Canine Anxieties and Phobias: An Update on Separation Anxiety and Noise Aversions

Possible effects of cannabidiol (CBD) administration on the vocal activity of healthy domestic dogs upon their temporary separation from caregivers

Recent human clinical studies indicate that cannabidiol (CBD), the primary non-addictive component of cannabis, possesses considerable therapeutic potentials. The purpose of the present study was to explore the possibility of effects of CBD administration on behaviors of healthy domestic dogs. It is well-known that when temporarily separated from their caregivers, they may show an increase in vocalization. Here the effects of CBD administration upon such vocal activity were assessed. Ten 4- to 7-year-old healthy dogs experienced temporary separation from their caregivers twice, once following the administration of CBD at 2.0 mg/kg/day over a 2-week-period, and once following the administration of the same amount of olive oil as placebo over the same length of period. When the behavioral assessment was conducted by computing the total duration of any vocal activity exhibited by the dogs before the separation from their caregivers and after the separation, it was found that all of the 10 participant dogs vocalized more often when being left alone (after the separation) than when being with their caregivers (before the separation), whether they had received the administration of CBD or placebo. Following the CBD administration, however, the degree of such increase was significantly less robust than that following the placebo administration (p < 0.01). As one of the possible explanations for the results. the author hypothesizes anxiolytic effects of CBD in healthy domestic dogs, as has been reported in humans.

Pilot Study on the Efficacy and Safety of Long-Term Oral Imepitoin Treatment for Control of (Thunder)Storm-Associated Noise Phobia/Noise Aversion in Dogs Using an Individualized-Dose Titration Approach

Imepitoin is a low-affinity partial agonist for benzodiazepine binding sites of gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors with anxiolytic effects. It has been shown to reduce anxiety during noise-related events in dogs when given at 30 mg/kg PO BID, although this dose was associated with ataxia and increased appetite in some cases. The objective of this study was to assess its safety and efficacy for storm anxiety when started at 10 mg/kg PO BID and titrated to effect up to 30 mg/kg PO BID during storm season. Significant decreases in anxiety scores were seen in weekly surveys and storm logs (SLs) at 10, 20 and 30 mg/kg PO BID. Serious adverse events (AEs) were not reported in any subject. Ataxia was the most commonly reported non-serious AE (14/33), followed by increased hunger (13/33). The frequency of AEs was higher in the 20 mg/kg PO BID group than in the 10 mg/kg group PO BID. No clinically significant changes were seen in lab work pre- and post-study. In conclusion, Imepitoin given during storm season at doses ranging from 10 to 30 mg/kg PO BID reduced clinical signs of fear and anxiety during storms for the dogs in this study. These findings support the use of an individually titrated dose.

Do Animal Welfare Education Campaigns Really Work? An Evaluation of the RSPCA's #DogKind Campaign in Raising Awareness of Separation-Related Behaviours in UK Dog Owners

One of the main aims of companion animal welfare charities is to educate the public about the needs of animals. This is frequently performed through campaigns focusing on specific aspects of welfare. The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA), Britain's biggest animal welfare charity, launched the nationwide #DogKind campaign in March 2019. Targeted mainly at 25-34-year-olds, the campaign aimed to increase awareness of separation-related behaviour (SRB) among dog owners and encourage them to seek help for SRB from reliable sources. This research involved a quasi-experimental, non-equivalent control group design evaluating the campaign's effectiveness. It was conducted through a series of online surveys at three different time points: before the launch of the campaign (n = 2002), six months after (n = 2423), and, again, two months later (n = 269), during which we asked the same questions regarding knowledge of SRB. An experimental trial of 269 participants tested whether accessing a video alongside the campaign web pages increased the effectiveness of the campaign objectives. Overall, the campaign appeared to be effective in reaching its target audience but not at raising awareness of SRB or increasing the number of owners intending to seek help. The inclusion of a video in the campaign made no difference to its effectiveness. This study shows that this campaign had limited success in achieving its targets and highlights the importance of thorough evaluations of education interventions that aim to improve the welfare of companion animals.

Potential Benefits of a 'Trauma-Informed Care' Approach to Improve the Assessment and Management of Dogs Presented with Anxiety Disorders

Dog caregiver reporting on the spectrum of fearful-aggressive behaviours often describes 'unpredictable' or 'exaggerated' responses to a situation/animal/person. A possible explanation for these behavioural responses considers that the dog is reacting to triggered memories for which the dog has a negative association. For many dogs undergoing veterinary behavioural treatment or rehabilitation through a canine rescue organisation, the assessing clinician relies on "proxy" reporting of the history/background by a caregiver (dog owner, foster carer, or shelter personnel). Detailed information on the event or circumstances resulting in this negative association may be limited or absent altogether. Consideration of a trauma-informed care (TIC) approach, currently applied in a wide range of human psychology and social care fields, may be helpful in guiding the clinical approach taken. The literature relating to adverse early experience (AEE) and trauma-informed care (TIC) in puppies/dogs compared to children/adults was evaluated to identify common themes and conclusions identified across both species. In the absence of known/identifiable trauma, behavioural assessment and management should consider that a 'problem' dog may behave as it does, as the result of previous trauma. The dog can then be viewed through a lens of empathy and understanding, often lacking for dogs presenting with impulsive, reactive, or aggressive behaviours. Assessment must avoid re-traumatising the animal through exposure to triggering stimuli and, treatment options should include counselling of caregivers on the impact of adverse early experiences, consideration of the window of tolerance, and TIC behavioural modification techniques.

Separation-related Problems and Their Interaction with Physical Disease

The condition of separation-related problems (SRPs) is common in companion dogs and clinicians should be comfortable diagnosing it. There are numerous diagnoses related to physical disease that have clinical signs similar to SRP, that exacerbate SRP, or may cause regression in treatment of SRP. Common examples include conditions affecting the following systems: musculoskeletal, neurologic, gastrointestinal, and dermatologic. Therefore, it is important for clinicians to rule out causes of physical disease and address them accordingly. The signalment of the patient, medications they are receiving, and other behavioral comorbidities should also be considered.

