The Dual Nature of Early-Life Experience on Somatosensory Processing in the Human Infant Brain

The impact of premature birth on auditory-visual processes in very preterm schoolchildren

Interactions between stimuli from different sensory modalities and their integration are central to daily life, contributing to improved perception. Being born prematurely and the subsequent hospitalization can have an impact not only on sensory processes, but also on the manner in which information from different senses is combined-i.e., multisensory processes. Very preterm (VPT) children (<32 weeks gestational age) present impaired multisensory processes in early childhood persisting at least through the age of five. However, it remains largely unknown whether and how these consequences persist into later childhood. Here, we evaluated the integrity of auditory-visual multisensory processes in VPT schoolchildren. VPT children (N = 28; aged 8-10 years) received a standardized cognitive assessment and performed a simple detection task at their routine follow-up appointment. The simple detection task involved pressing a button as quickly as possible upon presentation of an auditory, visual, or simultaneous audio-visual stimulus. Compared to full-term (FT) children (N = 23; aged 6-11 years), reaction times of VPT children were generally slower and more variable, regardless of sensory modality. Nonetheless, both groups exhibited multisensory facilitation on mean reaction times and inter-quartile ranges. There was no evidence that standardized cognitive or clinical measures correlated with multisensory gains of VPT children. However, while gains in FT children exceeded predictions based on probability summation and thus forcibly invoked integrative processes, this was not the case for VPT children. Our findings provide evidence of atypical multisensory profiles in VPT children persisting into school-age. These results could help in targeting supportive interventions for this vulnerable population.

Longstanding Auditory Sensory and Semantic Differences in Preterm Born Children

More than 10% of births are preterm, and the long-term consequences on sensory and semantic processing of non-linguistic information remain poorly understood. 17 very preterm-born children (born at < 33 weeks gestational age) and 15 full-term controls were tested at 10 years old with an auditory object recognition task, while 64-channel auditory evoked potentials (AEPs) were recorded. Sounds consisted of living (animal and human vocalizations) and manmade objects (e.g. household objects, instruments, and tools). Despite similar recognition behavior, AEPs strikingly differed between full-term and preterm children. Starting at 50ms post-stimulus onset, AEPs from preterm children differed topographically from their full-term counterparts. Over the 108-224ms post-stimulus period, full-term children showed stronger AEPs in response to living objects, whereas preterm born children showed the reverse pattern; i.e. stronger AEPs in response to manmade objects. Differential brain activity between semantic categories could reliably classify children according to their preterm status. Moreover, this opposing pattern of differential responses to semantic categories of sounds was also observed in source estimations within a network of occipital, temporal and frontal regions. This study highlights how early life experience in terms of preterm birth shapes sensory and object processing later on in life.

Assessing parental comprehension of online resources on childhood pain

We aimed to examine the patient education materials (PEMs) on the internet about "Child Pain" in terms of readability, reliability, quality and content. For our observational study, a search was made on February 28, 2024, using the keywords "Child Pain," "Pediatric Pain," and "Children Pain" in the Google search engine. The readability of PEMs was assessed using computer-based readability formulas (Flesch Reading Ease Score [FRES], Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level [FKGL], Automated readability index (ARI), Gunning Fog [GFOG], Coleman-Liau score [CL], Linsear Write [LW], Simple Measure of Gobbledygook [SMOG]). The reliability and quality of websites were determined using the Journal of American Medical Association (JAMA) score, Global Quality Score (GQS), and DISCERN score. 96 PEM websites included in our study. We determined that the FRES was 64 (32-84), the FKGL was 8.24 (4.01-15.19), ARI was 8.95 (4.67-17.38), GFOG was 11 (7.1-19.2), CL was 10.1 (6.95-15.64), LW was 8.08 (3.94-19.0) and SMOG was 8.1 (4.98-13.93). The scores of readability formulas showed that, the readability level of PEMs was statistically higher than sixth-grade level with all formulas (P = .011 for FRES, P < .001 for GFOG, P < .001 for ARI, P < .001 for FKGL, P < .001 for CL and P < .001 for SMOG), except LW formula (P = .112). The websites had moderate-to-low reliability and quality. Health-related websites had the highest quality with JAMA score. We found a weak negative correlation between Blexb score and JAMA score (P = .013). Compared to the sixth-grade level recommended by the American Medical Association and the National Institutes of Health, the readability grade level of child pain-related internet-based PEMs is quite high. On the other hand, the reliability and quality of PEMs were determined as moderate-to-low. The low readability and quality of PEMs could cause an anxious parent and unnecessary hospital admissions. PEMs on issues threatening public health should be prepared with attention to the recommendations on readability.

Humanity's evolved nest and its relation to cardiac vagal regulation in the first years of life

BACKGROUND

The Evolved Developmental Niche (EDN) is a millions-year-old developmental system that matches the maturational schedule of the offspring, optimizing health. Every animal has a developmental niche.

AIMS

Humanity has fallen away from providing its EDN. Does it matter?

STUDY DESIGN

Several components of humanity's EDN were reviewed (breastfeeding, positive touch, allomothers, responsive care, free play) in relation to cardiac vagal nerve regulation, a signal of healthy development. Focal subjects were young children.

OUTCOME MEASURES

A review of research on the selected EDN components in relation to vagal nerve function was performed. Data were available for all but the allomother component, which is typically not measured by western researchers, although allomothers provide EDN components alongside parents.

RESULTS

Apart from the lack of research on allomother effects, all these EDN components have been shown to influence cardiac vagal regulation in young children.

CONCLUSIONS

Converging evidence suggests that providing the EDN in early life may not only support aspects of a child's primal health system, but bolster capacities for social health and wellness, the cornerstone of a positive life trajectory.

Effect of music-based interventions on physiologic stability of hospitalized preterm infants. A pilot study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Hospitalized preterm infants experience reduced meaningful auditory exposures during a critical period of brain development. Music-based interventions (MBI) may be beneficial, though it remains unclear which stimuli optimally enhance infant stabilization. We investigated the relationship between three conceptually-different MBIs and short-term responses in hospitalized preterm infants.

STUDY DESIGN

This is a case-crossover pilot study including 21 preterm infants between 30 and 35 weeks postmenstrual age. Participants listened to three MBIs and 'no music'; each condition was provided three times in random order. We monitored physiologic and behavioral parameters around each exposure and analyzed results using linear mixed models.

RESULTS

Respiratory rates decreased after each MBI compared with 'no music' (p = 0.02). The most notable decrease occurred following exposure to a low, repetitive musical pattern resembling a lullaby (p = 0.01). We noted no significant changes for the remaining parameters.

CONCLUSION

Specific MBI characteristics may preferentially enhance physiologic stabilization in hospitalized preterm infants.

A follow up study on the effects of massage on preterm infants: A randomized controlled research

BACKGROUND

Preterm infants who leave the intrauterine environment early are deprived of tactile stimuli. This affects the physical, emotional and social developments of infants and their physical growth parameters such as weight, height and head circumference negatively.

AIM

This research was conducted to determine the effects of massage on the development of preterm infants.

MATERIAL-METHOD

This research was conducted as randomized controlled research with two groups (massage-control). The infants in the intervention group received massage for 30 days. Height, weight and head circumference values of the infants were recorded on days 5, 10, 20 and 30. Amount of feeding was recorded before intervention, on day 15 after intervention and on day 30 after intervention. Discharge times of the infants were recorded according to groups.

RESULTS

A significant difference was found in height and weight of the preterm infants on days 20 and 30 when compared with the control group. Discharge time of the infants in the massage group was found to be 10 days shorter on average when compared with the control group. Significant difference was also found between day 15 and 30 in terms of amount of feeding.

CONCLUSION

Massage was found to have significant effects on physical growth parameters such as height, weight and head circumference. It was found that massage increased amount of feeding and weight intake in infants and decreased discharge time. In this case, hospital cost per infant may be reduced.

