Bacterial Reproductive Pathogens of Cats and Dogs

How Restrictive Legislation Influences Antimicrobial Susceptibility in Selected Bacterial Isolates from the Canine Vagina

Antimicrobial stewardship is one of the cornerstones in the battle against antimicrobial resistance. Restrictive legislation aims to foster antimicrobial stewardship. Prophylactic prescription of antimicrobials is still a widespread practice in canine breeding management to prevent suspected infectious infertility. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of restrictive legislation in Germany (Veterinary Home Pharmacy Ordinance, TÄHAV) based on resistance profiles of common bacterial isolates from the vaginal tract by comparing the resistance situation before (time frame (TF1)) and after (TF2) its amendment. In total, results of 13,373 antimicrobial susceptibility tests of bacterial isolates of Escherichia coli (n = 5209), beta-hemolytic streptococci (n = 4010), and Staphylococcus (Staph.) intermedius group (n = 4154) derived from canine vaginal swabs were assessed. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed on pure cultures using the broth microdilution method. Susceptibility to selected antimicrobials was evaluated. Susceptibility of Escherichia coli generally increased within TF2 with, however, a significant increase in the number of non-susceptible isolates to cefalexin (p < 0.0001). Beta-hemolytic streptococci exhibited good susceptibility to most antimicrobials. Susceptibility developed ambivalently within the Staphylococcus intermedius group. Despite an overall positive effect of increased susceptibility, an increase in non-susceptibility to single antimicrobials was detected, possibly indicating a need for refinement of the legislation.

Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance trends among vaginal bacteria isolates from pregnant bitches

Many of the reproductive tract infections in the bitches are caused by bacteria that can normally be present on the vaginal mucosa. These bacteria also might have an important role as the cause responsible for pregnancy loss and fetal deaths. The choice of antibiotic therapy for the pregnant animal is narrow and represents a severe problem in veterinary practice, especially due to increased antimicrobial resistance. Due to incorrect antimicrobials use in breeding kennels, the aim of the present study was to assess the occurrence of the bacterial flora isolated from the pregnant bitches and their antibiotic sensitivity. The study was carried out at the private Veterinary clinic in Novi Sad, Serbia. The vaginal swabs were taken from 60 bitches diagnosed with pregnancy and were sent to be laboratory tested. Based on the results, the most common isolated pathogens were Staphylococcus pseudintermedius (20%) and beta-hemolytic streptococci (18.33%). Furthermore, significant resistance to antibiotics from beta-lactams group was detected. It is of particular importance that antimicrobial treatment be evidence based in order to reduce the overuse of antimicrobials due to increased concern regarding antimicrobial resistance.

The Canine Vaginal Flora: A Large-Cohort Retrospective Study

Microbiological examinations are frequently performed as part of breeding management examinations in the bitch, but also in case of (suspected) reproductive tract problems. As most bacteria are opportunistic pathogens, evaluation of bacterial findings is challenging for veterinarians. Besides, breeders might request antimicrobial treatment in breeding bitches, fearing conception failure-even without medical indication. Considering the rising threat of antimicrobial resistance, gaining deeper insights into the bacterial findings from the vagina of healthy and (suspected) reproductive-diseased bitches might contribute to the knowledge of the canine aerobic vaginal flora and consequently improve the responsible use of antibiotics. We analyzed results from bacteriological cultures of 23,254 vaginal swabs sent in to three commercial laboratories in Germany between 2015 and 2021, where standard aerobic microbiological examination was carried out. We found a variety of 319 bacterial species that mostly grew in mixed cultures of two or more bacterial species. Commonly found species were Escherichia coli, beta-hemolytic Streptococci, coagulase-positive Staphylococci, Pasteurellales, and aerobic sporulators, as well as other Streptococcus spp. Our results showed a large diversity of the canine vaginal flora in healthy and (suspected) reproductive-diseased bitches. They largely support earlier findings of small studies on the physiological canine vaginal flora, emphasizing that solely the results of a bacterial evaluation should not be the base for antimicrobial treatment. Instead, bacterial findings should be evaluated with the results of a clinical gynecological examination.