Shelter dog behavior after adoption: Using the C-BARQ to track dog behavior changes through the first six months after adoption

Despite millions of dogs entering and exiting shelters annually, little is known about dog behavior long-term after adoption. Entering a shelter is stressful for dogs which may inhibit or exaggerate behavior. There is a common public sentiment that dogs have a "honeymoon period" after adoption where dogs do not show their full repertoire of behaviors, both positive and negative, until getting more comfortable in their new home. The aim of this prospective observational cohort study was to identify prevalence of and changes in behavior issues in dogs throughout the first six months following adoption. The owners of ninety-nine dogs adopted from five Ohio shelters between October 1, 2020 and June 1, 2021 were surveyed 7, 30, 90, and 180 days after adoption, using the Canine Behavioral Assessment & Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ). Owners were also asked about household changes that may affect behavior. Estimated age, sex, weight, length of shelter stay, shelter intake reason, use of gastrointestinal, antibiotic, and psychotropic medications in the shelter, whether the animal had been previously returned to the shelter, and whether the owner was a first-time dog owner, were evaluated as predictors in a mixed effect regression model of different behavior measures over time. At various timepoints, dogs showed high prevalence for stranger-directed aggression (81.7%), owner-directed aggression (32.3%), dog-directed aggression (75%), familiar dog aggression (37.8%), stranger directed fear (58.2%), nonsocial fear (95.8%), dog directed fear (80.0%) and separation-related behaviors (92.6%). Over 180 days, stranger-directed aggression, excitability, touch sensitivity, training difficulty, and chasing increased, while separation-related behaviors, attachment and attention-seeking decreased. Owners reported high satisfaction with their dogs' behavior. Use of psychotropic medications in the shelter was predictive of stranger-directed aggression and touch sensitivity at home. These findings help veterinarians and shelter professionals council owners on potential behavior changes after adoption.

The Science and Social Validity of Companion Animal Welfare: Functionally Defined Parameters in a Multidisciplinary Field

Social validity refers to the social significance and acceptability of intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes. Animal practitioners, who are often guided by the principles of ABA, lack the benefit of verbal participants (at least with respect to target animals) with which to assess a client's needs and preferences. The study of a learner's welfare is useful for determining areas where intervention is needed or how the learner feels about an intervention that is underway. Three tenets of animal welfare measurement include physiological function, naturalistic behavior, and affect, where affect refers to private events, including emotions, which are a function of the same variables and contingencies responsible for controlling public behavior. The development of new technologies allows us to look "under the skin" and account for subjective experiences that can now be observed objectively. We introduce the reader to tools available from the animal welfare sciences for the objective measurement of social validity from the learner's perspective.

Genomic analysis of firework fear and noise reactivity in standard poodles

BACKGROUND

Fear of firework noises and other loud, sudden noises (noise reactivity) is a significant problem for many dogs and may have a negative effect on both welfare and, in severe cases, the life expectancy of dogs. A wide range of behavior traits, including fear-related behaviors, have high heritability estimates in dogs. The aim of this study was to estimate genomic heritability for fear of fireworks and loud noises in dogs.

RESULTS

A genomic heritability estimate was performed based on genome-wide SNPs from standard poodles with records of fear of fireworks and noise reactivity. The study was based on questionnaires answered by owners, who also volunteered to return a cheek swab from their dog for DNA analyses. SNP-based heritability was estimated to be 0.28 for firework fear and 0.16 for noise reactivity. We also identified an interesting region on chromosome 17 that was weakly associated with both traits.

CONCLUSIONS

We have estimated low to medium genomic heritabilities for fear of fireworks and noise reactivity in standard poodles. We have also identified an interesting region on chromosome 17, which harbors genes that have been shown to be involved in different psychiatric traits with anxiety components in humans. The region was associated with both traits; however, the association was weak and need further verification from other studies.

Behavior-Based Video Summarization System for Dog Health and Welfare Monitoring

The popularity of dogs has been increasing owing to factors such as the physical and mental health benefits associated with raising them. While owners care about their dogs' health and welfare, it is difficult for them to assess these, and frequent veterinary checkups represent a growing financial burden. In this study, we propose a behavior-based video summarization and visualization system for monitoring a dog's behavioral patterns to help assess its health and welfare. The system proceeds in four modules: (1) a video data collection and preprocessing module; (2) an object detection-based module for retrieving image sequences where the dog is alone and cropping them to reduce background noise; (3) a dog behavior recognition module using two-stream EfficientNetV2 to extract appearance and motion features from the cropped images and their respective optical flow, followed by a long short-term memory (LSTM) model to recognize the dog's behaviors; and (4) a summarization and visualization module to provide effective visual summaries of the dog's location and behavior information to help assess and understand its health and welfare. The experimental results show that the system achieved an average F1 score of 0.955 for behavior recognition, with an execution time allowing real-time processing, while the summarization and visualization results demonstrate how the system can help owners assess and understand their dog's health and welfare.

Digital Technology Supporting the Remote Human-Dog Interaction: Scoping Review

For thousands of years, dogs have coexisted with humans and have been adopted as companion pets and working animals. The communication between humans and dogs has improved their coexistence and socialization; however, due to the nature of their activities, dogs and humans occasionally lose face-to-face contact. The purpose of this scoping review is to examine five essential aspects of current technology designed to support intentional communication between humans and dogs in scenarios where there is no face-to-face contact: (1) the technologies used, (2) the activity supported, (3) the interaction modality, (4) the evaluation procedures, and the results obtained, and (5) the main limitations. In addition, this article explores future directions for research and practice. The PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews) guidelines were followed when conducting the review. Scopus (Elsevier), Springer-Link, IEEE Xplorer, ACM Digital Library, and Science Direct were used as data sources to retrieve information from January 2010 to March 2022. The titles and abstracts were individually reviewed by the authors (L.R.-V., I.E.E.-C., and H.P.-E.), and the full articles were then examined before a final inclusion determination. 15 (3%) out of the 571 records that were obtained met the requirements for inclusion. The most used technologies for dogs are: (1) 71% of technologies focused on generating messages are wearable devices equipped with sensors (bite, tug, or gesture), (2) 60% of technologies focused on receiving messages are wearable devices equipped with vibrotactile actuators, and (3) 100% of technologies focused on bidirectional communication are videochats. 67% of the works are oriented to support search and assistance tasks. 80% of the works developed technology for one-way communication. 53% of the technologies have a haptic dog interaction modality, that is, there is an object that the dog must wear or manipulate in a certain way. All of the reported evaluations were pilot studies with positive feasibility results. Remote human-dog interaction technology holds significant promise and potential; however, more research is required to assess their usability and efficacy and to incorporate new technological developments.

