate collective self-assembly. By varying the features of our model, we identify a set of functions essential for the generation and stability of spindle bipolarity. When kinesin-5 motors are present, their bidirectionality is essential, but spindles can form in the presence of passive cross-linkers alone. We also identify characteristic failed states of spindle assembly-the persistent monopole, X spindle, separated asters, and short spindle, which are avoided by the creation and maintenance of antiparallel microtubule overlaps. Our model can guide the identification of new, multifaceted strategies to induce mitotic catastrophes; these would constitute novel strategies for cancer chemotherapy.

Dynein prevents erroneous kinetochore-microtubule attachments in mitosis

Equal distribution of the genetic material during cell division relies on efficient congression of chromosomes to the metaphase plate. Prior to their alignment, the Dynein motor recruited to kinetochores transports a fraction of laterally-attached chromosomes along microtubules toward the spindle poles. By doing that, Dynein not only contributes to chromosome movements, but also prevents premature stabilization of end-on kinetochore-microtubule attachments. This is achieved by 2 parallel mechanisms: 1) Dynein-mediated poleward movement of chromosomes counteracts opposite polar-ejection forces (PEFs) on chromosome arms by the microtubule plus-end-directed motors chromokinesins. Otherwise, they could stabilize erroneous syntelic kinetochore-microtubule attachments and lead to the random ejection of chromosomes away from the spindle poles; and 2) By transporting chromosomes to the spindle poles, Dynein brings the former to the zone of highest Aurora A kinase activity, further destabilizing kinetochore-microtubule attachments. Thus, Dynein plays an important role in keeping chromosome segregation error-free by preventing premature stabilization of kinetochore-microtubule attachments near the spindle poles.

Collective dynamics of processive cytoskeletal motors

Major cellular processes are supported by various biomolecular motors that usually operate together as teams. We present an overview of the collective dynamics of processive cytokeletal motor proteins based on recent experimental and theoretical investigations. Experimental studies show that multiple motors function with different degrees of cooperativity, ranging from negative to positive. This effect depends on the mechanical properties of individual motors, the geometry of their connections, and the surrounding cellular environment. Theoretical models based on stochastic approaches underline the importance of intermolecular interactions, the properties of single motors, and couplings with cellular medium in predicting the collective dynamics. We discuss several features that specify the cooperativity in motor proteins. Based on this approach a general picture of collective dynamics of motor proteins is formulated, and the future directions and challenges are discussed.

Functional differentiation of cooperating kinesin-2 motors orchestrates cargo import and transport in C. elegans cilia

Intracellular transport depends on cooperation between distinct motor proteins. Two anterograde intraflagellar transport (IFT) motors, heterotrimeric kinesin-II and homodimeric OSM-3, cooperate to move cargo along Caenorhabditis elegans cilia. Here, using quantitative fluorescence microscopy, with single-molecule sensitivity, of IFT in living strains containing single-copy transgenes encoding fluorescent IFT proteins, we show that kinesin-II transports IFT trains through the ciliary base and transition zone to a 'handover zone' on the proximal axoneme. There, OSM-3 gradually replaces kinesin-II, yielding velocity profiles inconsistent with in vitro motility assays, and then drives transport to the ciliary tip. Dissociated kinesin-II motors undergo rapid turnaround and recycling to the ciliary base, whereas OSM-3 is recycled mainly to the handover zone. This reveals a functional differentiation in which the slower, less processive kinesin-II imports IFT trains into the cilium and OSM-3 drives their long-range transport, thereby optimizing cargo delivery.

Building an integrated model of chromosome congression

A universal feature of mitosis is that all chromosomes become aligned at the spindle equator--the halfway point between the two spindle poles--prior to anaphase onset. This migratory event is called congression, and is powered by centromere-bound protein machines called kinetochores. This Commentary aims to document recent advances concerning the two kinetochore-based force-generating mechanisms that drive mitotic chromosome congression in vertebrate cells: depolymerisation-coupled pulling (DCP) and lateral sliding. We aim to explore how kinetochores can 'read-out' their spatial position within the spindle, and adjust these force-generating mechanisms to ensure chromosomes reach, and then remain, at the equator. Finally, we will describe the 'life history' of a chromosome, and provide a working model for how individual mechanisms are integrated to ensure efficient and successful congression.