Double semen collection at a 1-h interval in dogs decreases the bacterial contamination of canine ejaculates

Semen extenders usually contain antibiotics with the aim to minimize bacterial growth, but the indiscriminate use of antibiotics increases the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria. A limiting factor of semen processing in dogs is the low total sperm count that limits the number of insemination doses that can be obtained from one ejaculate. Therefore, two ejaculates collected at a short interval can be combined to increase the number of AI doses. In this study, semen was collected from dogs either once or the same dogs (n = 28) were submitted to dual semen collection 1 h apart. All ejaculates were submitted to bacteriological analysis. We hypothesized that bacterial contamination of semen is low but that a dual semen collection might increase contamination. A sample for bacteriological examination was taken from raw semen immediately after semen collection. Bacteria including mycoplasmas were isolated using conventional cultivation procedures and isolates were identified to the species level by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization - time of flight (MALDI-ToF) mass spectrometry. In total, 22 bacterial species were identified in the 84 ejaculates with Mycoplasma cynos, Streptococcus canis and Canicola haemoglobinophilus being most frequent. Bacterial growth was sporadic in 16 and absent in 10 ejaculates. The overall bacterial growth was lower in the second than in the first ejaculate of dual semen collections (p < 0.05). The percentage of motile and membrane-intact spermatozoa in frozen-thawed ejaculates was not associated with the degree of bacterial contamination of raw semen. In conclusion, there was only limited microbial contamination in dog semen and the microorganisms isolated are considered part of the normal genital bacterial flora. Repeated semen collection reduced bacterial contamination in the second in comparison to the first ejaculate. The use of antibiotics in canine semen should be questioned.

A systematic review of mammary gland inflammations in queens (Felis catus)

Mastitis is a rare condition that can be diagnosed in female cats of all breeds and ages. It is usually caused by bacterial agents and is frequently encountered secondarily in feline mammary fibroepithelial hyperplasia (FEH). If left untreated, it can peril both the queen and her kittens. Therefore, a reliable and quick diagnosis is the primary key to successful treatment. Conventional diagnosis consists of a clinical and ultrasound evaluation of the queen's mammary glands. However, there is a lack of literature specifically focused on mastitis in queens. Consequently, the present review brings forth the existing knowledge regarding mammary gland inflammations in cats, with the goal of improving current clinical evaluation and treatment plans.

Causes of pregnancy arrest in the canine species

In the canine species, early pregnancy arrest before 30-40 days of pregnancy will induce intra-uterine embryonic or foetal resorption, with very few clinical signs. If no genital examination by ultrasound is performed at that time, it will often remain unnoticed and the bitch will be qualified as infertile. It is only when pregnancy stops at a later stage, mostly after 40 days, that clinical signs will be seen. Expulsion of aborted foetuses or placentas may be observed, although the dam frequently eats the expelled tissues. Intra-uterine mummification may also occur. This article reviews the causes of pregnancy termination in the bitch, both at the embryonic and the foetal stages, reported in the literature. Canine brucellosis is by far the most important disease concerned in this aspect. There is an important current concern about this disease, due to the fact that several outbreaks have been observed recently in Europe, and that it is a very contagious disease; it may be an underestimated zoonosis. Other bacterial causes of pregnancy arrest are sporadic. There is, however, a growing attention towards the microbiological content of raw food diets which are more and more popular among dog breeders and may-if badly prepared-contain abortifacient bacteria such as Campylobacter jejuni or Listeria monocytogenes. The abortifacient role of endogenous vaginal bacteria and mycoplasms remains unclear and may be related to an imbalanced vaginal flora with subsequent ascending bacterial contamination of the uterus. The role of Canine Herpesvirus on abortion is controversial and probably not frequent. Other viruses have been shown experimentally to induce abortion but their natural occurrence in this respect remains unknown. The same applies to the parasite Neospora caninum which is suspected, but not proven, potentially to induce pregnancy arrest in bitches. Among non-infectious causes, uterine pathology such as cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH) or sub-clinical post-mating endometritis which can cause infertility and may also induce embryonic resorption. The role of luteal insufficiency in pregnancy arrest is probably overestimated.

A double-blinded randomized placebo-controlled non-inferiority trial protocol for postoperative infections associated with canine pyometra

BACKGROUND

Pyometra is a common infectious condition, especially in elderly bitches. In addition to an infected uterus, dogs may have concurrent urinary tract infection (UTI). The preferred treatment is surgical removal of the ovaries and uterus, whereupon the general prognosis is excellent. In addition, antimicrobial therapy is frequently prescribed for postoperative treatment. However, no research exists on the benefit of postoperative antimicrobial treatment in uncomplicated canine pyometra. Antimicrobial resistance has become a major challenge in treatment of bacterial infections. Diminishing overuse of antimicrobial agents is essential for controlling the development of antimicrobial resistance in both animals and humans.