The Impact of Noise Anxiety on Behavior and Welfare of Horses from UK and US Owner’s Perspective

Noise anxiety is an over-reaction to loud noises commonly detected among pets and can greatly impact on their welfare and on their management. When exposed to noisy events, horses can show intense escape attempts, which may cause severe accidents for the horse and the rider/handler. The aim of the present study was to investigate, through a web survey, UK and US owners’ perception of noise anxiety severity in their horses, their management strategies and perceived efficacy. The questionnaire was shared via social networking and advertised as “What is your horse afraid of?”. Over a total of 1836 questionnaires filled out; 409 owners reported that their horse has shown unusual behavior during a noise event. A two-step cluster analysis identified two groups: very anxious (VA) and slightly anxious (SA). VA horses were reported to have higher frequency of anxiety behaviors; higher frequency of signs of noise reactivity; and their anxiety did not improve with time. The most used management strategies consisted in providing hay throughout the night, turning in/out their horse or moving it to a paddock. A binomial logistic regression identified that horses that have reported injuries during noise events were more likely to be clustered as VA (OR = 0.24, 95% CI: 0.08–0.76); while providing hay throughout the night was more likely to be very effective management strategy in SA horses (OR = 0.41, 95% CI: 0.16–1.01). Our results confirmed that noise anxiety is a growing behavioral problem that can lead to important welfare concerns for horses. New management strategies, including the use of medicinal products, should be considered to reduce behavioral and physiological signs and help horses to cope with noisy events.

Impact of Changes in Time Left Alone on Separation-Related Behaviour in UK Pet Dogs

Simple Summary

Dogs can develop separation-related behaviours (SRBs), such as barking/howling, pacing, toileting or destroying household items when they are left without human company. These behaviours can be problematic for owners but are also welfare concerns for the dogs because they mean the dog is in a negative emotional state. Many dog owners have been able to spend more time at home with their pets during the COVID-19 pandemic, and there have been concerns this will increase risks of SRB when dogs are left alone for longer again. Here, we surveyed a group of dog owners in the United Kingdom (UK) twice during 2020. In the first survey, we asked owners about their dogs’ behaviour before the pandemic, in February 2020, and at the time of the first lockdown; we then surveyed them again in October 2020 when restrictions had eased. Whether dogs showed SRBs or not changed considerably over the months of the study, and whilst one in two dogs with pre-existing SRBs were no longer showing them in October 2020, one in ten dogs who had previously not shown SRBs before the pandemic were found to have developed SRBs in October. Risk of developing SRBs was found to be linked to the change in time left alone during the lockdown, with dogs whose time alone reduced the most being most at risk of developing new SRBs in October.

Abstract

Separation-related behaviours (SRBs), including but not limited to vocalisation, pacing, destruction and toileting, occur in the absence of human company. As well as being problematic for the dogs’ owners, such behaviours indicate that the dogs’ emotional state is compromised. As part of the COVID-19 pandemic, time spent alone decreased considerably for many pet dogs, leading to concerns about the development of SRBs when dogs are left alone more again. The main aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that dogs whose time left alone decreased most (compared to a February 2020 pre-COVID baseline) would be at greatest risk of developing new signs of SRB when time left alone increased again. To achieve this aim, we utilised survey data gathered from dog owners between 4th May and 3rd July 2020, during the first COVID-19 ‘lockdown’ period in the United Kingdom (UK), and a follow-up survey of the same dog-owner cohort, completed when restrictions had eased between 10th October and 2nd November 2020. Individual dogs fluctuated considerably in whether they showed signs of SRB or not across the study period (n = 1807). Overall, the prevalence of SRB in the population decreased from 22.1% to 17.2%, as did the time dogs were left alone for between February and October 2020. However, 9.9% of dogs had developed new signs of SRB by the follow-up survey in October 2020, with dogs whose leaving hours decreased most during lockdown restrictions being at increased risk of developing SRBs. These findings have implications for our understanding of the etiology of SRB, by showing a link between changes in owner routine and SRB risk.

Effects of a Nutritional Supplement (DìRelaxTM) on Anxiety in Dogs in a Randomized Control Trial Design

Simple Summary

The effects of a nutraceutical product, DìRelax^TM, were tested in a cohort of anxious dogs by the C-BARQ questionnaire to assess the presence of problematic behaviors, and by the impossible task paradigm, an experimental procedure to explore dogs’ cognitive performance following an expectancy frustration. Hematological and biochemical analyses showed no adverse effects. The treatment with DìRelax^TM showed a positive effect on the dog’s performances, with some of the behaviors appearing improved. The results suggested that DiRelax^TM may have some ameliorative effect on the cognitive performances of anxious dogs.

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of DìRelax^TM, a nutraceutical formulated to reduce anxiety in dogs, using a randomized controlled trial (RCT) design. The C-BARQ questionnaire, some clinical investigations, and the impossible task test were performed in dogs before and after treatment. The C-BARQ questionnaire is particularly useful for assessing the frequency and severity of problematic behaviors. The impossible task paradigm provides insight into the decision-making processes in the realm of expectancy frustration. Results showed an ameliorative effect on the performances of treated dogs during the solvable phases, with a significant decrease in the time needed to solve the task. No behavioral difference was found between treated and untreated anxious dogs during the unsolvable phase. According to the results from the C-BARQ questionnaire, some of the behaviors appeared to improve. Clinical investigations, including a complete blood cell count and blood chemistry, showed no difference between groups, thus suggesting the safety of the product. In general, this study suggests that DìRelax^TM can be safely administered with no adverse effects and can exercise a beneficial effect on anxious dogs by enhancing their cognitive abilities, but further studies should investigate the best method of administration.