Music Therapy in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit: A Center's Experience with Program Development, Implementation, and Preliminary Outcomes

BACKGROUND

The role of music in the NICU continues to evolve, with recent studies documenting the positive impact of music therapy for hospitalized infants and families. With many potential benefits and no substantial adverse effects reported to date in medically stable infants, we aimed to create a clinical guideline to integrate this therapy into the NICU operations.

METHODS

we launched and implemented a pilot music therapy clinical program within a subunit of a level-III NICU, building upon available evidence.

RESULTS

In this report, we describe our experience with initial program development and early outcomes in terms of population served, frequency of music therapy, and therapeutic modalities employed to implement service delivery.

CONCLUSION

we highlight the importance of establishing practices that are aligned with currently available data and recommendations, in order to facilitate delivery of a safe, evidence-based, meaningful therapeutic experience with monitoring of preliminary effects of the therapy on all those involved in the experience.

Combined Effect of Maternal Separation and Early-Life Immune Activation on Brain and Behaviour of Rat Offspring

Adversity during early life, a critical period for brain development, increases vulnerability and can have a lasting impact on the brain and behaviour of a child. However, the long-term effects of cumulative early-life stressors on brain and behaviour are not well known. We studied a 2-hit rat model of early-life adversity using maternal separation (MS) and immune activation (lipopolysaccharide (LPS)). Rat pups underwent MS for 15 (control) or 180 (MS) minutes per day from postnatal day (P)2-14 and were administered saline or LPS (intraperitoneal) on P3. Open-field (OFT) and object-place recognition tests were performed on rat offspring at P33-35 and P42-50, respectively. The pre-frontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus were removed at the experimental endpoint (P52-55) for mRNA expression. MS induced anxiety-like behaviour in OFT in male and reduced locomotor activity in both male and female offspring. LPS induced a subtle decline in memory in the object-place recognition test in male offspring. MS increased glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in PFC and ionised calcium-binding adapter molecule-1 expression in male hippocampus. MS and LPS resulted in distinct behavioural phenotypes in a sex-specific manner. The combination of MS and LPS had a synergistic effect on the anxiety-like behaviour, locomotor activity, and GFAP mRNA expression outcomes.

Prenatal substance exposure and child health: Understanding the role of environmental factors, genetics, and brain development

Prenatal substance exposure (PSE) has been linked to adverse health outcomes, but its interactions with environmental and genetic factors remain unclear. Using data from the adolescent brain cognitive development cohort (n = 9,838; baseline age: 9.92 ± 0.62 years), we tested for the robust associations of PSE-caffeine/alcohol/tobacco/marijuana with children's health, cognition, and brain metrics after controlling for the environmental and genetic contexts. The environmental context involved birth, familial, and societal risk factors, while the genetic context included family histories and polygenic risk scores (PRSs) of mental disorders. In this sample, PSE-caffeine was observed in 59.8%, PSE-alcohol in 25.7%, PSE-tobacco in 13.2%, and PSE-marijuana in 5.6% of children. PSE-tobacco/marijuana was associated with higher environmental risks, PSE-alcohol was associated with lower familial risks, and all PSEs were associated with higher genetic risks. Controlling for these contexts reduced the number of significant health associations by 100, 91, 84, and 18% for PSE-tobacco/marijuana/caffeine/alcohol. Compared to the baseline, PSE-alcohol had the most health associations that were persistent over a 2-year period from preadolescence to adolescence, including associations with more sleep and mental health problems, improved cognitive functions, and larger brain volumes. These persistent associations with mental health problems and crystallized cognition were mediated by the surface areas of the frontal and the parietal cortices, respectively. Lower risk scores of the familial contexts attenuated associations between PSE-alcohol/marijuana and mental health problems. Higher PRS for substance use disorders enhanced late-onset associations of PSE-marijuana with externalizing problems. Results support the "health in context" concept, emphasizing modifiable factors mitigating adverse PSE effects.

A unit's experience with hybrid NICU design: description of care model and implications for patients, families, and professionals

As the first extra-uterine setting for hospitalized infants, the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) environment can make a lasting impact on their long-term neurodevelopment. This impact is likely mediated through both specific characteristics of the physical design of the care environment, as well as the experiences that occur within this environment. Recent studies document many established benefits of single-family rooms (SFRs). However, there is concern that infants who spend a prolonged time in SFRs without their parents being intimately involved in their care have reduced opportunities for meaningful experiences, with possible adverse consequences. The purpose of this report is to share an example of an application of the family-centered developmental care model through a hybrid NICU design, inclusive of both SFRs and semi-private bays. In this paper, we empirically describe the physical and operational considerations of a hybrid model, outline the strengths and challenges of this approach, and discuss implications for patients, families, and professionals.

To Trach or Not To Trach: Long-term Tracheostomy Outcomes in Infants with BPD

See Bonus NeoBriefs videos and downloadable teaching slides Infants born preterm who are diagnosed with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) demonstrate a wide spectrum of illness severity. For infants with the most severe forms of BPD, safe discharge from the hospital may only be possible by providing long-term ventilation via a surgically placed tracheostomy. Though tracheostomy placement in infants with BPD is infrequent, recent reports suggest that rates of tracheostomy placement are increasing in this population. Even though there are known respiratory and neurodevelopmental risks associated with tracheostomy placement, no evidence-based criteria or consensus clinical practice guidelines exist to inform tracheostomy placement in this growing and vulnerable population. An incomplete knowledge of long-term post-tracheostomy outcomes in infants with BPD may unduly bias medical decision-making and family counseling regarding tracheostomy placement. This review aims to summarize our current knowledge of the epidemiology and long-term outcomes of tracheostomy placement in infants with BPD to provide a family-centered framework for tracheostomy counseling.

Behavioral and neural measures of infant responsivity increase with maternal multisensory input in non-irritable infants

INTRODUCTION

Parents often use sensory stimulation during early-life interactions with infants. These interactions, including gazing, rocking, or singing, scaffold child development. Previous studies have examined infant neural processing during highly controlled sensory stimulus presentation paradigms.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we investigated infant behavioral and neural responsiveness during a mother-child social interaction during which the mother provided infant stimulation with a progressive increase in the number of sensory modalities.

METHODS

We prospectively collected and analyzed video-coded behavioral interactions and electroencephalogram (EEG) frontal asymmetry (FAS) from infants (n = 60) at 2-4 months born at ≥ 34 weeks gestation. As the number of sensory modalities progressively increased during the interaction, infant behaviors of emotional connection in facial expressiveness, sensitivity to mother, and vocal communication increased significantly. Conversely, infant FAS for the entire cohort did not change significantly. However, when we accounted for infant irritability, both video-coded behaviors and EEG FAS markers of infant responsiveness increased across the interaction in the non-irritable infants. The non-irritable infants (49%) demonstrated positive FAS, indicating readiness to engage with, rather than to withdraw from, multisensory but not unisensory interactions with their mothers.

RESULTS

These results suggest that multisensory input from mothers is associated with greater infant neural approach state and highlight the importance of infant behavioral state during neural measures of infant responsiveness.

Serial neuroimaging of brain growth and development in very preterm infants receiving tailored neuropromotive support in the NICU. Protocol for a prospective cohort study

Introduction

Children born very preterm (VP) remain at risk for long-term neurodevelopmental impairment. Patterns of brain growth and injury, and how early neuropromotive therapies might mitigate developmental risk in VP infants remain insufficiently understood.