Multimotor transport in a system of active and inactive kinesin-1 motors

Long-range directional transport in cells is facilitated by microtubule-based motor proteins. One example is transport in a nerve cell, where small groups of motor proteins, such as kinesins and cytoplasmic dynein, work together to ensure the supply and clearance of cellular material along the axon. Defects in axonal transport have been linked to Alzheimer's and other neurodegenerative diseases. However, it is not known in detail how multimotor-based cargo transport is impaired if a fraction of the motors are defective. To mimic impaired multimotor transport in vitro, we performed gliding motility assays with varying fractions of active kinesin-1 motors and inactive kinesin-1 motor mutants. We found that impaired transport manifests in multiple motility regimes: 1), a fast-motility regime characterized by gliding at velocities close to the single-molecule velocity of the active motors; 2), a slow-motility regime characterized by gliding at close-to zero velocity or full stopping; and 3), a regime in which fast and slow motilities coexist. Notably, the transition from the fast to the slow regime occurred sharply at a threshold fraction of active motors. Based on single-motor parameters, we developed a stochastic model and a mean-field theoretical description that explain our experimental findings. Our results demonstrate that impaired multimotor transport mostly occurs in an either/or fashion: depending on the ratio of active to inactive motors, transport is either performed at close to full speed or is out of action.

Transport by populations of fast and slow kinesins uncovers novel family-dependent motor characteristics important for in vivo function

Intracellular cargo transport frequently involves multiple motor types, either having opposite directionality or having the same directionality but different speeds. Although significant progress has been made in characterizing kinesin motors at the single-molecule level, predicting their ensemble behavior is challenging and requires tight coupling between experiments and modeling to uncover the underlying motor behavior. To understand how diverse kinesins attached to the same cargo coordinate their movement, we carried out microtubule gliding assays using pairwise mixtures of motors from the kinesin-1, -2, -3, -5, and -7 families engineered to have identical run lengths and surface attachments. Uniform motor densities were used and microtubule gliding speeds were measured for varying proportions of fast and slow motors. A coarse-grained computational model of gliding assays was developed and found to recapitulate the experiments. Simulations incorporated published force-dependent velocities and run lengths, along with mechanical interactions between motors bound to the same microtubule. The simulations show that the force-dependence of detachment is the key parameter that determines gliding speed in multimotor assays, while motor compliance, surface density, and stall force all play minimal roles. Simulations also provide estimates for force-dependent dissociation rates, suggesting that kinesin-1 and the mitotic motors kinesin-5 and -7 maintain microtubule association against loads, whereas kinesin-2 and -3 readily detach. This work uncovers unexpected motor behavior in multimotor ensembles and clarifies functional differences between kinesins that carry out distinct mechanical tasks in cells.

Kinesin-4 Functions in Vesicular Transport on Cortical Microtubules and Regulates Cell Wall Mechanics during Cell Elongation in Plants

In plants, anisotropic cell expansion depends on cortical microtubules that serve as tracks along which macromolecules and vesicles are transported by the motor kinesins of unknown identities. We used cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) fibers that underwent robust elongation to discover kinesins that are involved in cell elongation and found Gh KINESIN-4A expressed abundantly. The motor was detected by immunofluorescence on vesicle-like structures that were associated with cortical microtubules. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the orthologous motor At KINESIN-4A/FRA1, previously implicated in cellulose deposition during secondary growth in fiber cells, was examined by live-cell imaging in cells expressing the fluorescently tagged functional protein. The motor decorated vesicle-like particles that exhibit a linear movement along cortical microtubules with an average velocity of 0.89 μm/min, which was significantly different from those linked to cellulose biosynthesis. We also discovered that At KINESIN-4A/FRA1 and the related At KINESIN-4C play redundant roles in cell wall mechanics, cell elongation, and the axial growth of various vegetative and reproductive organs, as the loss of At KINESIN-4C greatly enhanced the defects caused by a null mutation at the KINESIN-4A/FRA1 locus. The double mutant displayed a lack of cell wall softening at normal stages of rapid cell elongation. Furthermore, enhanced deposition of arabinose-containing carbohydrate was detected in the kinesin-4 mutants. Our findings established a connection between the Kinesin-4-based transport of cargoes containing non-cellulosic components along cortical microtubules and cell wall mechanics and cell elongation in flowering plants.