Evaluation of oxidative stress and biochemical biomarkers, and psychological parameters in cement plant workers

The cement industry is one of the main world industries with exposure to a wide range of hazardous chemical and physical occupational agents that may increase free radicals and lead to disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate oxidative stress, biochemical markers, and psychological parameters among cement plant workers. In this cross-sectional study, 40 workers exposed to cement and 40 office employees were selected as the exposed and non-exposed groups, respectively. Exposure to cement dust, silica, and noise were, respectively, assessed using the NIOSH 0600, NIOSH 7601, and noise dosimetry methods. Oxidative stress biomarkers including malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and biochemical parameters were measured in the serum of all participants. Depression, anxiety, and stress were assessed by the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21) questionnaire. The results demonstrated that the level of MDA as a marker of oxidative stress was significantly higher in the exposed group. The level of antioxidant enzymes including SOD and CAT were also significantly higher in the exposed group. The level of TAC was lower in the exposed group, but the difference was not statistically significant. The levels of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), aspartate transaminase (AST), and the scores of depression and stress were also significantly higher in the exposed group. According to our results, noise, cement dust, and silica exposure were associated with oxidative stress, and this may be one of the mechanisms in which they adversely affect liver function and mental health.

The making of a (dog) movie star: The effect of the portrayal of dogs in movies on breed registrations in the United States

The media is a powerful force that can affect the welfare of the domiciled dog population. Dogs have long been in human stories and their depictions can create demand for the breeds shown. While previous research has found that this effect can last for up to ten years after the release of a movie, how this phenomenon occurs is unknown. This paper examines if how a dog is portrayed in a movie is associated with a subsequent change in American Kennel Club breed registrations for that breed. Following a systematic literature review, four key themes were identified in how dogs are portrayed in the media; dogs portrayed as heroes, as anthropomorphised, as embodying the ideals of Western societies (Whiteness and heteronormativity) and as boundaries between wilderness and human society. Forty movies from between 1930 to 2004 were analysed, resulting in 95 dog characters scored, and hierarchical multiple linear regression was run. Movies with dogs portrayed as heroes were followed by significant increases in the number of American Kennel Club breed registrations for the breed shown, while anthropomorphised dogs were followed by significant decreases in the number of dogs registered for up to five years after a movie’s release. These results indicate that how dogs are portrayed may be an important driver of demand for breeds. Future work should investigate whether these portrayals may have negative welfare implications for real dogs by leading to owners having unrealistic expectations for dogs or increasing demand for dogs with in-breeding related disorders.

Separation-related behavior of dogs shows association with their reactions to everyday situations that may elicit frustration or fear

Separation related disorder in dogs is a multi-faceted phenomenon. Dogs can react to the absence of their owner due to different inner states such as fear, panic or frustration. We hypothesized that dogs that are prone to frustration or fearfulness in other contexts would show a different behavioral response to separation from the owner. We investigated the association between inner states in different contexts and separation behaviors by combining a questionnaire with a separation test. Fear-related questionnaire components were rather associated with whining and the absence of barking. Dogs that received higher scores in the demanding component of the questionnaire, which might be in association of the frustration threshold of the dog, barked more and were more likely to scratch the door. Finally, dogs that were more prone to phobic reactions whined somewhat more and tried to escape. We provide empirical support for the assumption that separation-related behavioral responses of dogs might be triggered by different emotions.

On the applicability of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) as an intervention in dogs with fear and anxiety disorders after a traumatic event

Fear and anxiety disorders are prevalent in dogs. These disorders are not adequately resolved by current interventions, which urges exploration of additional interventions. In humans, fear and anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), are effectively treated by Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR). EMDR is a non-invasive and non-pharmacological intervention involving bilateral sensory stimulation while memorizing the traumatic event, resulting in decreased emotionality of the memory. We argue EMDR might be applied as an intervention for fear and anxiety disorders in dogs, adding to the currently available interventions for the field of Clinical Ethology. Particularly nonverbal EMDR protocols used in preverbal children can be applied and the setup can be adapted for dogs. Future research should focus on the development of nonverbal EMDR protocols including proper controls, and on clinical effectiveness of such EMDR protocols for dogs. Apart from behavioural measures, psychophysiological variables should be incorporated as well.

The New Status Quo: Enhancing Access to Human-Animal Interactions to Alleviate Social Isolation & Loneliness in the Time of COVID-19

Simple Summary

The human–animal bond is a powerful agent for reducing feelings of loneliness and social isolation; however, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, our typical avenues for accessing human–animal interaction (HAI) have been drastically impacted. Because the way we interact with animals has shifted during these times of collective struggle, we have ultimately grown in our appreciation of the human–animal bond. This paper will outline the impact of the pandemic on our relationships with animals, while also discussing the ways in which organizations that facilitate HAI have responded to the pandemic. Preparations for post-pandemic re-entry into the community with our animals will be outlined, and suggestions for future research and best practices on this topic will be provided.

Abstract

Access to human–animal interactions (HAI) have been influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic. Service animals that were trained and accustomed to daily access to public places had to adjust to staying at home. Therapy animals and their handlers who previously visited with many of the populations most vulnerable to the virus have had to halt their programming. Professionals who utilize animal-assisted interventions (AAI) have had to develop new strategies for providing goal-oriented care. Even the landscape for companion animals has been significantly altered, leading to behavioral changes and new practices for pet owners and veterinarians. While animals and their human companions face new challenges, our recognition of the power of the human–animal bond (HAB) has grown, as it provides a vital need for connection during this time of isolation. In this paper, we will not only focus on describing the new status quo related to various kinds of animals and the public’s access to HAI, but will also offer suggestions for sharing the human–animal bond during a time in which physical connections are limited. Organizational insights from the service and therapy animal fields will be explored, and findings related to the auspiciousness of new initiatives, such as animal-related engagement (ARE), will be presented. Recommendations for people who share their lives with any of these kinds of animals will be made to ensure both human and animal welfare. Finally, future research and best practices will be suggested, so we can empirically understand and develop these revised offerings to ultimately bring HAI to a wider audience than ever before.

