CRISPR/Cas9: a powerful tool for identification of new targets for cancer treatment

Recent advances in CRISPR-Cas systems for colorectal cancer research and therapeutics

INTRODUCTION

Colon cancer, ranked as the fourth leading global cause of cancer death, exhibits a complex progression marked by genetic variations. Over the past decade, the utilization of diverse CRISPR systems has propelled accelerated research into colorectal cancer (CRC) treatment.

AREAS COVERED

CRISPR/Cas9, a key player in this research, identifies new oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes (TSGs), and drug-resistance genes. Additionally, it facilitates the construction of experimental models, conducts genome-wide library screening, and develops new therapeutic targets, especially for targeted knockout in vivo or molecular targeted drug delivery, contributing to personalized treatments and significantly enhancing the care of colon cancer patients. In this review, we provide insights into the mechanism of the CRISPR/Cas9 system, offering a comprehensive exploration of its applications in CRC, spanning screening, modeling, gene functions, diagnosis, and gene therapy. While acknowledging its transformative potential, the article  highlights the challenges and limitations of CRISPR systems.

EXPERT OPINION

The application of CRISPR/Cas9 in CRC research provides a promising avenue for personalized treatments. Its potential for identifying key genes and enabling experimental models and genome-wide screening enhances patient care. This review underscores the significance of CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing technology across basic research, diagnosis, and the treatment landscape of colon cancer.

A review on molecular scissoring with CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing technology

Genome editing is a technology to make specific changes in the DNA of a cell or an organism. It has significantly altered the landscape of life sciences, facilitating the establishment of exceedingly customized genetic modifications. Among various genome editing technologies, the CRISPR/Cas9 system, a specific endonuclease induces a double stranded DNA break and enabling modifications to the genome, has surfaced as a formidable and adaptable instrument. Its significance cannot be overstated, as it not only allows for the manipulation of genomes in model organisms but also holds great potential for revolutionary advances in medicine, particularly in treating genetic diseases. This review paper explores the remarkable journey of CRISPR/Cas9, its natural function, mechanisms, and transformative impact on genome editing and finally the use of artificial intelligence and other intelligent manufacturing tools used. The introduction provides the background on genome editing, emphasizing the emergence and significance of CRISPR/Cas9. Subsequent sections comprehensively elucidate its natural function, disease modeling, agriculture, and biotechnology, address therapeutic applications, and ongoing clinical trials while also discussing prospects and ethical implications. We summarized the key findings, indicating that CRISPR/Cas9 has empowered the creation of disease-specific animal models. This provides invaluable insights into pathogenic mechanisms and opens new avenues for drug discovery, reaffirming the transformative impact of CRISPR/Cas9 on genome editing. Finally we discussed the importance of continued research and collaboration for comprehensive utilization of the inherent capabilities of this molecular precision tool in shaping forthcoming advancements.

Developing a Novel Enzalutamide-Resistant Prostate Cancer Model via AR F877L Mutation in LNCaP Cells

Prostate cancer is a leading diagnosis and major cause of cancer-related deaths in men worldwide. As a typical hormone-responsive disease, prostate cancer is commonly managed with androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) to curb its progression and potential metastasis. Unfortunately, progression to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), a notably more aggressive phase of the disease, occurs within a timeframe of 2-3 years following ADT. Enzalutamide, a recognized androgen receptor (AR) antagonist, has been employed as a standard of care for men with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) since it was first approved in 2012, due to its ability to prolong survival. However, scientific evidence suggests that sustained treatment with AR antagonists may induce acquired AR mutations or splice variants, such as AR F877L, T878A, and H875Y, leading to drug resistance and thereby diminishing the therapeutic efficacy of these agents. Thus, the establishment of prostate cancer models incorporating these particular mutations is essential for developing new therapeutic strategies to overcome such resistance and evaluate the efficacy of next-generation AR-targeting drugs. We have developed a CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)-based knock-in technology to introduce an additional F877L mutation in AR into the human prostate cell line LNCaP. This article provides comprehensive descriptions of the methodologies for cellular gene editing and establishment of an in vivo model. Using these methods, we successfully identified an enzalutamide-resistant phenotype in both in vitro and in vivo models. We also assessed the efficacy of target protein degraders (TPDs), such as ARV-110 and ARV-667, in both models, and the corresponding validation data are also included here. © 2024 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Generation of AR F877L-mutated LNCaP cell line using CRISPR technology Basic Protocol 2: Validation of drug resistance in AR F877L-mutated LNCaP cell line using the 2D CTG assay Support Protocol: Testing of sgRNA efficiency in HEK 293 cells Basic Protocol 3: Validation of drug resistance in AR F877L-mutated LNCaP cell line in vivo.