Methods

This is a prospective cohort study of VP infants born at/before 32 weeks gestation. The study will enroll n = 75 consecutively-born VP infants in a level-III NICU. Exposed infants will be categorized into two groups (group 1: low-risk, n = 25 or group 2: high-risk, n = 25) based on the degree of neurological injury on early brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at enrollment. Infants in the low-risk group (i.e., without significant injury defined as intraventricular hemorrhage with dilation, moderate or severe white matter injury, or cerebellar hemorrhage) will receive neurodevelopmental support utilizing the Supporting and Enhancing NICU Sensory Experiences (SENSE) program, while infants in the high-risk group (with neurological injury) will receive more intensive neurorehabilitative support (SENSE-plus). Age-specific, tailored sensory experiences will be facilitated contingently, preferentially by the infant's family with coaching from NICU staff. VP infants in exposure groups will undergo a brain MRI approximately every 2 weeks from enrollment until term-equivalent to monitor brain growth and evolution of injury. Exposed infants will be compared with a reference group (group 3: n = 25), i.e. VP infants whose families decline initial enrollment in SENSE, and subsequently undergo a term-equivalent brain MRI for other purposes. The primary aim of this study is characterization of term-equivalent brain growth and development among VP infants receiving NICU-based neuropromotive interventions compared to VP infants receiving the standard of care. Secondary aims include defining the timing and factors associated with total and regional brain growth on serial brain MRI among VP infants, (Aim 2), and using early imaging to tailor developmental intervention in the NICU while exploring associations with outcomes in VP infants at discharge and at two years corrected age (Aim 3).

Discussion

This study will address gaps in understanding patterns of brain growth and injury drawing on serial MRI of hospitalized VP infants. These data will also explore the impact of intensive, tailored neuropromotive support delivered prior to term-equivalent on child and family outcomes.

Procedural pain assessment in neonates at risk of neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome: a scoping review protocol

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this review is to identify evidence on pain assessment during acute procedures in hospitalized neonates at risk of neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome (NOWS).

INTRODUCTION

While all neonates are routinely exposed to various painful procedures, neonates at risk of NOWS have longer hospital stays and are exposed to multiple painful procedures. NOWS occurs when a neonate is born to a birth parent who identifies as having sustained opioid use (such as morphine or methadone) during pregnancy. Accurate pain assessment and management during painful procedures is critical for minimizing the well-documented adverse effects of unmanaged pain in neonates. While pain indicators and composite pain scores are valid and reliable for healthy neonates, there is no review of evidence regarding procedural pain assessment in neonates at risk of NOWS.

INCLUSION CRITERIA

Eligible studies will include those reporting on hospitalized pre-term and full-term neonates at risk of NOWS having pain assessments (ie, behavioral indicators, physiological indicators, validated composite pain scores) during and/or after exposure to an acute painful procedure.

METHODS

This review will follow the JBI scoping review methodology. Databases to be searched will include MEDLINE (Ovid), CINAHL (EBSCO), Embase, PsyclNFO (EBSCO), and Scopus. The relevant data will be extracted by 2 reviewers using a modified JBI extraction tool. The results will be summarized in narrative and tabular format, including the components of participants, concept, and context (PCC).

REVIEW REGISTRATION

Open Science Framework https://osf.io/fka8s .

Respiratory management of established severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia

Respiratory management of infants with established severe BPD is difficult and there is little evidence upon which to base decisions. Nonetheless, the physiology of severe BPD is well described with a predominantly obstructive pattern. This pulmonary dysfunction results in prolonged exhalatory time constants and thus ventilator management must be focused on maintaining adequate oxygenation and ventilation through achieving full exhalation. This approach is often difficult to maintain in acute care settings and a culture of chronic care focused on slow change and steady progress is imperative. Once respiratory stability is achieved, the focus should shift to growth and development and avoidance of care practices and medications that impair neurodevelopment.

Novel metrics to characterize temporal lobe of very preterm infants on term-equivalent brain MRI

BACKGROUND

Preterm birth adversely impacts brain development and contributes to neurodevelopmental impairment; the temporal lobe may be particularly vulnerable to the impact of very preterm (VP) birth. Yet, no prior magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scoring system incorporated a method to quantify temporal lobe size in VP infants.

METHODS

We developed and applied three metrics (temporal lobe length, extra-axial space, and temporal horn width) to quantify temporal lobe structure on term-equivalent brain MRIs obtained from 74 VP and 16 term infants. We compared metrics between VP and term infants and explored associations of each metric with perinatal risk factors.

RESULTS

All metrics had excellent reliability (intra-class correlation coefficient 0.62-0.98). VP infants had lower mean temporal lobe length (76.8 mm versus 79.2 mm, p = 0.02); however, the difference attenuated after correction for postmenstrual age. VP infants had larger temporal horn widths compared with term infants (2.6 mm versus 1.8 mm, p < 0.001). Temporal lobe length was positively associated with gestational age, birth weight, and male sex, and negatively associated with the duration of parenteral nutrition.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed metrics are reliable and sensitive in distinguishing differences in temporal lobe development between VP and full-term infants.

IMPACT

We developed a novel method for quantifying temporal lobe size among very preterm infants at term equivalent using simple metrics performed on brain MRI. Temporal lobe metrics were reliable, correlated with brain volume from volumetric analysis, and were sensitive in identifying differences in temporal lobe development among preterm compared with term infants, specifically larger temporal horn size in preterm infants. This temporal lobe metric system will enable future work to delineate the perinatal and postnatal factors that impact temporal lobe growth, and better understand the relationship between temporal lobe disturbance and neurodevelopment in very preterm infants.

The PiNe box: Development and validation of an electronic device to time-lock multimodal responses to sensory stimuli in hospitalised infants

Recording multimodal responses to sensory stimuli in infants provides an integrative approach to investigate the developing nervous system. Accurate time-locking across modalities is essential to ensure that responses are interpreted correctly, and could also improve clinical care, for example, by facilitating automatic and objective multimodal pain assessment. Here we develop and assess a system to time-lock stimuli (including clinically-required heel lances and experimental visual, auditory and tactile stimuli) to electrophysiological research recordings and data recorded directly from a hospitalised infant's vital signs monitor. The electronic device presented here (that we have called 'the PiNe box') integrates a previously developed system to time-lock stimuli to electrophysiological recordings and can simultaneously time-lock the stimuli to recordings from hospital vital signs monitors with an average precision of 105 ms (standard deviation: 19 ms), which is sufficient for the analysis of changes in vital signs. Our method permits reliable and precise synchronisation of data recordings from equipment with legacy ports such as TTL (transistor-transistor logic) and RS-232, and patient-connected networkable devices, is easy to implement, flexible and inexpensive. Unlike current all-in-one systems, it enables existing hospital equipment to be easily used and could be used for patients of any age. We demonstrate the utility of the system in infants using visual and noxious (clinically-required heel lance) stimuli as representative examples.

Narrative Review of the Complex Interaction between Pain and Trauma in Children: A Focus on Biological Memory, Preclinical Data, and Epigenetic Processes

The incidence and collective impact of early adverse experiences, trauma, and pain continue to increase. This underscores the urgent need for translational efforts between clinical and preclinical research to better understand the underlying mechanisms and develop effective therapeutic approaches. As our understanding of these issues improves from studies in children and adolescents, we can create more precise preclinical models and ultimately translate our findings back to clinical practice. A multidisciplinary approach is essential for addressing the complex and wide-ranging effects of these experiences on individuals and society. This narrative review aims to (1) define pain and trauma experiences in childhood and adolescents, (2) discuss the relationship between pain and trauma, (3) consider the role of biological memory, (4) decipher the relationship between pain and trauma using preclinical data, and (5) examine the role of the environment by introducing the importance of epigenetic processes. The ultimate scope is to better understand the wide-ranging effects of trauma, abuse, and chronic pain on children and adolescents, how they occur, and how to prevent or mitigate their effects and develop effective treatment strategies that address both the underlying causes and the associated physiological and psychological effects.