Cannabidiol-based natural health products for companion animals: Recent advances in the management of anxiety, pain, and inflammation

Recent advances in cannabidiol (CBD) use in canines and felines for anxiety management, pain management, and anti-inflammatory effects were reviewed using a literature search conducted with the following keywords: CBD, anxiety, inflammation, pain, dogs, cats, and companion animals. For decades, research on CBD has been hindered due to the status of cannabis (C. sativa L.) as an illicit drug. Limited safety data show that CBD is well-tolerated in dogs, with insufficient information on the safety profile of CBD in cats. Upon oral supplementation of CBD, elevation in liver enzymes was observed for both dogs and cats, and pharmacokinetics of CBD are different in the two species. There is a significant gap in the literature on the therapeutic use of CBD in cats, with no feline data on anxiety, pain, and inflammation management. There is evidence that chronic osteoarthritic pain in dogs can be reduced by supplementation with CBD. Furthermore, experiments are required to better understand whether CBD has an influence on noise-induced fear and anxiolytic response. Preliminary evidence exists to support the analgesic properties of CBD in treating chronic canine osteoarthritis; however, there are inter- and intra-species differences in pharmacokinetics, tolerance, dosage, and safety of CBD. Therefore, to validate the anxiety management, pain management, and anti-inflammatory efficacy of CBD, it is essential to conduct systematic, randomized, and controlled trials. Further, the safety and efficacious dose of CBD in companion animals warrants investigation.

3D Insights into the Effects of Captivity on Wolf Mastication and Their Tooth Marks; Implications in Ecological Studies of Both the Past and Present

Human populations have been known to develop complex relationships with large carnivore species throughout time, with evidence of both competition and collaboration to obtain resources throughout the Pleistocene. From this perspective, many archaeological and palaeontological sites present evidence of carnivore modifications to bone. In response to this, specialists in the study of microscopic bone surface modifications have resorted to the use of 3D modeling and data science techniques for the inspection of these elements, reaching novel limits for the discerning of carnivore agencies. The present research analyzes the tooth mark variability produced by multiple Iberian wolf individuals, with the aim of studying how captivity may affect the nature of tooth marks left on bone. In addition to this, four different populations of both wild and captive Iberian wolves are also compared for a more in-depth comparison of intra-species variability. This research statistically shows that large canid tooth pits are the least affected by captivity, while tooth scores appear more superficial when produced by captive wolves. The superficial nature of captive wolf tooth scores is additionally seen to correlate with other metric features, thus influencing overall mark morphologies. In light of this, the present study opens a new dialogue on the reasons behind this, advising caution when using tooth scores for carnivore identification and contemplating how elements such as stress may be affecting the wolves under study.

Effects of a new dietary supplement on behavioural responses of dogs exposed to mild stressors

Background & Objectives

The effectiveness of a new dietary supplement (derived from fish hydrolysate and melon juice concentrate rich in superoxide dismutase) in reducing fear and stress‐related behaviours in pet dogs was examined in a double‐blind, placebo‐controlled, randomized study.

Methods

39 dogs were recruited after the owners had filled out a fear susceptibility index questionnaire. Over a 30‐day period, one group of dogs received the supplement, and another group a placebo.

Twelve behavioural variables were recorded in a series of four subtests (ST1‐ST4) on days 0, 15 and 30. Saliva cortisol levels were measured before and after each set of STs.

Results

The dogs rated as more fearful displayed significantly higher cortisol values before the day 0 test session, were less active, spent less time playing with the experimenter, and approached the unfamiliar object less frequently. The owners did not correctly guess whether their dog had received the supplement or not. Behaviours of dogs were significantly different across the three sessions, with significant increases of stress‐related behaviours (time spent in the door zone, number of interactions with the door, of whining, and of lip‐licking). Conversely time spent with the experimenter increased, interactions and curiosity for the novel object and play with the experimenter decreased, presumably due to a habituation process. This suggests that the design of the four subtests session was relevant to test for mild stressors situations. Moreover, supplemented and placebo dogs responded differently to the three test sessions, indicating a supplement effect on dogs' behaviours and their adaptation to mild stressors situations.

Conclusion

The trial results suggested that the supplement facilitates activity and curiosity in a familiar environment, promotes dog‐human interactions with an increased human familiarity, and tends to reduce subtle stress behaviours. Our results suggest that the supplement was effective in the context of mild stressors and habituation.

Effects of a single oral dose of gabapentin on storm phobia in dogs: A double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial

BACKGROUND

Storm phobia in companion dogs is a common disorder that significantly impacts dogs' welfare. Gabapentin, the action of which is only partially understood, is widely used for its antiepileptic and analgesic properties. Only recently, the veterinary community began to use gabapentin to address phobia and anxiety in dogs. This study tested gabapentin to lower fear responses of dogs during a thunderstorm event.

METHODS

Eighteen dogs suffering from storm phobia completed our double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial. Each dog's behaviour was evaluated twice by his owner: once under placebo, once under gabapentin. The treatment was orally administered at least 90 min before the exposure. Gabapentin was given at a dose ranging from 25 to 30 mg/kg.

RESULTS

Our results indicate a significant reduction of the fear responses of dogs under gabapentin. The adverse effects were rare, and the most frequent amongst them was ataxia.

CONCLUSION

In this trial, gabapentin appears to be an efficient and safe molecule that should be considered as part of the treatment plan of storm phobia in dogs.