METHODS

This double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled two-arm clinical trial is designed to compare the incidence of postoperative infections associated with surgical treatment of uncomplicated pyometra followed by two different treatment protocols. For the study, 150 dogs presenting with an uncomplicated pyometra and that are to undergo surgical treatment will be recruited. Dogs with body weight < 3 or > 93 kg, complicated pyometra, primary disease increasing the risk of infection, or immunosuppressive medication will be excluded. All dogs will receive one dose of sulfadoxine-trimethoprim intravenously as an antimicrobial prophylaxis. Postoperatively, dogs will be randomized to receive either a five-day course of placebo or an active drug, sulfadiazine-trimethoprim orally. During the surgery microbiological samples will be taken from urine and uterine content. The follow-up includes a control visit in 12 days and an interview of the owner 30 days after surgery. If bacteriuria is detected at the time of surgery, a urinary sample will be cultured for bacterial growth at the control visit. The primary outcome is the incidence of a postoperative surgical site infection (SSI), and the secondary outcome is the occurrence of clinical UTI with bacteriuria. Intention-to-treat and per-protocol analyses will be performed to compare outcome incidences between the treatment groups.

DISCUSSION

Research-based evidence is necessary to create treatment guidelines for judicious use of antimicrobials. The goals of this study are to provide evidence for reducing the use of antimicrobials and targeting the treatment to patients proven to benefit from it. Publishing the trial protocol will increase transparency and promote open science practices.

Uterine issues in infertile queens: nine cases

This prospective case series investigated potential uterine causes of infertility in queens. Purebred queens with infertility (failure to conceive, embryonic death, or failure to maintain pregnancy and produce viable kittens), but no other reproductive disorders were examined approximately 1-8 weeks before mating (Visit 1), 21 days after mating (Visit 2), and 45 days after mating (Visit 3) if pregnant at Visit 2. Investigations included vaginal cytology and bacteriology, urine bacteriology, and ultrasonography. At Visit 2 or 3, uterine biopsy or ovariohysterectomy was performed for histology. Of nine eligible queens, seven were non-pregnant by ultrasound at Visit 2 and two had lost pregnancies by Visit 3. Ovulation was confirmed by serum progesterone concentration in all queens. Ultrasonic appearance of the ovaries and uterus was compatible with a healthy status except for one queen with signs of cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH) and pyometra, a follicular cyst in another, and fetal resorptions in two queens. Six cats had histologic lesions of endometrial hyperplasia, including CEH (n=1). Only one cat had no histologic uterine lesions. Bacteria were cultured from vaginal samples in seven queens at Visit 1, (two were non-evaluable), and in five of seven queens sampled at Visit 2. Uterine cultures were negative except for the cat with pyometra. All urine cultures were negative. In summary, the most frequent pathology observed in these infertile queens was histologic endometrial hyperplasia, which can potentially inhibit embryo implantation and healthy placental development. This suggests that uterine disease might contribute substantially to infertility in purebred queens.

Molecular detection of vector-borne pathogens in semen from dogs in southeastern Brazil

Vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) are primarily transmitted by arthropod vectors, but secondary ways of transmission have been described, including via venereal route. Nonetheless, there is still limited research on possible sexual transmission of VBPs in dogs. We molecularly investigated the presence of vector-borne pathogens in semen from dogs living in an area where these agents are endemic. Upon PCR testing, seven out of 22 (31.8%) semen samples tested positive for at least one VBP, whereas simultaneous positivity to two or more pathogens was detected in three (13.6%) dogs. Among pathogens detected in semen, Trypanosoma cruzi (n = 1) and Leishmania infantum (n = 3) were identified to species level by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. Attempts to sequence PCR products from other pathogens were unsuccessful, but coupled epidemiological and molecular data suggest the presence of Anaplasma platys (n = 5), Babesia vogeli (n = 1) and Ehrlichia canis (n = 1) in semen from dogs. Further experimental studies would be needed to confirm the sexual transmission hypothesis for these VBPs and also the possible implications of these findings for canine reproduction.

Infertility In Queens: Clinical approach, experiences and challenges

CLINICAL CHALLENGES

It is not easy for a veterinarian to determine the cause of infertility in a queen. The simplest method is to start by investigating the most common causes and then progress by successive elimination to the less common causes. For example, mating problems are commonly responsible for reproductive failure, and owners should be particularly vigilant in checking that the mating is progressing satisfactorily. Frequently, a veterinarian may have to determine, among other things, if there is a uterine or hormonal disorder or if an infectious pathology may be involved. In the case of a queen that is not cycling, it is important to differentiate a lack of onset of puberty in a young queen from a lack of cyclicity in an adult queen.