The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development

Prosociality, orientation to attuned, empathic relationships, is built from the ground up, through supportive care in early life that fosters healthy neurobiological structures that shape behavior. Numerous social and environmental factors within early life have been identified as critical variables influencing child physiological and psychological outcomes indicating a growing need to synthesize which factors are the most influential. To address this gap, we examined the influence of early life experiences according to the evolved developmental niche or evolved nest and its influence on child neurobiological and sociomoral outcomes, specifically, the oxytocinergic system and prosociality, respectively. To-date, this is the first review to utilize the evolved nest framework as an investigatory lens to probe connections between early life experience and child neurobiological and sociomoral outcomes. The evolved nest is comprised of characteristics over 30 million years old and is organized to meet a child's basic needs as they mature. Converging evidence indicates that humanity's evolved nest meets the needs of a rapidly developing brain, optimizing normal development. The evolved nest for young children includes soothing perinatal experiences, breastfeeding, positive touch, responsive care, multiple allomothers, self-directed play, social embeddedness, and nature immersion. We examined what is known about the effects of each evolved nest component on oxytocinergic functioning, a critical neurobiological building block for pro-sociomorality. We also examined the effects of the evolved nest on prosociality generally. We reviewed empirical studies from human and animal research, meta-analyses and theoretical articles. The review suggests that evolved nest components influence oxytocinergic functioning in parents and children and help form the foundations for prosociality. Future research and policy should consider the importance of the first years of life in programming the neuroendocrine system that undergirds wellbeing and prosociality. Complex, interaction effects among evolved nest components as well as among physiological and sociomoral processes need to be studied. The most sensible framework for examining what builds and enhances prosociality may be the millions-year-old evolved nest.

Neonatal Care Unit Interventions on Preterm Development

Prematurity is becoming a real public health issue as more and more children are being born prematurely, alongside a higher prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders. Early intervention programs in Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICUs) correspond to these uni- or multi-sensorial solicitations aiming to prevent and detect complications in order to support the development of preterm infants. This article aims to distinguish sensory intervention programs according to the gradient of the type of solicitations, uni- or multi-modal, and according to the function of the person who performs these interventions. Uni-sensorial interventions are essentially based on proprioceptive, gustatory, or odorant solicitations. They allow, in particular, a reduction of apneas that support the vegetative states of the preterm infant. On the other hand, the benefits of multi-sensory interventions seem to have a longer-term impact. Most of them allow the support of the transition from passive to active feeding, an increase in weight, and the improvement of sleep-wake cycles. These solicitations are often practiced by caregivers, but the intervention of parents appears optimal since they are the main co-regulators of their preterm child's needs. Thus, it is necessary to co-construct and train the parents in this neonatal care.

Parsing brain-behavior heterogeneity in very preterm born children using integrated similarity networks

Very preterm birth (VPT; ≤32 weeks' gestation) is associated with altered brain development and cognitive and behavioral difficulties across the lifespan. However, heterogeneity in outcomes among individuals born VPT makes it challenging to identify those most vulnerable to neurodevelopmental sequelae. Here, we aimed to stratify VPT children into distinct behavioral subgroups and explore between-subgroup differences in neonatal brain structure and function. 198 VPT children (98 females) previously enrolled in the Evaluation of Preterm Imaging Study (EudraCT 2009-011602-42) underwent Magnetic Resonance Imaging at term-equivalent age and neuropsychological assessments at 4-7 years. Using an integrative clustering approach, we combined neonatal socio-demographic, clinical factors and childhood socio-emotional and executive function outcomes, to identify distinct subgroups of children based on their similarity profiles in a multidimensional space. We characterized resultant subgroups using domain-specific outcomes (temperament, psychopathology, IQ and cognitively stimulating home environment) and explored between-subgroup differences in neonatal brain volumes (voxel-wise Tensor-Based-Morphometry), functional connectivity (voxel-wise degree centrality) and structural connectivity (Tract-Based-Spatial-Statistics). Results showed two- and three-cluster data-driven solutions. The two-cluster solution comprised a 'resilient' subgroup (lower psychopathology and higher IQ, executive function and socio-emotional scores) and an 'at-risk' subgroup (poorer behavioral and cognitive outcomes). No neuroimaging differences between the resilient and at-risk subgroups were found. The three-cluster solution showed an additional third 'intermediate' subgroup, displaying behavioral and cognitive outcomes intermediate between the resilient and at-risk subgroups. The resilient subgroup had the most cognitively stimulating home environment and the at-risk subgroup showed the highest neonatal clinical risk, while the intermediate subgroup showed the lowest clinical, but the highest socio-demographic risk. Compared to the intermediate subgroup, the resilient subgroup displayed larger neonatal insular and orbitofrontal volumes and stronger orbitofrontal functional connectivity, while the at-risk group showed widespread white matter microstructural alterations. These findings suggest that risk stratification following VPT birth is feasible and could be used translationally to guide personalized interventions aimed at promoting children's resilience.

Translation, validity, and reliability of the European Portuguese version of the Touch Experiences and Attitudes Questionnaire

Background

Positive touch experiences have proved to be extremely important throughout our lifespan, with cascading effects on our social life. However, few questionnaires are available to measure attitudes and experiences of touch in the Portuguese population. This study aimed to translate and validate the European Portuguese version of the Touch Experiences and Attitudes Questionnaire (TEAQ), as a reliable and valid instrument to measure different aspects of affective touch experiences and attitudes.

Methods

Therefore, an online sample of 384 (299 females and 85 males) participants, aged between 18 and 75 years (M = 24.59; SD = 9.56) was collected. Multidimensional Rasch model and confirmatory factor analysis were carried out, and also reliability and convergent and discriminant validity were determined. In addition, we examined sex differences in attitudes and experiences of touch.

Results

Results showed good fit indexes for the 52-item six-factor model structure (friends and family touch, current intimate touch, childhood touch, attitudes to self-care, attitudes to intimate touch, and attitudes to unfamiliar touch). This instrument also showed good reliability and acceptable convergent and discriminant validity. Significant sex differences were found, with female participants reporting more positive touch experiences (including childhood touch, friends and family touch, and current intimate touch) and a more favourable attitude to self-care, with males showing a more positive attitude towards unfamiliar touch. Regarding attitudes towards the intimate touch, scores for both groups were comparable.

Conclusion

Overall, the European Portuguese version of the TEAQ presented good psychometric properties and appears to be a reliable and valid self-report measure, being a useful and beneficial instrument in research and clinical settings.

Touch Experiences of Preterm Infants During Essential Nursing Care

Purpose: To characterize and quantify touch experienced by preterm infants in the NICU during essential nursing care, identify instances of skin-to-skin touch between infants and caregivers, and identify clinical/demographic variables associated with touch experiences. Design: Cross-sectional study. Sample: Preterm infants (N = 20) born 27-32 weeks post-menstrual age. Main Outcome Variable: Categories of touch during observations. Results: Touch experienced by infants during day and night shifts was primarily direct touch that was further categorized as general handling. During day shifts, 30 percent of direct touch was provided for comfort, but only 9.7 percent of touch was provided exclusively for comfort (i.e., without more intrusive touch). During night shifts, 10.6 percent of direct touch was provided for comfort, and 3 percent was categorized as exclusive comforting touch. Caregivers wore gloves for >89 percent of infant touch. Only the level of respiratory support was associated with touch categories during both shifts.

Effect of the Premature Infant Oral Motor Intervention on Sucking Capacity in Preterm Infants in Turkey: A Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Preterm infants have oral feeding difficulty that often delays discharge, indicating a need for evidence-based interventions for oral-motor development.

PURPOSE

To test the Premature Infant Oral Motor Intervention (PIOMI) on the development of oral-motor function, feeding, and anthropometric outcomes using sucking manometry.