An Investigation into the Impact of Pre-Adolescent Training on Canine Behavior

Simple Summary

Current thinking about puppy training is that it should be performed as early in a dog’s life as possible to prevent the later development of behavior problems. However, no study has been performed to see if early puppy training (before 3 months of age) does present clear advantages over training at a later age, in terms of the subsequent development of adult behavior problems. This retrospective study examined the age at which adult dogs were trained as puppies and whether there were advantages of training puppies before 4 months of age or between 5 and 6 months of age. We found no difference in the age of puppy training and the subsequent development of behavior problems. Aggression, compulsive behavior, destructive behavior, and excessive barking were all reduced in dogs that had attended puppy training before 6 months of age compared to a control group of dogs that had not attended puppy training classes. Ancillary findings about the entire study population were that dogs acquired as pups at 12 weeks of age or less had reduced odds of exhibiting fear or anxiety and engaging in destructive behavior. In addition, male dogs were found to have reduced odds of developing aggressive behavior, compulsive behavior, and mounting/humping and increased odds of rolling in repulsive materials. Neutered dogs of either sex were found to have increased odds of developing fear and anxiety, increased odds of escaping/running away, exhibiting coprophagia, and rolling in repulsive materials. The odds of problematic jumping decreased with age.

Abstract

An online survey about puppy training was sent to members of the Center for Canine Behavior Studies and posted on our social media platforms. Six hundred forty-one (641) qualifying owners provided information on 1023 dogs. About half (48%) of the dogs involved in the study attended puppy training and the balance (52%) did not. The goal of the study was to find out whether puppy training at various ages (1–3 months, 4 months, 5–6 months) helped prevent behavior problems later in life (≥1 year). Attending training at 6 months of age or younger resulted in 0.71 the odds of developing aggressive behavior (95% CI: 0.53–0.97; p = 0.030), 0.64 the odds of having a compulsive behavior (95% CI: 0.45–0.92; p = 0.015), 0.60 the odds of exhibiting destructive behavior (95% CI: 0.37–0.96; p = 0.035), 0.68 the odds of excessive barking (95% CI: 0.47–0.99; p = 0.043), and 1.56 the odds of house soiling (95% CI: 1.08–2.27; p = 0.019). Ancillary findings about the entire study population were that dogs acquired at 12 weeks of age or younger were found to have 0.65 the odds of fear/anxiety (95% CI: 0.46–0.92; p = 0.016) and 0.50 the odds of exhibiting destructive behavior (95% CI: 0.31–0.79; p = 0.003). In addition, male dogs were found to have 0.68 the odds of developing aggressive behavior (95% CI: 0.53–0.88; p = 0.003), 0.66 the odds of developing compulsive behavior (95% CI: 0.49–0.88; p = 0.006), 0.37 the odds of mounting/humping (95% CI: 0.26–0.52; p < 0.001), and 1.53 the odds of rolling in repulsive materials (95% CI: 1.18–1.97; p = 0.001). Neutered dogs of either sex were found to have 3.10 the odds of fear/anxiety (95% CI: 2.05–4.72; p < 0.001), 1.97 the odds of escaping/running away (95% CI: 1.12–3.69; p = 0.025), 2.01 the odds of exhibiting coprophagia (95% CI 1.30–3.19; p = 0.002), and 1.72 the odds of rolling in repulsive materials (95% CI: 1.12–2.66; p = 0.014). The odds of problematic jumping deceased by 0.84 for each 1-year increase in age (95% CI: 0.80–0.88; p < 0.001).

Evaluation of associations between owner presence and indicators of fear in dogs during routine veterinary examinations

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the influence of owner presence on behavioral and physiologic indicators of fear in dogs during routine physical examinations.

ANIMALS

32 client-owned dogs.

PROCEDURES

Dogs underwent a standardized, video-recorded examination consisting of 6 phases (examination of the head, lymph node palpation, body palpation, axillary temperature measurement, heart rate assessment, and respiratory rate assessment) with or without their owner present in a randomized, controlled study. Behaviors reported to be indicative of fear, including reduced posture, avoidance, escape, lip licking, body shaking, yawning, and vocalizing, were assessed during each phase, and physiologic measurements were assessed during relevant phases by the investigator. Owner presence and sex and age of dogs were investigated for associations with behavioral signs of fear; behavioral and physiologic measurements were compared between groups (owner present vs owner absent).

RESULTS

Dogs in the owner-present group had a lower rate of vocalizations, lower mean axillary temperature, and higher rate of yawning than dogs in the owner-absent group. Female dogs in the owner-absent group had a higher heart rate than females and males in the owner-present group and males in the owner-absent group, and the rate of lip licking decreased as age increased in the owner-present group. The presence of reduced body posture and rates of lip licking, avoidance behavior, and escape behavior were associated with examination phase.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Results suggested that, when practical, owners should be encouraged to remain with their dog during routine veterinary examinations. However, effects of owner presence during procedures require further investigation. (J Am Vet Med Assoc 2020;257:1031-1040).

Hippocampal monoamine changes in the Flinders sensitive line rat: A case for the possible use of selective α2C-AR-antagonists in stress and anxiety disorders in companion animals

Non-selective α₂-adrenoreceptor (AR) stimulation delivers favourable sedative, analgesic, muscle relaxant and anxiolytic actions in companion animals, but is associated with cardiovascular and respiratory side effects. Anxiety conditions underscore monoamine disturbances amenable to α₂-AR modulation. We investigated sub-chronic (14 day s.c.) treatment with the selective α_2C-AR antagonist, ORM-10921 (0.03, 0.1, 0.3 mg/kg/d) on hippocampal noradrenaline (NA), dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT) and their turnover levels in stress sensitive Flinders Sensitive Line (FSL) rats versus Flinders Resistant Line (FRL) controls, using high performance liquid chromatography. The effects of ORM-10921 were compared to the non-selective α₂-AR antagonist, idazoxan (IDAZ; 3 mg/kg/d), and to imipramine (IMI; 15 mg/kg/d), a reference antidepressant in this model. FSL rats displayed significantly reduced 5-HT (p = 0.03) and DA (p = 0.02) levels vs. FRL controls, while NA levels showed a similar trend. ORM-10921 significantly increased NA (all doses p ≤ 0.02), 5-HT (0.1 and 0.3 mg/kg p ≤ 0.03) and DA levels (all doses p ≤ 0.03), which correlated with decreased monoamine turnover. In contrast, IDAZ significantly elevated NA (p < 0.005) and DA (p < 0.004) but not 5-HT levels. IMI also significantly increased 5-HT (p < 0.009), with a tendency to increase NA (p = 0.09) but not DA. ORM-10921 exerts similar albeit broader effects on hippocampal monoamines than IDAZ, explaining earlier established efficacy associated with α_2C-AR antagonism in animal models of depression and cognitive dysfunction. These and the current studies encourage application of ORM-10921 in depression in humans, as well as raise the intriguing possibility that selective α_2C-AR antagonists may be beneficial in anxiety and stress-related disorders in companion animals. Both warrant further study.