AIM

This review sets out a practical, step-by-step approach that veterinarians can follow, starting with the most common causes of infertility in queens and moving towards more rare or specific causes.

EQUIPMENT AND TECHNICAL SKILLS

Simple techniques such as vaginal smears are essential to determine if a queen that is ready to be mated is in full oestrus, if a queen is cycling or not and to diagnose inflammation of the genital tract. Veterinarians should be familiar with the peculiarities of the swabbing technique in cats, as well as the interpretation of feline vaginal cytology. Progesterone assays are useful on many occasions in the diagnosis pathway. A laboratory capable of performing karyotypes should ideally be available. Finally, it is important to be able to perform an ultrasound examination of the ovaries and uterus in a queen.

EVIDENCE BASE

Although it appears that infertility is a problem among purebred queens, there is a lack of knowledge in this area and too few published studies. Some causes of feline infertility remain poorly investigated.

The First Case of Cytauxzoon spp. in Russia: The Parasite Conquers Eurasia

Simple Summary

Cytauxzoon felis was first described more than 40 years ago in the US, later (in the 21st century) similar pathogens were detected in Eurasian and Iberian lynxes, European wildcats and domestic cats in Southern and Central Europe. Our findings have shown the previously unrecorded presence of this parasite in Russia (50 km from Moscow). We described the crucial decrease in the number of leukocytes and erythrocytes, as well as in hemoglobin concentration, throughout the captive serval’s disease, and their increase during the animal’s recovery over six months. Molecular genetic methods allowed us to detect and describe this parasite in four cat species in captivity. The analysis showed high genetic variability and high occurrence of the parasites, which suggests their presence in free-ranging domestic cats and wild felids in Russia.

Abstract

Over the last two decades, Cytauxzoon spp. has been conquering Eurasia, although this fact has only been brought to light through recent more intensive research after the discovery of C. manul in Pallas’ cat. In Europe, Cytauxzoon was detected mainly in southern countries and later in central Europe. This pathogen has now been found in Russia for the first time (50 km from Moscow), this being the most northern sighting in Eurasia. A captive serval (Leptailurus serval) was found to be infected. Hematological analysis showed a crucial decrease in the number of leukocytes and erythrocytes, as well as in hemoglobin concentration. Genetic analysis confirmed the presence of Cytauxzoon spp. in serval blood at the beginning of the disease period. The identical pathogen was found in one bobcat at the same breeding center. Two other haplotypes of Cytauxzoon spp. were obtained from domestic cats at the same location, identical to the samples from Italy. One new haplotype, which was sequenced for the first time, was found in 7/7 investigated Amur wildcats (100%). The high occurrence and diversity of these pathogens suggest that they are present in free-ranging domestic cats and wild felids in Russia, and may be considered a potential threat to the endangered species. Current research shows that the genetic diversity of this pathogen may be even higher than it was suggested previously. Further genetic research is necessary to describe the diversity and phylogeny of this pathogen in Eurasia.

Neonatal sepsis in dogs: Incidence, clinical aspects and mortality

The neonatal period in dogs remains associated with high mortality rates. Sepsis is the main cause of neonatal losses during the first three weeks of life. Additionally, failure in the clinical assessment and early diagnosis of sick newborns is still common, leading to inadequate care, which contributes to a high mortality rate. Thus, the objective of this study was to describe the incidence of sepsis in canine newborns, the clinical aspects involved, the main isolated bacterial agents and mortality rates to facilitate clinicians' early recognition of this condition. Of the 152 litters and 762 neonates evaluated, 14.8% (113/762) had sepsis or septic shock, and the mortality rate among affected puppies was 25.6% (29/113). Among the puppies with sepsis that died, early mortality (0-2 days of age) occurred in 69% (20/29) of affected neonates, and late mortality (3-30 days of age) occurred in 31% (9/29) of affected neonates. Significant differences (p < 0.0001) in clinical parameters (heart and respiratory rates, blood glucose, body temperature, peripheral oxygen saturation and reflexes) were noted among healthy neonates and neonates with sepsis and septic shock. The main and most relevant clinical signs were apathy, a reduced sucking reflex, diarrhea, the neonatal triad, failure to gain weight, bradycardia, dyspnea, cyanotic mucous membranes, body erythema, reduced peripheral oxygen saturation, cyanosis and tissue necrosis in the extremities. The mother may have been the main source of infection for 87.6% (99/113) of neonates with sepsis. Most infections were transmitted during pregnancy (68%, 77/113) in cases of neonatal sepsis. The major source of infection for neonates was the uterus, followed by breast milk and maternal oropharyngeal secretions. The most frequently isolated bacterial agent was Escherichia coli, accounting for 25.6% (29/113) of sepsis cases. The morbidity and mortality of neonatal sepsis in dogs is high. The clinical evaluation and diagnosis of sepsis in neonates differ from those in adult animals. Thus, knowledge of the neonatal particularities of sepsis is essential for proper clinical management and greater survival of these patients.