METHODS

A single-blind randomized experimental design was conducted with a sample of 60 preterm infants from 2 neonatal intensive care units between May 2019 and March 2020. The experimental group received PIOMI for 5 min/d for 14 consecutive days. Sucking capacity, anthropometrics (weight and head circumference), bottle feeding, breast/chest feeding initiation, and length of hospital stay were measured. The Yakut Sucking Manometer (PCT/TR2019/050678) was developed specifically for this study and tested for the first time.

RESULTS

The experimental group had a statistically significant percent increase over controls in sucking power (69%), continuous sucking before releasing the bottle (16%), sucking time (13%), and sucking amount (12%) with partial η 2 values of interaction between the groups of 0.692, 0.164, 0.136, and 0.121, respectively. The experimental group had a higher increase in weight (89%) and head circumference (81%) over controls ( F = 485.130, P < .001; F = 254.754, P < .001, respectively). The experimental group transitioned to oral feeding 9.9 days earlier than controls ( t = -2.822; P = .007), started breast/chest feeding 10.8 days earlier ( t = 3.016; P = .004), and were discharged 3.0 days earlier.

IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH/PRACTICE

The PIOMI had a significant positive effect on anthropometrics, sucking capacity, readiness to initiate bottle and breast/chest feeding, and a 3-day reduction in length of hospital stay.

Early structural connectivity within the sensorimotor network: Deviations related to prematurity and association to neurodevelopmental outcome

Consisting of distributed and interconnected structures that interact through cortico-cortical connections and cortico-subcortical loops, the sensorimotor (SM) network undergoes rapid maturation during the perinatal period and is thus particularly vulnerable to preterm birth. However, the impact of prematurity on the development and integrity of the emerging SM connections and their relationship to later motor and global impairments are still poorly understood. In this study we aimed to explore to which extent the early microstructural maturation of SM white matter (WM) connections at term-equivalent age (TEA) is modulated by prematurity and related with neurodevelopmental outcome at 18 months corrected age. We analyzed 118 diffusion MRI datasets from the developing Human Connectome Project (dHCP) database: 59 preterm (PT) low-risk infants scanned near TEA and a control group of full-term (FT) neonates paired for age at MRI and sex. We delineated WM connections between the primary SM cortices (S1, M1 and paracentral region) and subcortical structures using probabilistic tractography, and evaluated their microstructure with diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging (NODDI) models. To go beyond tract-specific univariate analyses, we computed a maturational distance related to prematurity based on the multi-parametric Mahalanobis distance of each PT infant relative to the FT group. Our results confirmed the presence of microstructural differences in SM tracts between PT and FT infants, with effects increasing with lower gestational age at birth. Maturational distance analyses highlighted that prematurity has a differential effect on SM tracts with higher distances and thus impact on (i) cortico-cortical than cortico-subcortical connections; (ii) projections involving S1 than M1 and paracentral region; and (iii) the most rostral cortico-subcortical tracts, involving the lenticular nucleus. These different alterations at TEA suggested that vulnerability follows a specific pattern coherent with the established WM caudo-rostral progression of maturation. Finally, we highlighted some relationships between NODDI-derived maturational distances of specific tracts and fine motor and cognitive outcomes at 18 months. As a whole, our results expand understanding of the significant impact of premature birth and early alterations on the emerging SM network even in low-risk infants, with possible relationship with neurodevelopmental outcomes. This encourages further exploration of these potential neuroimaging markers for prediction of neurodevelopmental disorders, with special interest for subtle neuromotor impairments frequently observed in preterm-born children.

An integrative review of clinician-administered comforting touch interventions and acute stress responses of preterm infants

PROBLEM

Preterm infants experience numerous stressors in the neonatal intensive care unit. Non-pharmacological interventions, including maternal comforting touch, reduce stress responses of preterm infants; however, the effects of clinician-administered comforting touch are unclear. The purpose of this integrative review was to synthesize findings from clinical trials to determine the effect of clinician-administered comforting touch on preterm infants' acute stress responses.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Eligible clinical trials were published in English between 2001 and October 2021 and reported effects of clinician-administered comforting touch on acute stress responses in preterm infants.

SAMPLE

Thirty clinical trials were included.

RESULTS

Researchers tested the effect of comforting static touch, massage, massage with kinesthetic stimulation, sensorial saturation, and Yakson. There was significant heterogeneity in study design, comparison condition, and context of intervention delivery. Results varied; some studies demonstrated efficacy of comforting touch in reducing acute stress responses and others showed no effect. Generally, comforting touch provided during stressful procedures was associated with lower stress responses compared to standard care and was an effective adjunct to other stress management strategies. However, comforting touch alone was insufficient for managing pain, especially during skin-breaking procedures.

CONCLUSIONS

While comforting touch may be a useful part of stress management plans for preterm infants, additional research is needed to determine when comforting touch is appropriate and effective.

IMPLICATIONS

Comforting touch is beneficial to preterm infants and should be provided for stress management. For highly intrusive or painful procedures, comforting touch can be provided as part of a comprehensive stress management plan.

Can tactile reactivity in preterm born infants be explained by an immature cortical response to tactile stimulation in the first year? A pilot study

This study aimed to compare preterm (PT) and full-term (FT) infants' adaptive behavior and functional cortical response to tactile stimulus, as measured by Test of Sensory Functions in Infants and functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS). Outcome measures were taken at 6 (PT = 26/FT = 21 infants) and 12 months (PT = 15/FT = 14 infants). At 6 months, poorer tactile reactivity was observed in PT, but not confirmed at 12 months. At 6 months, cortical response to tactile stimulus was found in the primary sensorimotor cortex and differences between groups did not reach significance. At 12 months, cortical response was found in the primary sensorimotor cortex and premotor area and in the somatosensory associative area, with significant less frequent response in premotor area in PT. The findings reinforce fNIRS as a tool to complement the knowledge of tactile adaptive behaviors in PT in early life.

PRG-1 prevents neonatal stimuli-induced persistent hyperalgesia and memory dysfunction via NSF/Glu/GluR2 signaling

Neonatal repetitive noxious stimuli (RNS) has been shown to cause long-term harmful effects on nociceptive processing, learning, and memory which persist until adulthood. Plasticity-related gene 1 (PRG-1) regulates synaptic plasticity and functional reorganization in the brain during neuronal development. In this study, neonatal RNS rats were established by repetitive needle pricks to neonatal rats on all four feet to model repetitive pain exposure in infants. Neonatal RNS caused thermal hyperalgesia, mechanical allodynia, learning, and memory impairments which manifested in young rats and persisted until adulthood. Hippocampal PRG-1/N-ethylmaleimide sensitive fusion protein (NSF) interaction was determined to be responsible for the RNS-induced impairment via enhanced extracellular glutamate release and AMPAR GluR2 trafficking deficiency in a cell-autonomous manner. These pathways likely act synergistically to cause changes in dendritic spine density. Our findings suggest that PRG-1 prevents the RNS-induced hyperalgesia, learning, and memory impairment by regulating synaptic plasticity via NSF/Glu/GluR2 signaling.

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Neonatal RNS induced hyperalgesia, learning, and memory impairment until adulthood.

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PRG-1 attenuated RNS-induced impairments by dendritic spine regulation.

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PRG-1 prevents RNS-induced impairments via NSF/Glu/GluR2 signaling.

Sensory-based interventions in the NICU: systematic review of effects on preterm brain development

BACKGROUND

Infants born preterm are known to be at risk for abnormal brain development and adverse neurobehavioral outcomes. To improve early neurodevelopment, several non-pharmacological interventions have been developed and implemented in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Sensory-based interventions seem to improve short-term neurodevelopmental outcomes in the inherently stressful NICU environment. However, how this type of intervention affects brain development in the preterm population remains unclear.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was conducted for published studies in the past 20 years reporting the effects of early, non-pharmacological, sensory-based interventions on the neonatal brain after preterm birth.