CRISPR-Cas9 technology: As an efficient genome modification tool in the cancer diagnosis and treatment

Cancer is the second most common cause of death globally and is a major public health concern. Managing this disease is difficult due to its multiple stages and numerous genetic and epigenetic changes. Traditional cancer diagnosis and treatment methods have limitations, making it crucial to develop new modalities to combat the increasing burden of cancer. The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) system has transformed genetic engineering due to its simplicity, specificity, low cytotoxicity, and cost-effectiveness. It has been proposed as an effective technology to enhance cancer diagnosis and treatment strategies. This article presents the most recent discoveries regarding the structure, mechanism, and delivery methods of the highly powerful genome editing tool, CRISPR-Cas9. In terms of diagnosis, the article examines the role of CRISPR-Cas9 in detecting microRNAs and DNA methylation, and discusses two popular gene detection techniques that utilize the CRISPR-Cas system: DNA endonuclease-targeted CRISPR trans reporter and specific high sensitivity enzymatic reporter unlocking. Regarding treatment, the article explores several genes that have been identified and modified by CRISPR-Cas9 for effective tumorigenesis of common cancers such as breast, lung, and colorectal cancer. The present review also addresses the challenges and ethical issues associated with using CRISPR-Cas9 as a diagnostic and therapeutic tool. Despite some limitations, CRISPR-Cas9-based cancer diagnosis has the potential to become the next generation of cancer diagnostic tools, and the continuous progress of CRISPR-Cas9 can greatly aid in cancer treatment.

Exosomes for CRISPR-Cas9 Delivery: The Cutting Edge in Genome Editing

Gene mutation correction was challenging until the discovery of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated protein (Cas). CRISPR is a new era for genome modification, and this technology has bypassed the limitations of previous methods such as zinc-finger nuclease and transcription activator-like effector nuclease. Currently, this method is becoming the method of choice for gene-editing purposes, especially therapeutic gene editing in diseases such as cardiovascular, neurological, renal, genetic, optical, and stem cell, as well as blood disorders and muscular degeneration. However, finding the optimum delivery system capable of carrying this large complex persists as the main challenge of this technology. Therefore, it would be ideal if the delivery vehicle could direct the introduction of editing functions to specific cells in a multicellular organism. Exosomes are membrane-bound vesicles with high biocompatibility and low immunogenicity; they offer the best and most reliable way to fill the CRISPR/Cas9 system delivery gap. This review presents the current evidence on the molecular mechanisms and challenges of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome modification. Also, the role of CRISPR/Cas9 in the development of treatment and diagnosis of numerous disorders, from malignancies to viral infections, has been discussed. Lastly, the focus is on new advances in exosome-delivery technologies that may play a role in CRISPR/Cas9 delivery for future clinical settings.

Advancement in precision diagnosis and therapeutic for triple-negative breast cancer: Harnessing diagnostic potential of CRISPR-cas & engineered CAR T-cells mediated therapeutics