Progesterone Concentrations during Canine Pregnancy

Simple Summary

For breeders and bitches alike, pregnancy is a challenging period. Insufficient serum progesterone concentrations have frequently been suggested to be responsible for pregnancy loss or early parturition, without any scientific evidence to support those claims. In this study, a large number of bitches was followed throughout pregnancy, and serum progesterone concentrations were determined to deduce which concentrations could be considered normal. Three blood samples were collected, one each during early, mid and late pregnancy. The results indicated that progesterone concentrations can be lower than previously described as adequate in the veterinary literature, with the bitch still exhibiting no signs of pregnancy distress and giving birth to healthy puppies at the expected time.

Abstract

Pregnancy and lactation are amongst the most challenging times of a bitch’s life. Most studies focusing on the endocrinological aspect of pregnancy consider only a small number of animals. The aim of this study was to evaluate progesterone (P4) concentrations in a large number of bitches during early, mid and late pregnancy. In total, 126 bitches of various breeds were recruited following a thorough clinical and gynecological examination during estrus. Blood samples were collected three times (T1–T3) during pregnancy or from non-pregnant dogs in diestrus, and P4 was measured via chemiluminescence. At T1 (11–19 days post-ovulation (dpo)), serum P4 concentrations were 30.23 ± 6.65 ng/mL and 28.45 ± 6.26 ng/mL, at T2 (23–32 dpo) they were 22.73 ± 6.27 ng/mL and 22.59 ± 5.77 ng/mL and at T3 (52–60 dpo) they were 6.68 ± 2.18 ng/mL and 3.17 ± 2.26 ng/mL, in pregnant (n = 98) and non-pregnant (n = 23) dogs respectively. The P4 concentrations differed significantly between pregnant and non-pregnant animals at the last examination (p ≤ 0.001). In the context of hypoluteoidism, the gathered data yielded interesting results. Overall, 28 out of 98 pregnant bitches showed a greater decline (>15 ng/mL) in P4 concentrations from early to mid-pregnancy, and 56 bitches showed P4 concentrations lower than deemed adequate (>20 ng/mL at T1 and T2, >5 ng/mL at T3) according to existing recommendations. Despite not being supplemented with P4, none of those animals suffered from abortion or preterm delivery. Considering that supplementation of P4 can entail considerable risks for the bitch and the puppies, more research on P4 concentration patterns, diagnosis of hypoluteoidism and treatment indications and options is indicated.

Aerobic Isolates from Gestational and Non-Gestational Lactating Bitches (Canis lupus familiaris)

Simple Summary

Mastitis represents the inflammation of the mammary gland, and it affects all mammals. It is usually caused by bacterial agents, but other organisms such as fungi or parasites can be responsible for the onset of mastitis. In bitches, mastitis is considered a genuine emergency, since it can affect both the mother and the pups. Left untreated, it can lead to the loss of the bitch and the entire litter. The aim of this study was to evaluate the bacterial load from the milk of healthy bitches and from bitches with mastitis. The main isolated bacterial families were the Staphylococcaceae, Enterobacteriaceae and Enterococcaceae families. The bacterial load from bitches’ overt pseudopregnancy seems to have a lower bacteriological burden than periparturient females. Some of the isolated milk strains of lactating bitches are also responsible for nosocomial infection. The transmission of such strains from humans to animals or vice versa is possible. Environmental hygiene needs to be adequately addressed, alongside a minimum manipulation of the lactating mammary glands where possible.