Length-dependent anisotropic scaling of spindle shape

Spindle length varies dramatically across species and during early development to segregate chromosomes optimally. Both intrinsic factors, such as regulatory molecules, and extrinsic factors, such as cytoplasmic volume, determine spindle length scaling. However, the properties that govern spindle shape and whether these features can be modulated remain unknown. Here, we analyzed quantitatively how the molecular players which regulate microtubule dynamics control the kinetics of spindle formation and shape. We find that, in absence of Clasp1 and Clasp2, spindle assembly is biphasic due to unopposed inward pulling forces from the kinetochore-fibers and that kinetochore-fibers also alter spindle geometry. We demonstrate that spindle shape scaling is independent of the nature of the molecules that regulate dynamic microtubule properties, but is dependent on the steady-state metaphase spindle length. The shape of the spindle scales anisotropically with increasing length. Our results suggest that intrinsic mechanisms control the shape of the spindle to ensure the efficient capture and alignment of chromosomes independently of spindle length.

A method for multiprotein assembly in cells reveals independent action of kinesins in complex

A new system for generating cellular protein assemblies of defined spacing and composition reveals that kinesin motors located near each other function independently rather than cooperatively and are influenced primarily by the characteristics of the microtubule track on which they are moving.

Teams of processive molecular motors are critical for intracellular transport and organization, yet coordination between motors remains poorly understood. Here, we develop a system using protein components to generate assemblies of defined spacing and composition inside cells. This system is applicable to studying macromolecular complexes in the context of cell signaling, motility, and intracellular trafficking. We use the system to study the emergent behavior of kinesin motors in teams. We find that two kinesin motors in complex act independently (do not help or hinder each other) and can alternate their activities. For complexes containing a slow kinesin-1 and fast kinesin-3 motor, the slow motor dominates motility in vitro but the fast motor can dominate on certain subpopulations of microtubules in cells. Both motors showed dynamic interactions with the complex, suggesting that motor–cargo linkages are sensitive to forces applied by the motors. We conclude that kinesin motors in complex act independently in a manner regulated by the microtubule track.

Bicaudal d family adaptor proteins control the velocity of Dynein-based movements

Cargo transport along microtubules is driven by the collective function of microtubule plus- and minus-end-directed motors (kinesins and dyneins). How the velocity of cargo transport is driven by opposing teams of motors is still poorly understood. Here, we combined inducible recruitment of motors and adaptors to Rab6 secretory vesicles with detailed tracking of vesicle movements to investigate how changes in the transport machinery affect vesicle motility. We find that the velocities of kinesin-based vesicle movements are slower and more homogeneous than those of dynein-based movements. We also find that Bicaudal D (BICD) adaptor proteins can regulate dynein-based vesicle motility. BICD-related protein 1 (BICDR-1) accelerates minus-end-directed vesicle movements and affects Rab6 vesicle distribution. These changes are accompanied by reduced axonal outgrowth in neurons, supporting their physiological importance. Our study suggests that adaptor proteins can modulate the velocity of dynein-based motility and thereby control the distribution of transport carriers.

The molecular basis for kinesin functional specificity during mitosis

Microtubule-based motor proteins play key roles during mitosis to assemble the bipolar spindle, define the cell division axis, and align and segregate the chromosomes. The majority of mitotic motors are members of the kinesin superfamily. Despite sharing a conserved catalytic core, each kinesin has distinct functions and localization, and is uniquely regulated in time and space. These distinct behaviors and functional specificity are generated by variations in the enzymatic domain as well as the non-conserved regions outside of the kinesin motor domain and the stalk. These flanking regions can directly modulate the properties of the kinesin motor through dimerization or self-interactions, and can associate with extrinsic factors, such as microtubule or DNA binding proteins, to provide additional functional properties. This review discusses the recently identified molecular mechanisms that explain how the control and functional specification of mitotic kinesins is achieved. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Chromosome position at the spindle equator is regulated by chromokinesin and a bipolar microtubule array