RESULTS

Twelve randomized controlled trials (RCT) reporting short-term effects of auditory, tactile, and multisensory interventions were included after the screening of 1202 articles. Large heterogeneity was identified among studies in relation to both types of intervention and outcomes. Three areas of focus for sensory interventions were identified: auditory-based, tactile-based, and multisensory interventions.

CONCLUSIONS

Diversity in interventions and outcome measures challenges the possibility to perform an integrative synthesis of results and to translate these for evidence-based clinical practice. This review identifies gaps in the literature and methodological challenges for the implementation of RCTs of sensory interventions in the NICU.

IMPACT

This paper represents the first systematic review to investigate the effect of non-pharmacological, sensory-based interventions in the NICU on neonatal brain development. Although reviewed RCTs present evidence on the impact of such interventions on the neonatal brain following preterm birth, it is not yet possible to formulate clear guidelines for clinical practice. This review integrates existing literature on the effect of sensory-based interventions on the brain after preterm birth and identifies methodological challenges for the conduction of high-quality RCTs.

Continuous epidural chloroprocaine after abdominal surgery is associated with lower postoperative opioid exposure in NICU infants

BACKGROUND

Epidural anesthesia in infants undergoing open abdominal surgery has the potential to reduce opioid consumption, lower pain scores, and expedite tracheal extubation. We evaluated associations between use of continuous epidural chloroprocaine and improved intra- and post-operative outcomes.

METHODS

This matched retrospective cohort study first identified 24 patients who between April 2018 through December 2019 were treated with a caudal catheter and epidural chloroprocaine infusion for a laparotomy at postnatal age of 6 months or less. A matched comparator group of 24 patients was derived based on age and type of surgery. Exclusion criteria were the presence of a preoperative opioid infusion, comorbidities that would preclude appropriate pain assessment, or a recent surgical procedure. Primary outcomes included opioid consumption and pain scores; we secondarily analyzed intraoperative anesthetic requirements, other systemic analgesic use, vital signs, tracheal extubation time, and procedural times.

RESULTS

Treatment with epidural anesthesia was associated with lower 5-day total postoperative opioid consumption (3.2 mg/kg vs. 19.7 mg/kg in the respective epidural vs. systemic groups, p = 0.001) and time to tracheal extubation (1.3 days vs. 3.2 days, p = 0.005). Any statistically significant differences in pain scores were not clinically meaningful. There were no differences in mean arterial pressure or intraoperative inhaled anesthetic doses.

CONCLUSION

Continuous infusion of epidural chloroprocaine in infants following open abdominal surgery may limit exposure to systemic opioid medications while providing adequate postoperative analgesia and shortening time to tracheal extubation.

Premedication with Fentanyl for Less Invasive Surfactant Application (LISA): A Randomized Controlled Trial

INTRODUCTION

Currently, there is no consensus regarding analgesic premedication before the surfactant administration by less invasive surfactant application (LISA) procedure. In this randomized controlled trial, we compared the level of comfort of preterm infants receiving fentanyl as analgesic and sedative versus no fentanyl during LISA procedure.

METHODS

We randomized 34 preterm infants of 28+0-33+6 weeks of gestation with respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) within 6 h of birth to receive either fentanyl (1 μg/kg intravenous) or no premedication during surfactant administration by LISA procedure. Primary objective was to assess the proportion of preterm infants to be comfortable during the procedure [revised premature infant pain profile (R-PIPP) score ≤12] and secondarily complications occurring during the procedure, hemodynamically significant patent ductus arteriosus (hsPDA), intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) (≥ grade 3), bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) and composite outcome of BPD/mortality.

RESULTS

Proportion of preterm infants with a R-PIPP score ≤12 during LISA was significantly higher in the fentanyl group [15/17 (88.23%) vs. 8/17 (47.05%); p value 0.025]. There were no differences in secondary outcome parameters.

CONCLUSION

Low-dose fentanyl during LISA procedure resulted in more comfort in preterm infants and without increased complication of both the LISA procedure and fentanyl administration. Further studies are needed to determine the safest and most effective pharmacologic measures to prevent pain and discomfort during LISA.

Consequences of Prematurity on Cortisol Regulation and Adjustment Difficulties: A 9-Year Longitudinal Study

A preterm birth represents a stressful event having potentially negative long-term consequences. Thirty-three children born preterm (<33 weeks gestational age) and eleven full-term children participated in a nine-year longitudinal study. Perinatal Risk Inventory (PERI) was used at birth to assess the perinatal stress. Salivary cortisol, collected four times a day over two consecutive days, was measured with radioimmunoassay technique at six months and nine years to assess the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Mothers reported post-traumatic symptoms on a self-report questionnaire 12 months after their child's birth and children's adjustment problems at 9 years of child age on the Child Behavior Checklist. Results showed a significant difference in cortisol regulation at nine years between preterm and full-term children but no differences in adjustment problems. Whereas biological factors (i.e., PERI, cortisol regulation at six months) explained cortisol at nine years, maternal post-traumatic symptoms were predictive of adjustment problems in their child. In conclusion, very preterm birth has some long-term consequences on the HPA-axis regulation at nine years. Although cortisol regulation is mostly influenced by biological factors, the presence of maternal post-traumatic symptoms predicts the manifestation of adjustment problems in both groups. This shows the importance of maternal psychological well-being for child development. Further research is needed to understand the exact consequences of premature birth on cortisol regulation and the implication for the child's development and health.

The impact of premature extrauterine exposure on infants' stimulus-evoked brain activity across multiple sensory systems

Prematurity can result in widespread neurodevelopmental impairment, with the impact of premature extrauterine exposure on brain function detectable in infancy. A range of neurodynamic and haemodynamic functional brain measures have previously been employed to study the neurodevelopmental impact of prematurity, with methodological and analytical heterogeneity across studies obscuring how multiple sensory systems are affected. Here, we outline a standardised template analysis approach to measure evoked response magnitudes for visual, tactile, and noxious stimulation in individual infants (n = 15) using EEG. By applying these templates longitudinally to an independent cohort of very preterm infants (n = 10), we observe that the evoked response template magnitudes are significantly associated with age-related maturation. Finally, in a cross-sectional study we show that the visual and tactile response template magnitudes differ between a cohort of infants who are age-matched at the time of study but who differ according to whether they are born during the very preterm or late preterm period (n = 10 and 8 respectively). These findings demonstrate the significant impact of premature extrauterine exposure on brain function and suggest that prematurity can accelerate maturation of the visual and tactile sensory system in infants born very prematurely. This study highlights the value of using a standardised multi-modal evoked-activity analysis approach to assess premature neurodevelopment, and will likely complement resting-state EEG and behavioural assessments in the study of the functional impact of developmental care interventions.

Breastmilk as a Multisensory Intervention for Relieving Pain during Newborn Screening Procedures: A Randomized Control Trial

The study aim was to explore the effects of multisensory breastmilk interventions on short-term pain of infants during newborn screening. This is a randomized controlled trial. A total of 120 newborns were recruited and assigned by randomization to one of three treatment conditions: Condition 1 = routine care (gentle touch + verbal comfort); Condition 2 = breastmilk odor + routine care; or Condition 3 = breastmilk odor + taste + routine care. Pain was scored with the Neonatal Infant Pain Scale (NIPS). Data were collected from video recordings at 1 min intervals over the 11 phases of heel sticks: phase 1, 5 min before heel stick without stimuli (baseline); phase 2 to phase 6 (during heel stick); and phase 7 to phase 11 (recovery). Generalized estimating equations compared differences in pain scores for newborns over phases among the three conditions. Compared with the routine care, provision of the odor and taste of breastmilk reduce NIPS scores during heel sticks (B = −4.36, SE = 0.45, p < 0.001 [phase₆]), and during recovery (B = −3.29, SE = 0.42, p < 0.001 [phase₇]). Our findings provide new data, which supports the use of multisensory interventions that include breastmilk odor and taste in combination with gentle touch and verbal comfort to relieve pain in infants undergoing newborn screening.