Cancer is characterized by uncontrolled cell growth, disrupted regulatory pathways, and the accumulation of genetic mutations. These mutations across different types of cancer lead to disruptions in signaling pathways and alterations in protein expression related to cellular growth and proliferation. This review highlights the AKT signaling cascade and the retinoblastoma protein (pRb) regulating cascade as promising for novel nanotheranostic interventions. Through synergizing state-of-the-art gene editing tools like the Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-Cas system with nanomaterials and targeting AKT, there is potential to enhance cancer diagnostics significantly. Furthermore, the integration of modified CAR-T cells into multifunctional nanodelivery systems offers a promising approach for targeted cancer inhibition, including the eradication of cancer stem cells (CSCs). Within the context of highly aggressive and metastatic Triple-negative Breast Cancer (TNBC), this review specifically focuses on devising innovative nanotheranostics. For both pre-clinical and post-clinical TNBC detection, the utilization of the CRISPR-Cas system, guided by RNA (gRNA) and coupled with a fluorescent reporter specifically designed to detect TNBC's mutated sequence, could be promising. Additionally, a cutting-edge approach involving the engineering of TNBC-specific iCAR and syn-Notch CAR T-cells, combined with the co-delivery of a hybrid polymeric nano-liposome encapsulating a conditionally replicative adenoviral vector (CRAdV) against CSCs, could present an intriguing intervention strategy. This review thus paves the way for exciting advancements in the field of nanotheranostics for the treatment of TNBC and beyond.

Biomaterials-mediated CRISPR/Cas9 delivery: recent challenges and opportunities in gene therapy

The use of biomaterials in delivering CRISPR/Cas9 for gene therapy in infectious diseases holds tremendous potential. This innovative approach combines the advantages of CRISPR/Cas9 with the protective properties of biomaterials, enabling accurate and efficient gene editing while enhancing safety. Biomaterials play a vital role in shielding CRISPR/Cas9 components, such as lipid nanoparticles or viral vectors, from immunological processes and degradation, extending their effectiveness. By utilizing the flexibility of biomaterials, tailored systems can be designed to address specific genetic diseases, paving the way for personalized therapeutics. Furthermore, this delivery method offers promising avenues in combating viral illnesses by precisely modifying pathogen genomes, and reducing their pathogenicity. Biomaterials facilitate site-specific gene modifications, ensuring effective delivery to infected cells while minimizing off-target effects. However, challenges remain, including optimizing delivery efficiency, reducing off-target effects, ensuring long-term safety, and establishing scalable production techniques. Thorough research, pre-clinical investigations, and rigorous safety evaluations are imperative for successful translation from the laboratory to clinical applications. In this review, we discussed how CRISPR/Cas9 delivery using biomaterials revolutionizes gene therapy and infectious disease treatment, offering precise and safe editing capabilities with the potential to significantly improve human health and quality of life.

Establishing the Swiss Spinal Tumor Registry (Swiss-STR): a prospective observation of surgical treatment patterns and long-term outcomes in patients with primary and metastatic spinal tumors

Background

Tumors of the vertebral column consist of primary spinal tumors and malignancies metastasizing to the spine. Although primary spine tumors are rare, metastases to the spine have gradually increased over past decades because of aging populations and improved survival for various cancer subtypes achieved by advances in cancer therapy. Metastases to the vertebral column occur in up to 70% of cancer patients, with 10% of patients demonstrating epidural spinal cord compression. Therefore, many cancer patients may face spinal surgical intervention during their chronic illness; such interventions range from simple cement augmentation over decompression of neural elements to extended instrumentation or spinal reconstruction. However, precise surgical treatment guidelines do not exist, likely due to the lack of robust, long-term clinical outcomes data and the overall heterogeneous nature of spinal tumors. Objectives of launching the Swiss Spinal Tumor Registry (Swiss-STR) are to collect and analyze high-quality, prospective, observational data on treatment patterns, clinical outcomes, and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in adult patients undergoing spinal tumor surgery. This narrative review discusses our rationale and process of establishing this spinal cancer registry.

Methods

A REDCap-based registry was created for the standardized collection of clinical, radiographic, surgical, histological, radio-oncologial and oncological variables, as well as patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs).

Discussion

We propose that the Swiss-STR will inform on the effectiveness of current practices in spinal oncology and their impact on patient outcomes. Furthermore, the registry will enable better categorization of the various clinical presentations of spinal tumors, thereby facilitating treatment recommendations, defining the socio-economic burden on the healthcare system, and improving the quality of care. In cases of rare tumors, the multi-center data pooling will fill significant data gaps to yield better understanding of these entities. Finally, our two-step approach first implements a high-quality registry with efficient electronic data capture strategies across hospital sites in Switzerland, and second follows with potential to expand internationally, thus fostering future international scientific collaboration to further push the envelope in cancer research.