The chromosome alignment is mediated by polar ejection and poleward forces acting on the chromosome arm and kinetochores, respectively. Although components of the motile machinery such as chromokinesin have been characterized, their dynamics within the spindle is poorly understood. Here we show that a quantum dot (Qdot) binding up to four Xenopus chromokinesin (Xkid) molecules behaved like a nanosize chromosome arm in the meiotic spindle, which is self-organized in cytoplasmic egg extracts. Xkid-Qdots travelled long distances along microtubules by changing several tracks, resulting in their accumulation toward and distribution around the metaphase plate. The analysis indicated that the direction of motion and velocity depend on the distribution of microtubule polarity within the spindle. Thus, this mechanism is governed by chromokinesin motors, which is dependent on symmetrical microtubule orientation that may allow chromosomes to maintain their position around the spindle equator until correct microtubule–kinetochore attachment is established.

Bifurcation of velocity distributions in cooperative transport of filaments by fast and slow motors

Several intracellular processes are governed by two different species of molecular motors, fast and slow ones, that both move in the same direction along the filaments but with different velocities. The transport of filaments arising from the cooperative action of these motors has been recently studied by three in vitro experiments, in which the filament velocity was measured for varying fraction of the fast motors adsorbed onto substrate surfaces in a gliding assay. As the fast motor fraction was increased, two experiments found a smooth change whereas the third one observed an abrupt increase of the filament velocity. Here, we show that all of these experimental results reflect the competition between fast and slow motors and can be understood in terms of an underlying saddle-node bifurcation. The comparison between theory and experiment leads to predictions for the detachment forces of the two motor species. Our theoretical study shows the existence of three different motility regimes: 1), fast transport with a single velocity; 2), slow transport with a single velocity; and 3), bistable transport, where the filament velocity stochastically switches between fast and slow transport. We determine the parameter regions for these regimes in terms of motility diagrams as a function of the surface fraction of fast motors and microscopic single-motor parameters. An abrupt increase of the filament velocity for an increasing fraction of fast motors is associated with the occurrence of bistable transport.

Kinesin-2: a family of heterotrimeric and homodimeric motors with diverse intracellular transport functions

Kinesin-2 was first purified as a heterotrimeric, anterograde, microtubule-based motor consisting of two distinct kinesin-related subunits and a novel associated protein (KAP) that is currently best known for its role in intraflagellar transport and ciliogenesis. Subsequent work, however, has revealed diversity in the oligomeric state of different kinesin-2 motors owing to the combinatorial heterodimerization of its subunits and the coexistence of both heterotrimeric and homodimeric kinesin-2 motors in some cells. Although the functional significance of the homo- versus heteromeric organization of kinesin-2 motor subunits and the role of KAP remain uncertain, functional studies suggest that cooperation between different types of kinesin-2 motors or between kinesin-2 and a member of a different motor family can generate diverse patterns of anterograde intracellular transport. Moreover, despite being restricted to ciliated eukaryotes, kinesin-2 motors are now known to drive diverse transport events outside cilia. Here, I review the organization, assembly, phylogeny, biological functions, and motility mechanism of this diverse family of intracellular transport motors.

Elevated polar ejection forces stabilize kinetochore-microtubule attachments

Polar ejection forces, which push chromosomes away from spindle poles, modulate kinetochore–microtubule attachment stability.

Chromosome biorientation promotes congression and generates tension that stabilizes kinetochore–microtubule (kt-MT) interactions. Forces produced by molecular motors also contribute to chromosome alignment, but their impact on kt-MT attachment stability is unclear. A critical force that acts on chromosomes is the kinesin-10–dependent polar ejection force (PEF). PEFs are proposed to facilitate congression by pushing chromosomes away from spindle poles, although knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underpinning PEF generation is incomplete. Here, we describe a live-cell PEF assay in which tension was applied to chromosomes by manipulating levels of the chromokinesin NOD (no distributive disjunction; Drosophila melanogaster kinesin-10). NOD stabilized syntelic kt-MT attachments in a dose- and motor-dependent manner by overwhelming the ability of Aurora B to mediate error correction. NOD-coated chromatin stretched away from the pole via lateral and end-on interactions with microtubules, and NOD chimeras with either plus end–directed motility or tip-tracking activity produced PEFs. Thus, kt-MT attachment stability is modulated by PEFs, which can be generated by distinct force-producing interactions between chromosomes and dynamic spindle microtubules.