Utilising recorded music to reduce stress and enhance infant neurodevelopment in neonatal intensive care units

AIM

This paper summarises published evidence on the use of recorded music in high-risk infants to reduce stress and improve neurodevelopment, forming recommendations for proposed clinical applications in neonatal intensive care units.

METHODS

We searched two comprehensive library catalogues and two databases for articles evaluating the impact of recorded music interventions on hospitalised preterm infants. Original and review papers published in English in the 10 years prior to this search were selected if the study included a component of recorded music interventions.

RESULTS

Most original studies (80.95%) and all literature reviews (100%) reported positive effects of recorded music interventions for preterm infants, primarily in the short term. No negative effects were reported. Evidence is emerging regarding the neurobiological mechanisms of recorded music on longer-term effects on preterm infant neurodevelopment. Clinical applications were suggested drawing upon available evidence. Due to generally small sample sizes and variability in study design, unanswered questions remain.

CONCLUSION

Carefully designed recorded music interventions appear to be safe, feasible and effective in reducing stress and improving neurodevelopment of hospitalised infants. Additional rigorous, well-powered trials with relevant outcomes are needed to further refine specific elements for recorded music interventions to better inform practice.

Social touch deprivation during COVID-19: effects on psychological wellbeing and craving interpersonal touch

Social touch has positive effects on social affiliation and stress alleviation. However, its ubiquitous presence in human life does not allow the study of social touch deprivation 'in the wild'. Nevertheless, COVID-19-related restrictions such as social distancing allowed the systematic study of the degree to which social distancing affects tactile experiences and mental health. In this study, 1746 participants completed an online survey to examine intimate, friendly and professional touch experiences during COVID-19-related restrictions, their impact on mental health and the extent to which touch deprivation results in craving touch. We found that intimate touch deprivation during COVID-19-related restrictions is associated with higher anxiety and greater loneliness even though this type of touch is still the most experienced during the pandemic. Moreover, intimate touch is reported as the type of touch most craved during this period, thus being more prominent as the days practising social distancing increase. However, our results also show that the degree to which individuals crave touch during this period depends on individual differences in attachment style: the more anxiously attached, the more touch is craved; with the reverse pattern for avoidantly attached. These findings point to the important role of interpersonal and particularly intimate touch in times of distress and uncertainty.

The effects of massage velocity on heart rate and heart rate variability in healthy infants: A randomized crossover study

BACKGROUND

Infant massage, in which mothers stroke their infant's skin slowly and gently, can cause pleasant sensations in the infant that can be affected by the velocity of massage. However, the massage velocity at which infants feel the most pleasant sensations remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of massage velocity on heart rate (HR) and HR variability (HRV) in healthy infants.

METHOD

Twenty-two infant-mother dyads two to seven months of age were recruited. Mothers stroked their infant's skin at three massage velocities (5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 cm/s) in a randomized order for 15 min. The rhythm of massage velocity was calculated according to the length of three body areas. The massage velocity of the mothers was regulated using a metronome. HR and HRV (high frequency [HF] and low frequency [LF]) were measured at rest and during massage for each velocity. The effects on pleasantness were evaluated using percent change in median baseline value compared with median values for the three massage velocities. Statistical analysis was performed using analysis of variance mixed effect models to exclude "period" and "carryover" effects during massage.

RESULTS

When measuring HF, massage (7.5 cm/s) caused a significant increase in pleasantness compared with 10.0 cm/s (p = 0.04). The HR and LF/HF ratio were not significantly changed between velocities.

CONCLUSION

Results of this study suggested that a massage velocity of 7.5 cm/s was the most pleasant for infants. Future research should investigate the relationship between an infant massage by optimal velocity and infant development in longitudinal studies.

Factors associated with the socioemotional development of preterm infants

Preterm birth is a risk factor for problems in interactions with others. We compared the difference in socioemotional development between hospital discharge and at six months of corrected age of infants born ≤32 weeks and assessed the impact of maternal and infantile factors on socioemotional development rate within a 6 month's period. Mother-child dyads (n = 144) were assessed by the Mother-Baby Observation Protocol 0-6 months through a video microanalysis. Multivariate model was built. Neonatal, maternal and child factors were associated with interactive gaze, initiate contact, responsiveness, infantile vocalization, and thus contributed to the socioemocional development of preterm infants with their mothers.

Sleep-wake regulation in preterm and term infants

Study Objectives

In adults, wakefulness can be markedly prolonged at the expense of sleep, e.g. to stay vigilant in the presence of a stressor. These extra-long wake bouts result in a heavy-tailed distribution (highly right-skewed) of wake but not sleep durations. In infants, the relative importance of wakefulness and sleep are reversed, as sleep is necessary for brain maturation. Here, we tested whether these developmental pressures are associated with the unique regulation of sleep–wake states.

Methods

In 175 infants of 28–40 weeks postmenstrual age (PMA), we monitored sleep–wake states using electroencephalography and behavior. We constructed survival models of sleep–wake bout durations and the effect of PMA and other factors, including stress (salivary cortisol), and examined whether sleep is resilient to nociceptive perturbations (a clinically necessary heel lance).

Results

Wake durations followed a heavy-tailed distribution as in adults and lengthened with PMA and stress. However, differently from adults, active sleep durations also had a heavy-tailed distribution, and with PMA, these shortened and became vulnerable to nociception-associated awakenings.

Conclusions

Sleep bouts are differently regulated in infants, with especially long active sleep durations that could consolidate this state’s maturational functions. Curtailment of sleep by stress and nociception may be disadvantageous, especially for preterm infants given the limited value of wakefulness at this age. This could be addressed by environmental interventions in the future.

The effect on pain level and comfort of foot massages given by mothers to newborns before heel lancing: Double-blind randomized controlled study

INTRODUCTION

In addition to pharmacological methods, non-pharmacological methods can also be used for reducing pain and increasing comfort during invasive procedures in newborn babies. This study was conducted to determine the effect on pain level and comfort of foot massages given by mothers to newborns before heel lancing.

METHODS

This is a double-blind randomized controlled experimental study. The sample consisted of 128 newborns including 64 in the intervention group and 64 in the control group. The Newborn Infant Pain Scale (NIPS) and Newborn Comfort Behavior Scale (NCBS) were used to collect the data, along with questionnaires for information on the newborn and mother. The researcher explained to each mother in theory how to do a foot massage at least 2 h before the heel lancing procedure. Mothers then drew random assignments to either an intervention group that would give a foot massage for 3 min with baby oil, or a control group that simply waited 3 min, immediately prior to the lancing.

RESULTS

It was determined that the foot massage performed by the mother reduced the pain level of babies, increased their comfort levels, and decreased their distress levels.

CONCLUSION

Nurses play an active role in defining and evaluating the newborn's responses to pain. It is thought that this study will guide nurses working in the clinic in reducing the acute pain that develops with invasive interventions performed on newborns and in preventing the negative effects of pain on the newborn.

Parent mental health and neurodevelopmental outcomes of children hospitalized in the neonatal intensive care unit

High-risk infants hospitalized in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) often receive life-saving interventions during a critical period of development, when their brain is highly sensitive to both positive and negative environmental factors. It is no surprise that this time is particularly challenging for families. In fact, parents of hospitalized newborns are likely to experience clinically-significant symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression. These symptoms have the potential to impact the nature and quality of the early parent-infant relationship and can lead to long-term problematic consequences for the infant and the family. As such, perinatal parent mental health represents a key factor that impacts outcomes of high-risk children. We discuss future practices to optimize the wellbeing of NICU infants and their families in the long-term, including increasing awareness and screening for parent mental health in the NICU, as well as building systems for support and early intervention.