New advances in the treatments of drug-resistant tuberculosis

INTRODUCTION

TB is associated with high mortality and morbidity among infected individuals and a high transmission rate from person to person. Despite the availability of vaccines and several anti-TB,TB infection continues to increase. Global resistance to TB remains the greatest challenge. There has not been extensive research into a new treatment and management strategy for TB resistance therapy. This review is based on a review of new advances and alternative drugs in the treatment of drug-resistant TB.

AREAS COVERED

New drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis therapy involves a combination of the latest TB drugs, new anti-TB drugs based on medicinal plant extracts for drug-resistant TB, mycobacteriophage therapy, the CRISPR/Cas9 system, and nanotechnology.

EXPERT OPINION

It is necessary to determine the function of individual gene alterations in drug-resistant TB. A combination of the most recent anti-TB drugs, such as bedaquiline and delamanid, is recommended. Longitudinal studies and animal model experiments with some medicinal plant extracts are required for better results. Nanotechnology has the potential to reduce drug side effects. Useful efficacy of phage therapy and CRISPR-cas9 technology as adjunct therapies for the management of drug-resistant TB.

CRISPR technology: A versatile tool to model, screen, and reverse drug resistance in cancer

BACKGROUND

Drug resistance is a serious challenge in cancer treatment that can render chemotherapy a failure. Understanding the mechanisms behind drug resistance and developing novel therapeutic approaches are cardinal steps in overcoming this issue. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindrome repeats (CRISPR) gene-editing technology has proven to be a useful tool to study cancer drug resistance mechanisms and target the responsible genes. In this review, we evaluated original research studies that used the CRISPR tool in three areas related to drug resistance, namely screening resistance-related genes, generating modified models of resistant cells and animals, and removing resistance by genetic manipulation. We reported the targeted genes, study models, and drug groups in these studies. In addition to discussing different applications of CRISPR technology in cancer drug resistance, we analyzed drug resistance mechanisms and provided examples of CRISPR's role in studying them. Although CRISPR is a powerful tool for examining drug resistance and sensitizing resistant cells to chemotherapy, more studies are required to overcome its disadvantages, such as off-target effects, immunotoxicity, and inefficient delivery of CRISPR/cas9 into the cells.

Current updates of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing and targeting within tumor cells: an innovative strategy of cancer management

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-associated protein (CRISPR/Cas9), an adaptive microbial immune system, has been exploited as a robust, accurate, efficient and programmable method for genome targeting and editing. This innovative and revolutionary technique can play a significant role in animal modeling, in vivo genome therapy, engineered cell therapy, cancer diagnosis and treatment. The CRISPR/Cas9 endonuclease system targets a specific genomic locus by single guide RNA (sgRNA), forming a heteroduplex with target DNA. The Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9/sgRNA:DNA complex reveals a bilobed architecture with target recognition and nuclease lobes. CRISPR/Cas9 assembly can be hijacked, and its nanoformulation can be engineered as a delivery system for different clinical utilizations. However, the efficient and safe delivery of the CRISPR/Cas9 system to target tissues and cancer cells is very challenging, limiting its clinical utilization. Viral delivery strategies of this system may have many advantages, but disadvantages such as immune system stimulation, tumor promotion risk and small insertion size outweigh these advantages. Thus, there is a desperate need to develop an efficient non-viral physical delivery system based on simple nanoformulations. The delivery strategies of CRISPR/Cas9 by a nanoparticle-based system have shown tremendous potential, such as easy and large-scale production, combination therapy, large insertion size and efficient in vivo applications. This review aims to provide in-depth updates on Streptococcus pyogenic CRISPR/Cas9 structure and its mechanistic understanding. In addition, the advances in its nanoformulation-based delivery systems, including lipid-based, polymeric structures and rigid NPs coupled to special ligands such as aptamers, TAT peptides and cell-penetrating peptides, are discussed. Furthermore, the clinical applications in different cancers, clinical trials and future prospects of CRISPR/Cas9 delivery and genome targeting are also discussed.