Abstract

Mastitis is a complex and well-defined mammary gland pathology, and an emergency in bitches. In dogs, its prevalence is about 1% of all reported diseases and about 5.3% of all reproductive pathologies. Lactating bitches are naturally prone to developing mastitis since puppies can easily overstimulate the epidermal layer of nipples during feeding, facilitating bacterial colonization of the glands. This study aimed to describe the aerobic bacterial flora isolated from milk samples derived from a cohort of patients (n = 87) diagnosed with clinical mastitis (n = 29), subclinical mastitis (n = 17) and healthy mammary glands (n = 46). All of the patients underwent a gynecology consultation to diagnose mammary gland afflictions; physical examination results were coupled with traditional hematological findings. The milk samples were plated on specific microbiological media for bacterial isolation. Among the 162 milk samples analyzed, 93.2% (151/162) had a positive microbiological result, while 6.8% (11/162) were sterile. The bacteriological profile of the milk samples showed 47 different species. The most common bacterial families detected in healthy bitches and bitches with subclinical and clinical mastitis were the Staphylococcaceae, Enterobacteriaceae and Enterococcaceae families. The results indicated that half of the isolated bacteria are novel findings in dogs and that some of them are normal components of human milk.

Multiple and High-Risk Clones of Extended-Spectrum Cephalosporin-Resistant and blaNDM-5-Harbouring Uropathogenic Escherichia coli from Cats and Dogs in Thailand

Resistance to extended-spectrum cephalosporins (ESC) and carbapenems in Escherichia coli (E. coli), increasingly identified in small animals, indicates a crisis of an antimicrobial resistance situation in veterinary medicine and public health. This study aimed to characterise the genetic features of ESC-resistant E. coli isolated from cats and dogs with urinary tract infections in Thailand. Of 72 ESC-resistant E. coli isolated from diagnostic samples (2016-2018), blaCTX-M including group 1 (CTX-M-55, -15 and -173) and group 9 (CTX-M-14, -27, -65 and -90) variants were detected in 47 isolates (65.28%) using PCR and DNA sequencing. Additional antimicrobial resistance genes, including plasmid-mediated AmpC (CIT and DHA), blaNDM-5, mcr-3, mph(A) and aac(6')-Ib-cr, were detected in these isolates. Using a broth microdilution assay, all the strains exhibited multidrug-resistant phenotypes. The phylogroups were F (36.11%), A (20.83%), B1 (19.44%), B2 (19.44%) and D (4.17%), with several virulence genes, plasmid replicons and an integrase gene. The DNA fingerprinting using a repetitive extragenic palindromic sequence-PCR presented clonal relationships within phylogroups. Multiple human-associated, high-risk ExPEC clones associated with multidrug resistance, including sequence type (ST) 38, ST131, ST224, ST167, ST354, ST410, ST617 and ST648, were identified, suggesting clonal dissemination. Dogs and cats are a potential reservoir of ESC-resistant E. coli and significant antimicrobial resistance genes.

Prevalence of Vector-Borne Pathogens in Reproductive and Non-Reproductive Tissue Samples from Free-Roaming Domestic Cats in the South Atlantic USA

Reservoir to multiple species of zoonotic pathogens, free-roaming cats (FRCs) interact with domestic and wild animals, vectors, and humans. To assess the potential for feline vector-borne pathogens to be vertically transmitted, this study surveyed ear tip and reproductive tissues of FRCs from two locations in the South Atlantic United States for Anaplasma, Bartonella, Ehrlichia, hemotropic Mycoplasma, and Rickettsia species. We collected ovary (n = 72), uterus (n = 54), testicle (n = 74), and ear tip (n = 73) tissue from 73 cats, and fetal (n = 20) and placental (n = 19) tissue from 11 queens. Pathogen DNA was amplified utilizing qPCR, confirmed by sequencing. Cats were more frequently Bartonella henselae positive on reproductive tissues (19%, 14/73) than ear tip (5%, 4/73; p = 0.02). B. henselae was amplified from fetus (20%, 4/20) and placenta samples (11%, 2/19). Bartonella spp. infection was more common in cats from North Carolina (76%, 26/34) than Virginia (13%, 5/39; p < 0.0001). Fourteen percent (10/73) of both ear tip and reproductive tissues were positive for hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, and Rickettsia spp. DNA was not amplified from any cat/tissue. These findings suggest that B. henselae preferentially infected cats' reproductive tissue and reinforces the importance of investigating the potential for B. henselae vertical transmission or induction of reproductive failure.