Human chromokinesins promote chromosome congression and spindle microtubule dynamics during mitosis

Human chromokinesins hKID and KIF4A contribute to proper attachment of chromosomes by controlling the positioning of the chromosome arms and microtubule dynamics, respectively.

Chromokinesins are microtubule plus end–directed motor proteins that bind to chromosome arms. In Xenopus egg cell-free extracts, Xkid and Xklp1 are essential for bipolar spindle formation but the functions of the human homologues, hKID (KIF22) and KIF4A, are poorly understood. By using RNAi-mediated protein knockdown in human cells, we find that only co-depletion delayed progression through mitosis in a Mad2-dependent manner. Depletion of hKID caused abnormal chromosome arm orientation, delayed chromosome congression, and sensitized cells to nocodazole. Knockdown of KIF4A increased the number and length of microtubules, altered kinetochore oscillations, and decreased kinetochore microtubule flux. These changes were associated with failures in establishing a tight metaphase plate and an increase in anaphase lagging chromosomes. Co-depletion of both chromokinesins aggravated chromosome attachment failures, which led to mitotic arrest. Thus, hKID and KIF4A contribute independently to the rapid and correct attachment of chromosomes by controlling the positioning of chromosome arms and the dynamics of microtubules, respectively.

Kif18A and chromokinesins confine centromere movements via microtubule growth suppression and spatial control of kinetochore tension

Alignment of chromosomes at the metaphase plate is a signature of cell division in metazoan cells, yet the mechanisms controlling this process remain ambiguous. Here we use a combination of quantitative live-cell imaging and reconstituted dynamic microtubule assays to investigate the molecular control of mitotic centromere movements. We establish that Kif18A (kinesin-8) attenuates centromere movement by directly promoting microtubule pausing in a concentration-dependent manner. This activity provides the dominant mechanism for restricting centromere movement to the spindle midzone. Furthermore, polar ejection forces spatially confine chromosomes via position-dependent regulation of kinetochore tension and centromere switch rates. We demonstrate that polar ejection forces are antagonistically modulated by chromokinesins. These pushing forces depend on Kid (kinesin-10) activity and are antagonized by Kif4A (kinesin-4), which functions to directly suppress microtubule growth. These data support a model in which Kif18A and polar ejection forces synergistically promote centromere alignment via spatial control of kinetochore-microtubule dynamics.

Mitotic spindle assembly around RCC1-coated beads in Xenopus egg extracts

Beads coated with the guanine nucleotide exchange factor RCC1 and a kinesin motor protein are sufficient to induce mitotic spindle assembly in Xenopus egg cytoplasm.

During cell division the genetic material on chromosomes is distributed to daughter cells by a dynamic microtubule structure called the mitotic spindle. Here we establish a reconstitution system to assess the contribution of individual chromosome proteins to mitotic spindle formation around single 10 µm diameter porous glass beads in Xenopus egg extracts. We find that Regulator of Chromosome Condensation 1 (RCC1), the Guanine Nucleotide Exchange Factor (GEF) for the small GTPase Ran, can induce bipolar spindle formation. Remarkably, RCC1 beads oscillate within spindles from pole to pole, a behavior that could be converted to a more typical, stable association by the addition of a kinesin together with RCC1. These results identify two activities sufficient to mimic chromatin-mediated spindle assembly, and establish a foundation for future experiments to reconstitute spindle assembly entirely from purified components.

The mitotic spindle is a bipolar structure that is responsible for separating the two sets of duplicated chromosomes in a dividing cell, thereby delivering one set to each of the two daughter cells. It is built from dynamic filaments called microtubules, as well as hundreds of other components that contribute to the organization and dynamics of the microtubules and to chromosome movement. To understand which proteins are essential for spindle formation and function, we would like to be able to build it from purified components. As a step towards this goal, we coupled individual proteins to inert glass beads (as a substitute for chromosomes), to determine what combination of proteins can induce spindle assembly in a complex cytoplasm derived from frog eggs. We found that a single enzyme called RCC1 is sufficient to activate a pathway that stabilizes and organizes microtubules into a bipolar structure around the bead, but that this bead then oscillated back and forth between the poles of the spindle. By coupling a microtubule-based motor protein together with RCC1 on the bead, we were able to balance the bead in the center of the spindle. Thus, two proteins immobilized on a bead can substitute for a chromosome and induce stable spindle formation.