A Genome-Wide Screen Identifies PDPK1 as a Target to Enhance the Efficacy of MEK1/2 Inhibitors in NRAS Mutant Melanoma

Melanomas frequently harbor activating NRAS mutations. However, limited advance has been made in developing targeted therapy options for patients with NRAS mutant melanoma. MEK inhibitors (MEKi) show modest efficacy in the clinic and their actions need to be optimized. In this study, we performed a genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9-based screen and demonstrated that loss of phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1 (PDPK1) enhances the efficacy of MEKi. The synergistic effects of PDPK1 loss and MEKi was validated in NRAS mutant melanoma cell lines using pharmacologic and molecular approaches. Combined PDPK1 inhibitors (PDPK1i) with MEKi suppressed NRAS mutant xenograft growth and induced gasdermin E-associated pyroptosis. In an immune-competent allograft model, PDPK1i+MEKi increased the ratio of intratumoral CD8+ T cells, delayed tumor growth, and prolonged survival; the combination treatment was less effective against tumors in immune-deficient mice. These data suggest PDPK1i+MEKi as an efficient immunostimulatory strategy against NRAS mutant melanoma.

SIGNIFICANCE

Targeting PDPK1 stimulates antitumor immunity and sensitizes NRAS mutant melanoma to MEK inhibition, providing rationale for the clinical development of a combinatorial approach for treating patients with melanoma.

SgRNA-RF: Identification of SgRNA On-Target Activity With Imbalanced Datasets

Single-guide RNA is a guide RNA (gRNA), which guides the insertion or deletion of uridine residues into kinetoplastid during RNA editing. It is a small non-coding RNA that can be combined with pre -mRNA pairing. SgRNA is a critical component of the CRISPR/Cas9 gene knockout system and play an important role in gene editing and gene regulation. It is important to accurately and quickly identify highly on-target activity sgRNAs. Due to its importance, several computational predictors have been proposed to predict sgRNAs on-target activity. All these methods have clearly contributed to the development of this very important field. However, they also have certain limitations. In the paper, we developed a new classifier SgRNA-RF, which extracts the features of nucleic acid composition and structure of on-target activity sgRNA sequence and identified by random forest algorithm. In addition to solving an imbalanced dataset, this paper proposed a new method called CS-Smote. We compared sgRNA-RF with state-of-the-art predictors on the five datasets, and found SgRNA-RF significantly improved the identification accuracy, with accuracies of 0.8636,0.9161,0.894,0.938,0.965,0.77,0.979,0.973, respectively. The user-friendly web server that implements sgRNA-RF is freely available at http://server.malab.cn/sgRNA-RF/.

NSAIDs Induce Proline Dehydrogenase/Proline Oxidase-Dependent and Independent Apoptosis in MCF7 Breast Cancer Cells

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are considered in cancer therapy for their inhibitory effect on cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), which is overexpressed in most cancers. However, we found that NSAIDs as ligands of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ)-induced apoptosis independent of the COX-2 inhibition, and the process was mediated through activation of proline dehydrogenase/proline oxidase (PRODH/POX)-dependent generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). This mitochondrial enzyme converts proline to ∆1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C) during which ATP or ROS is generated. To confirm the role of PRODH/POX in the mechanism of NSAID-induced apoptosis we obtained an MCF7 CRISPR/Cas9 PRODH/POX knockout breast cancer cell model (MCF7^POK-KO). Interestingly, the studied NSAIDs (indomethacin and diclofenac) in MCF7^POK-KO cells contributed to a more pronounced pro-apoptotic phenotype of the cells than in PRODH/POX-expressing MCF7 cells. The observed effect was independent of ROS generation, but it was related to the energetic disturbances in the cells as shown by an increase in the expression of AMPKα (sensor of cell energy status), GLUD1/2 (proline producing enzyme from glutamate), prolidase (proline releasing enzyme), PPARδ (growth supporting transcription factor) and a decrease in the expression of proline cycle enzymes (PYCR1, PYCRL), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), and collagen biosynthesis (the main proline utilizing process). The data provide evidence that the studied NSAIDs induce PRODH/POX-dependent and independent apoptosis in MCF7 breast cancer cells.