Lactation-related mammary gland pathologies-A neglected emergency in the bitch

Mastitis is a common reproductive disorder in bitches, reaching a prevalence of 0.71%. Mastitis has a wide range of forms, from asymptomatic to severe gangrenous mastitis that can lead to septic shock and death of the bitch and nurslings. However, most of the time it is overlooked, undiagnosed or mistreated. The present systematic review was performed to revise and summarize the existing knowledge related to this disorder, including diagnosis, treatment and prevention.

Infertility in purebred cats - A review of the potential causes

Although purebred cat breeding is growing in popularity in European countries, most research and publications concern dog reproduction. Infertility in queens has been poorly studied. It may not come as a surprise as common domestic shorthair cats are well known for their excellent fertility. However, even in the latter, the infertility rate is around 20%. Only recently, published articles have analyzed the reproductive performances in different breeds, for example in UK, Sweden, France and Italy, and found similar figures. In cats, infertility may arise from many factors such as mismating, prolonged anestrus or silent heats, hormonal, nutritional, genetical or chromosomal causes. Also, infectious diseases, probably frequent in breeding facilities, include pathological agents that are well recognized as having a negative effect on pregnancy or other pathogens for which the involvement in fertility problems is unclear. However, analyzing the literature, it appears that the most prevalent causes of infertility in pedigree cats may well be, in females, uterine pathology (sub-clinical endometritis, cystic endometrial hyperplasia, or mucometra), and in males, teratospermia, which may be "permanent" and linked to reduced heterozygosity or "transient" in tomcats that present normal quantitative spermatogenic parameters. The influence of the breed is unknown. There is an urgent need to study the origin of infertility in purebred cats in order to improve the diagnosis and to develop treatments that may restore normal fertility in subfertile or infertile animals.

Small animal reproduction: Scientific facts versus dogmas or unverified beliefs

Small Animal Reproduction is a rather recent topic in the field of Animal Reproduction. Although some continuing educational societies aim to improve the level of general knowledge, published scientific facts are still limited, and there are many hypotheses or affirmations that remain unverified or even sometimes dogmatic or empirical. Through examples, this article reviews the main causes that may sometimes challenge a veterinary practitioner faced with a dog or a cat presenting reproductive problems. It could be difficult to orientate the diagnosis or the therapeutic approach, not knowing if what is found in the literature is a scientific proof or just an unverified affirmation. This problem may result from the fact that there are still physiological processes that remain unclear, but also that some common beliefs are based on old studies that have not been repeated or verifiedIn addition, to make it more challenging to seek for the information, there are unverifiedaffirmations,unclear nomenclature, clinical conditions which have not been standardized in the literature, clinical conditions mostly described through case reports, lack of studies on specific topics, areas of small animal reproduction that have been neglected by researchers, contradictory data or even studies that lack objectivity. The growing interest for research in Small Animal Reproduction will probably reduce the gap between unverified beliefs and scientific facts.

A novel quantitative polymerase chain reaction to monitor urinary tract mycoplasma infection in a dog

The aim of the study was to develop a quantitative real-time PCR assay for diagnosis and monitoring of mycoplasma urinary tract infections (UTI) in a dog. An English Cocker Spaniel dog with the history of urinary tract infection was physically examined and laboratory findings identified chronic renal insufficiency and urinary tract infection. Attempts to culture organisms from pyuric urine failed, and empirical antibiotic therapy did not resolve the pyuria. A mycoplasma species most closely resembling Ureaplasma canigenitalium was identified in urine samples by conventional PCR and sequencing. A quantitative PCR method was developed to monitor and finally verify successful treatment. This novel approach to monitoring mycoplasma urinary tract infections is conceptually simple, and provides rapid results. It may have wider application in monitoring treatment efficacy for infections with other Mycoplasma spp. as well as additional organisms that are difficult to culture. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: In this study, we highlight two different findings, detection of Ureaplasma canigenitalium in a dog with chronic urinary tract infection and development of a quantitative real-time PCR test to track treatment results in an infected dog. This report is the first report of detection of U. canigenitalium in one dog in Australia. This novel qPCR method for monitoring mycoplasma urinary tract infections is conceptually simple and provides results fast. It will have wider applications in monitoring treatment efficacy for infections with mycoplasmas and mycoplasma-like organisms that are difficult to culture, and provides a sensitive guide to treatment progress.