Owner Personality, Owner-Dog Attachment, and Canine Demographics Influence Treatment Outcomes in Canine Behavioral Medicine Cases

Human and canine parameters can affect the development of canine behavior problems, although their influence on the dog's response to veterinary behavioral treatment remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the possible associations between canine behavior following clinical intervention and canine demographic characteristics, owner personality and owner-dog attachment. The study included 131 dog-owner dyads who attended a veterinary behavioral service. Owners completed the C-BARQ at baseline, 3-months and 6-months, and the 10 Item Personality Inventory and Lexington Attachment to Pet Scale at baseline. Data were analyzed for the effect of clinical intervention on C-BARQ subscale scores using mixed effect models. Binary logistic regression models were used to analyze the association between behavior change and canine and owner parameters. Within 6-months of veterinary consultation, trainability increased (coefficient 0.03, p = 0.01) and chasing (coefficient −0.04, p = 0.02), separation-related behavior (coefficient −0.04, p = 0.01) and energy level (coefficient −0.04, p = 0.05) decreased. Treatment outcomes were associated with both canine and owner variables. Canine behavior at baseline was the most consistent predictor of behavior change with less desirable baseline behavior associated with greater odds of decreased problem behavior at three- and 6-months post-consultation across most C-BARQ subscales. Canine age and weight; owner conscientiousness, extraversion and openness; and owner-dog attachment were also associated with treatment outcomes for some behavioral categories. These findings could be used by veterinarians to formulate more accurate prognoses and provide owners with targeted advice to reduce the influence of background factors on the dog's response to clinical behavioral intervention.

The Impact of Feeding Cannabidiol (CBD) Containing Treats on Canine Response to a Noise-Induced Fear Response Test

Interest is increasing regarding use of Cannabidiol (CBD) in companion animals due to anecdotal evidence of beneficial behavioral and health effects. The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the influence of CBD on behavioral responses to fear-inducing stimuli in dogs. Sixteen dogs (18.1 ± 0.2 kg) were utilized in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design experiment with treatments arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial, consisting of control, 25 mg CBD, trazodone (100 mg for 10–20 kg BW, 200 mg for 20.1–40 kg BW), and the combination of CBD and trazodone. A fireworks model of noise-induced fear was used to assess CBD effectiveness after 7 d of supplementation. Each test lasted a total of 6 min and consisted of a 3 min environmental habituation phase with no noise and a 3 min noise phase with a fireworks track. Plasma was collected 1 h before, immediately after, and 1 h following testing for cortisol analysis. Behaviors in each 3 min block were video recorded, and heart rate (HR) sensors were fitted for collection of HR and HR variability parameters. Research personnel administering treats and analyzing behavioral data were blinded as to the treatments administered. Data were tested for normality using the UNIVARIATE procedure in SAS, then differences examined using the MIXED procedure with fixed effects of treatment, period, time, and treatment x time interaction. Inactivity duration and HR increased during the first minute of the fireworks track compared with 1 min prior (P < 0.001 and P = 0.011, respectively), indicating the fireworks model successfully generated a fear response. Trazodone lowered plasma cortisol (P < 0.001), which was unaffected by CBD (P = 0.104) or the combination with CBD (P = 0.238). Neither CBD nor trazodone affected the duration of inactivity (P = 0.918 and 0.329, respectively). Trazodone increased time spent with tail relaxed (P = 0.001). CBD tended to increase HR (P = 0.093) and decreased the peak of low- and high-frequency bands (LF and HF, P = 0.011 and 0.022, respectively). These results do not support an anxiolytic effect of CBD in dogs given 1.4 mg CBD/kg BW/d.

Mental Health Disease or Preventable Problem? Australian Dog Trainers' Opinions about Canine Separation Anxiety Differ with Training Style

Separation anxiety is common. Many dog owners do not seek help from a veterinarian but might consult a trainer. The objective of this study was to investigate Australian trainers' opinions about separation anxiety. An online survey was distributed via training organisations, resulting in 63 completed surveys. Descriptive statistics and Fisher's exact tests were applied. Respondents were grouped into reward-based (n = 41) and balanced (n = 22) trainers. Most trainers (82.5%) used multiple methods to identify separation anxiety but only 7.9% referred to a veterinarian for diagnosis. Reward-based trainers ranked assistance from a veterinarian and owner's willingness to try medication as more important than balanced trainers (p < 0.05). More balanced trainers reported that medication was rarely necessary in the cases they saw: 50% balanced compared with 4.9% reward-based trainers, with 95% CIs of [28.2, 71.8] and [0.6, 16.5], respectively. Almost all (95.5%) balanced trainers believed separation anxiety was preventable compared with 52.6% of reward-based trainers (p < 0.05). We conclude that opinions about separation anxiety varied between reward-based and balanced trainers. Trainers are not taught, expected, or legally allowed to diagnose anxiety disorders. This study showed that balanced trainers were less likely to recommend involvement of veterinarians who can make a diagnosis and rule out other causes of observed behaviours.

Development and Psychometric Validation of the Lincoln Canine Anxiety Scale

Introduction: Anxiety in dogs, especially in relation to certain noises, is a common issue which can lead to clinically significant problems like noise phobias. While several scales have been used to assess sound sensitivity and reactivity, clinical monitoring has tended to depend on unvalidated methods, general assessment, and/or historical comparison with owners' recall of previous episodes. Therefore, we aimed to develop and validate a scale to assess canine anxiety.