Low maternal licking/grooming stimulation increases pain sensitivity in male mouse offspring

Deprivation of maternal care has been associated with higher pain sensitivity in offspring. In the present study, we hypothesized that the maternal licking/grooming behavior was an important factor for the development of the pain regulatory system. To test this hypothesis, we used male F2 offspring of early-weaned (EW) F1 mother mice that exhibit lower frequency of licking/grooming behavior. The formalin test revealed that F2 offspring of EW F1 dams showed significantly higher pain behavior than F2 offspring of normally-weaned (NW) F1 dams. We found that the mRNA levels of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), a nociceptor, were higher in the lumbosacral dorsal root ganglion (DRG) of F2 offspring of EW F1 dams than those of F2 offspring of NW F1 dams, suggesting that the higher pain sensitivity may be attributed to low licking/grooming, which may result in developmental changes in nociceptive neurons. In the DRG, mRNA levels of Mas-related G-protein coupled receptor B4 (MrgprB4), a marker of sensory neurons that detect gentle stroking, was also up-regulated in the F2 offspring of EW F1 dams. Considering that gentle touch alleviates pain, Mrgprb4 up-regulation may reflect a compensatory change. The present findings indicate important implications of maternal licking/grooming behavior in the development of the pain regulatory system.

Regional anesthesia in neonates and infants outside the immediate perioperative period: A systematic review of studies with efficacy and safety considerations

This review examines the quality and quantity of literature regarding methods that measure efficacy in the context of reported safety of regional anesthesia techniques in preterm and term infants <1 year of age. Because the role of anesthesiologists continues to expand outside the operating room, we focused on all relevant settings with assessments that extend beyond 24 hours from the intraoperative period. All study designs were included from a search of MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, Scopus, and Cochrane databases from 1946 to the end of 2019. A total of 31 studies were included (n = 1038 participants), consisting of five randomized controlled trials and 26 observational studies. Twenty-three studies examined neuraxial procedures, seven studies examined peripheral procedures, and one study examined both. Efficacy measures included pain assessment tools, analgesic use, and factors pertaining to the recovery of patients. Safety was assessed in multiple systems (neurological, cardiovascular, respiratory, pathological) and with vital signs and/or measures of systemic toxicity. Evidence in this review establishes that neuraxial and peripheral anesthesia treatments may be applied to neonates and infants with a high degree of safety. However, large gaps in the consistency of methods used to assess pain in these studies underline the need for rigorous prospective efficacy studies of these techniques in this population. This systematic review was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42018114466).

Can Event-Related Potentials Evoked by Heel Lance Assess Pain Processing in Neonates? A Systematic Review

To clarify the possibility of event-related potential (ERP) evoked by heel lance in neonates as an index of pain assessment, knowledge acquired by and problems of the methods used in studies on ERP evoked by heel lance in neonates were systematically reviewed, including knowledge about Aδ and C fibers responding to noxious stimuli and Aβ fibers responding to non-noxious stimuli. Of the 863 reports searched, 19 were selected for the final analysis. The following points were identified as problems for ERP evoked by heel lance in neonates to serve as a pain assessment index: (1) It is possible that the ERP evoked by heel lance reflected the activation of Aβ fibers responding to non-noxious stimuli and not the activation of Aδ or C fibers responding to noxious stimulation; (2) Sample size calculation was presented in few studies, and the number of stimulation trials to obtain an averaged ERP was small. Accordingly, to establish ERP evoked by heel lance as a pain assessment in neonates, it is necessary to perform a study to clarify ERP evoked by Aδ- and C-fiber stimulations accompanied by heel lance in neonates.

Sensational developments in somatosensory development?

This is an overview of the most recent advances pertaining to the development of the cardinal components of the somatosensory system: the peripheral sensory neurons that perceive somatosensory stimuli, the first line central nervous system circuits that modulate them, and the higher structures such as the somatosensory cortex that eventually compute a motor response to them. Here, I also review the most recent findings concerning the role of neuronal activity in somatosensory development, formation of somatotopic maps, insights into human somatosensory development and the link between aberrant somatosensation and neurodevelopmental disorders.

Aging Modulates Prefrontal Plasticity Induced by Executive Control Training

While declines in inhibitory control, the capacity to suppress unwanted neurocognitive processes, represent a hallmark of healthy aging, whether this function is susceptible to training-induced plasticity in older populations remains largely unresolved. We addressed this question with a randomized controlled trial investigating the changes in behavior and electrical neuroimaging activity induced by a 3-week adaptive gamified Go/NoGo inhibitory control training (ICT). Performance improvements were accompanied by the development of more impulsive response strategies, but did not generalize to impulsivity traits nor quality of life. As compared with a 2-back working-memory training, the ICT in the older adults resulted in a purely quantitative reduction in the strength of the activity in a medial and ventrolateral prefrontal network over the 400 ms P3 inhibition-related event-related potentials component. However, as compared with young adults, the ICT induced distinct configurational modifications in older adults' 200 ms N2 conflict monitoring medial-frontal functional network. Hence, while older populations show preserved capacities for training-induced plasticity in executive control, aging interacts with the underlying plastic brain mechanisms. Training improves the efficiency of the inhibition process in older adults, but its effects differ from those in young adults at the level of the coping with inhibition demands.

The Role of Affectionate Caregiver Touch in Early Neurodevelopment and Parent-Infant Interactional Synchrony

Though rarely included in studies of parent–infant interactions, affectionate touch plays a unique and vital role in infant development. Previous studies in human and rodent models have established that early and consistent affectionate touch from a caregiver confers wide-ranging and holistic benefits for infant psychosocial and neurophysiological development. We begin with an introduction to the neurophysiological pathways for the positive effects of touch. Then, we provide a brief review of how affectionate touch tunes the development of infant somatosensory, autonomic (stress regulation), and immune systems. Affective touch also plays a foundational role in the establishment of social affiliative bonds and early psychosocial behavior. These touch-related bonding effects are known to be mediated primarily by the oxytocin system, but touch also activates mesocorticolimbic dopamine and endogenous opioid systems which aid the development of social cognitive processes such as social learning and reward processing. We conclude by proposing a unique role for affectionate touch as an essential pathway to establishing and maintaining parent-infant interactional synchrony at behavioral and neural levels. The limitations of the current understanding of affectionate touch in infant development point to fruitful avenues for future research.

Conventional revolution: the ethical implications of the natural progress of neonatal intensive care to artificial wombs

Research teams have used extra-uterine systems (Biobags) to support premature fetal lambs and to bring them to maturation in a way not previously possible. The researchers have called attention to possible implications of these systems for sustaining premature human fetuses in a similar way. Some commentators have pointed out that perfecting these systems for human fetuses might alter a standard expectation in abortion practices: that the termination of a pregnancy also (inevitably) entails the death of the fetus. With Biobags, it might be possible, some argue, that no woman has the right to expect that outcome if the technology is able to sustain fetal life after an abortion. In order to protect the expectation that the termination of a pregnancy always entails the death of the fetus, Elizabeth Romanis has argued that fetuses sustained in Biobags have a status different than otherwise 'born' children. In support of that view, she argues that these 'gestatelings' are incapable of independent life. This argument involves a misunderstanding of the gestational support involved, as well as a misapprehension of neonatology practice. Here, we argue that any human fetus sustained in a Biobag would be as 'independent' as any other premature infant, and just as 'born'. Neonatologists would seem to have certain presumptive moral responsibilities toward any human fetus gestating in a Biobag. It remains a separate question whether the perfection and widespread application of Biobags for premature human beings would or should alter the expectation that ending a pregnancy also entails fetal death.