Chromokinesins: localization-dependent functions and regulation during cell division

The bipolar spindle is a highly dynamic structure that assembles transiently around the chromosomes and provides the mechanical support and the forces required for chromosome segregation. Spindle assembly and chromosome movements rely on the regulation of microtubule dynamics and a fine balance of forces exerted by various molecular motors. Chromosomes are themselves central players in spindle assembly. They generate a RanGTP gradient that triggers microtubule nucleation and stabilization locally and they interact dynamically with the microtubules through motors targeted to the chromatin. We have previously identified and characterized two of these so-called chromokinesins: Xkid (kinesin 10) and Xklp1 (kinesin 4). More recently, we found that Hklp2/kif15 (kinesin 12) is targeted to the chromosomes through an interaction with Ki-67 in human cells and is therefore a novel chromokinesin. Hklp2 also associates with the microtubules specifically during mitosis, in a TPX2 (targeting protein for Xklp2)-dependent manner. We have shown that Hklp2 participates in spindle pole separation and in the maintenance of spindle bipolarity in metaphase. To better understand the function of Hklp2, we have performed a detailed domain analysis. Interestingly, from its positioning on the chromosome arms, Hklp2 seems to restrict spindle pole separation. In the present review, we summarize the current knowledge of the function and regulation of the different kinesins associated with chromosome arms during cell division, including Hklp2 as a novel member of this so-called chromokinesin family.

In vitro nuclear egress of herpes simplex virus type 1 capsids

During their life cycles, viruses typically undergo many transport events throughout the cell. These events depend on a variety of both viral and host proteins and are often not fully understood. Such studies are often complicated by asynchronous infections and the concurrent presence of various viral intermediates in the cells, making it difficult to molecularly define each step. In the case of the herpes simplex virus type 1, the etiological agent of cold sores and many other illnesses, the viral particles undergo an intricate series of transport steps during its life cycle. Upon entry by fusion with a cellular membrane, they travel to the host cell nucleus where the virus replicates and assembles new viral particles. These particles then travel across the two nuclear envelopes and transit through the trans-Golgi network before finally being transported to and released at the cell surface. Though viral components and some host proteins modulating these numerous transport events have been identified, the details of these processes remain to be elucidated. To specifically address how the virus escapes the nucleus, we set up an in vitro model that reproduces the unconventional route used by herpes simplex type 1 virus to leave nuclei. This has not only allowed us to clarify the route of capsid egress of the virus but is now useful to define it at the molecular level.

Mechanisms of centrosome separation and bipolar spindle assembly

Accurate segregation of chromosomes during cell division is accomplished through the assembly of a bipolar microtubule-based structure called the mitotic spindle. Work over the past two decades has identified a core regulator of spindle bipolarity, the microtubule motor protein kinesin-5. However, an increasing body of evidence has emerged demonstrating that kinesin-5-independent mechanisms driving bipolar spindle assembly exist as well. Here, we discuss different pathways that promote initial centrosome separation and bipolar spindle assembly.

A minimal midzone protein module controls formation and length of antiparallel microtubule overlaps

During cell division, microtubules are arranged in a large bipolar structure, the mitotic spindle, to segregate the duplicated chromosomes. Antiparallel microtubule overlaps in the spindle center are essential for establishing bipolarity and maintaining spindle stability throughout mitosis. In anaphase, this antiparallel microtubule array is tightly bundled forming the midzone, which serves as a hub for the recruitment of proteins essential for late mitotic events. The molecular mechanism of midzone formation and the control of its size are not understood. Using an in vitro reconstitution approach, we show here that PRC1 autonomously bundles antiparallel microtubules and recruits Xklp1, a kinesin-4, selectively to overlapping antiparallel microtubules. The processive motor Xklp1 controls overlap size by overlap length-dependent microtubule growth inhibition. Our results mechanistically explain how the two conserved, essential midzone proteins PRC1 and Xklp1 cooperate to constitute a minimal protein module capable of dynamically organizing the core structure of the central anaphase spindle.

Motor proteins: kinesins influence each other through load

What happens when two types of kinesin transport the same cargo? Each motor experiences a load coming from the others. These loads are sufficient to explain the emergent properties of the cargo's motion.