Materials and Methods: We used the data from 226 dogs from a previously reported double blind placebo controlled study in order to determine the validity of the 16 item “Lincoln Canine Anxiety Scale.” Unidimensionality was assessed through correlation between individual item scores and total score, with internal consistency assessed using Cronbach's alpha. Factor analysis was used to determine the dimensionality of the scale. Item response theory (IRT) was used to gain insight into the value of single items to the overall scale scores. To characterize the score characteristics in an anxiety-eliciting context we analyzed the behaviors of placebo treated dogs assessed at 00:20 h, the time point of maximum noise stimulus during New Year's Eve fireworks. Sensitivity of the scale to treatment effects was determined from its performance in the wider study.

Results: The majority of correlations between individual items and total score were >0.48, with Cronbach's alpha equalling 0.88, indicating good internal consistency. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) confirmed a unidimensional structure. IRT indicated that the scale could be reduced to 11 items without significantly reducing its value. The scale showed good treatment and stimulus sensitivity, with a score change of ~20 points differentiating “no/worse” effect from an “excellent” effect and a 30% difference between treatment (imepitoin) and placebo.

Conclusion: In our initial validation the Lincoln Canine Anxiety Scale appears to provide a reliable method for determining anxiety and fear responses by dogs and monitoring the effects of treatment.

Prevalence, comorbidity, and breed differences in canine anxiety in 13,700 Finnish pet dogs

Behaviour problems and anxieties in dogs decrease their quality of life and may lead to relinquishment or euthanasia. Considering the large number of pet dogs and the commonness of these problematic behaviours, a better understanding of the epidemiology and related molecular and environmental factors is needed. We have here studied the prevalence, comorbidity, and breed specificity of seven canine anxiety-like traits: noise sensitivity, fearfulness, fear of surfaces and heights, inattention/impulsivity, compulsion, separation related behaviour and aggression with an online behaviour questionnaire answered by dog owners. Our results show that noise sensitivity is the most common anxiety-related trait with a prevalence of 32% in 13,700 Finnish pet dogs. Due to the high prevalence of noise sensitivity and fear, they were the most common comorbidities. However, when comparing the relative risk, the largest risk ratios were seen between hyperactivity/inattention, separation related behaviour and compulsion, and between fear and aggression. Furthermore, dog breeds showed large differences in prevalence of all anxiety-related traits, suggesting a strong genetic contribution. As a result, selective breeding focusing on behaviour may reduce the prevalence of canine anxieties. Anxious animals may suffer from chronic stress and thus, modified breeding policies could improve the welfare of our companion dogs.

Developing Diagnostic Frameworks in Veterinary Behavioral Medicine: Disambiguating Separation Related Problems in Dogs

Diagnoses are widely used in both human and veterinary medicine to describe the nature of a condition; by contrast, syndromes are collections of signs that consistently occur together to form a characteristic presentation. Treatment of syndromes, due to either their lack of a clear biological cause or multiple causes, necessarily remains non-specific. However, the discovery of interventions may help refine the definition of a syndrome into a diagnosis. Within the field of veterinary behavioral medicine, separation related problems (SRPs) provide a good example of a syndrome. We describe here a comprehensive process to develop a diagnostic framework (including quality control assessments), for disambiguating the signs of SRPs as an example of a heterogeneous behavioral syndrome in non-human animals requiring greater diagnostic and treatment precision. To do this we developed an online questionnaire (243 items) that covered the full spectrum of theoretical bases to the syndrome and undertook a large-scale survey of the presenting signs of dogs with one or more of the signs of SRPs (n = 2,757). Principal components analysis (n1 = 345), replicated in a second sample (n2 = 417; total n = 762), was used to define the structure of variation in behavioral presentation, while hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis cross checked with the partitioned around medoids method was used to determine sub-populations. A total of 54 signs were of value in defining a latent structure consisting of seven principal components (termed "exit frustration," "social panic," "elimination," "redirected frustration," "reactive communication," "immediate frustration," "noise sensitivity"), which divided the population in four clusters (termed "exit frustration," "redirected reactive," "reactive inhibited" and "boredom" related SRPs) with 11 sub-clusters (3, 3, 3, and 2, respectively). We used a bottom-up data-driven approach with numerous quality checks for the definition of robust clusters to provide a robust methodology for nosological studies in veterinary behavioral medicine, that can extend our understanding of the nature of problems beyond SRPs. This provides a solid foundation for future work examining aetiological, and differential treatment outcomes, that will allow both more effective treatment and prevention programmes, based on a fully appreciation of the nature of the problem of concern.

Pharmacokinetics, absolute bioavailability and tolerability of ketamine after intranasal administration to dexmedetomidine sedated dogs

Intranasal ketamine has recently gained interest in human medicine, not only for its sedative, anaesthetic or analgesic properties, but also in the management of treatment resistant depression, where it has been shown to be an effective, fast acting alternative treatment. Since several similarities are reported between human psychiatric disorders and canine anxiety disorders, intranasal ketamine could serve as an alternative treatment for anxiety disordered dogs. However, to the authors knowledge, intranasal administration of ketamine and its pharmacokinetics have never been described in dogs. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the pharmacokinetics, absolute bioavailability and tolerability of intranasal ketamine administration compared with intravenous administration. Seven healthy, adult laboratory Beagle dogs were included in this randomized crossover study. The dogs received 2 mg/kg body weight ketamine intravenously (IV) or intranasally (IN), with a two-week wash-out period. Prior to ketamine administration, dogs were sedated intramuscularly with dexmedetomidine. Venous blood samples were collected at fixed times until 480 min post-administration and ketamine plasma concentrations were determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Cardiovascular parameters and sedation scores were recorded at the same time points. Non-compartmental pharmacokinetic analysis revealed a rapid (Tmax = 0.25 ± 0.14 h) and complete IN bioavailability (F = 147.65 ± 49.97%). Elimination half-life was similar between both administration routes (T1/2el IV = 1.47 ± 0.24 h, T1/2el IN = 1.50 ± 0.97 h). Heart rate and sedation scores were significantly higher at 5 and 10 min following IV administration compared to IN administration, but not at the later time-points.