Canine endometrial and vaginal microbiomes reveal distinct and complex ecosystems

The objective of this study was to characterize the normal microbiome of healthy canine vagina and endometrium and to determine the effect of the stage of estrous, on the resident microbiome. Cranial vaginal swabs and uterine biopsy samples were collected from twenty-five bitches in five different stages of estrous at elective ovariohysterectomy (OVH). Over 4 million reads of the V4 region of 16S rDNA gene were obtained and used for further analyses. A total of 317 genera belonging to 24 known phyla were identified. The endometrium was higher in bacterial diversity while the vagina was higher in richness. Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes were the most abundant phyla observed across all samples. Hydrotalea, Ralstonia, and Fusobacterium accounted for nearly 60% of the OTUs identified in the vagina while organisms identified in the endometrium were more evenly distributed. Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, and Corynebacterium were the prominent genera in the endometrium. The microbiome of the endometrium was distinctly different from that of the vagina. There was large animal-to-animal variation. Other than the vaginal microbiome of bitches in estrus (i.e. in heat), there were no distinct clustering of the organisms based on the stage of estrous. These findings establish the presence of a resident microbiome of the endometrium throughout all stages of estrous cycle.

Hypoluteoidism in a dog associated with recurrent mammary fibroadenoma stimulated by progestin therapy

Background

Hypoluteoidism in the bitch is characterized by insufficient production and secretion of progesterone by the corpora lutea. It is a rare pathologic condition and during pregnancy, it leads to embryonic resorption or fetal abortion. Supplementary therapy with progestins is indicated during pregnancy to obtain delivery of vital puppies but unwarranted side effects of such treatment are poorly documented.

Case presentation

A 4-year-old, nulliparous, female Istrian Shorthaired Hound dog had been mated repeatedly in six heats with different dogs of proven fertility but signs of pregnancy did not develop. Estrous cycles, mating and pregnancies were monitored as hypoluteoidism or genital disease was suspected. During the first monitored estrus, the bitch was mated and on day 18 [day 0, day of estimated peak of luteinizing hormone (LH)], ultrasound examination showed three amniotic vesicles that were however found to be resorbed between day 20 and 23. Progesterone concentrations, measured by ELISA, were >8 ng/mL until day 12 and 1–2.5 ng/mL on days 20, 23 and 26. Primary hypoluteoidism was therefore suspected. In the second monitored estrus, the bitch was mated and during pregnancy, progesterone concentrations were >8 ng/mL until day 17 and 1–2.5 ng/mL on day 19. On days 20 and 22, two out of three embryonic vesicles had been resorbed. The bitch was treated with progesterone in oil from day 19 to day 58. Increase in the size of 2nd left thoracic mammary gland (T2-L) was observed and on day 46, ultrasound evaluation and biopsy were performed revealing a low-cellularity fibroadenoma. Parturition started spontaneously at day 65 but due to dystocia caused by fetal macrosomia, a Caesarean section was performed. During the next (third) monitored estrus, the bitch was bred again and during pregnancy, early decrease in progesterone concentration confirmed the diagnosis of primary hypoluteoidism. The bitch was treated with synthetic progestin (altrenogest) from day 8 to day 57. Five amniotic vesicles were detected by ultrasonography. Recurrence of swelling of T2-L was observed. On day 60, the bitch whelped five pups, two males and three females. As reported later by the owner, the latter did not show any sign of heat over the past 3 years. In one of them, clitoral hypertrophy and a blind ending vagina were diagnosed.

Conclusions

This is the first description of early hypoluteoidism in a pregnant bitch developing a mammary fibroadenoma under progestin treatment.

Recent advances in canine leptospirosis: focus on vaccine development

Leptospirosis is a global infection of humans and animals caused by pathogenic Leptospira spp. Leptospirosis is a major zoonosis, with infection acquired from wild and domestic animals. It is also a significant cause of morbidity, mortality, and economic loss in production and companion animals. Leptospirosis in dogs is prevalent worldwide and as well as a cause of canine disease, it presents a zoonotic risk to human contacts. Canine leptospirosis does not differ greatly from the syndromes seen in other animal species, with hepatic, renal, and pulmonary involvement being the main manifestations. While the pathogenesis of disease is well documented at the whole animal level, the cellular and molecular basis remains obscure. Killed, whole-cell bacterin vaccines are licensed worldwide and have not changed greatly over the past several decades. Vaccine-induced immunity is restricted to serologically related serovars and is generally short-lived, necessitating annual revaccination. The appearance of new serovars as causes of canine leptospirosis requires constant epidemiological surveillance and tailoring of vaccines to cover emerging serovars. At the present time, there is no realistic prospect of alternative, non-bacterin vaccines in the foreseeable future.