Viral Generation, Packaging, and Transduction on a Digital Microfluidic Platform

Viral-based systems are a popular delivery method for introducing exogenous genetic material into mammalian cells. Unfortunately, the preparation of lentiviruses containing the machinery to edit the cells is labor-intensive, with steps requiring optimization and sensitive handling. To mitigate these challenges, we introduce the first microfluidic method that integrates lentiviral generation, packaging, and transduction. The new method allows the production of viral titers between 10⁶ and 10⁷ (similar to macroscale production) and high transduction efficiency for hard-to-transfect cell lines. We extend the technique for gene editing applications and show how this technique can be used to knock out and knock down estrogen receptor gene─a gene prominently responsible for 70% of breast cancer cases. This new technique is automated with multiplexing capabilities, which have the potential to standardize the methods for viral-based genome engineering.

RNA interference (RNAi)-based plasmonic nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and therapy

RNA interference (RNAi) is being extensively investigated as a potential therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment. However, RNAi-based therapeutics have not yet been used to treat cancer because of their instability and the difficulty of microRNA (miRNA) delivery. Plasmonic nanoparticle-based RNAi nanotherapeutics have been developed for accurate and sensitive diagnosis and a strong therapeutic effect on cancers by leveraging their ease-of-use and specific properties such as photothermal conversion. In this review, recent strategies and advances in plasmonic nanoparticle-based miRNA delivery are briefly presented to facilitate the detection and treatment of several cancers. The challenges and potential opportunities afforded by the RNAi-based theragnosis field are discussed. We expect that the RNAi-integrated plasmonic nanotherapeutics discussed in this review can provide insights for the early diagnosis and effective treatment of cancer.

Targeting Cancer with CRISPR/Cas9-Based Therapy

Cancer is a devastating condition characterised by the uncontrolled division of cells with many forms remaining resistant to current treatment. A hallmark of cancer is the gradual accumulation of somatic mutations which drive tumorigenesis in cancerous cells, creating a mutation landscape distinctive to a cancer type, an individual patient or even a single tumour lesion. Gene editing with CRISPR/Cas9-based tools now enables the precise and permanent targeting of mutations and offers an opportunity to harness this technology to target oncogenic mutations. However, the development of safe and effective gene editing therapies for cancer relies on careful design to spare normal cells and avoid introducing other mutations. This article aims to describe recent advancements in cancer-selective treatments based on the CRISPR/Cas9 system, especially focusing on strategies for targeted delivery of the CRISPR/Cas9 machinery to affected cells, controlling Cas9 expression in tissues of interest and disrupting cancer-specific genes to result in selective death of malignant cells.

In vivo therapeutic genome editing via CRISPR/Cas9 magnetoplexes for myocardial infarction

CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene-editing technology has gained attention as a new therapeutic method for intractable diseases. However, the use of CRISPR/Cas9 for cardiac conditions such as myocardial infarction remains challenging due to technical and biological barriers, particularly difficulties in delivering the system and targeting genes in the heart. In the present study, we demonstrated the in vivo efficacy of the CRISPR/Cas9 magnetoplexes system for therapeutic genome editing in myocardial infarction. First, we developed CRISPR/Cas9 magnetoplexes that magnetically guided CRISPR/Cas9 system to the heart for efficient in vivo therapeutic gene targeting during heart failures. We then demonstrated that the in vivo gene targeting of miR34a via these CRISPR/Cas9 magnetoplexes in a mouse model of myocardial infarction significantly improved cardiac repair and regeneration to facilitate improvements in cardiac function. These results indicated that CRISPR/Cas9 magnetoplexes represent an effective in vivo therapeutic gene-targeting platform in the myocardial infarction of heart, and that this strategy may be applicable for the treatment of a broad range of cardiac failures.

HLA-G gene editing in tumor cell lines as a novel alternative in cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapies based mainly on the blockade of immune-checkpoint (IC) molecules by anti-IC antibodies offer new alternatives for treatment in oncological diseases. However, a considerable proportion of patients remain unresponsive to them. Hence, the development of novel clinical immunotherapeutic approaches and/or targets are crucial.W In this context, targeting the immune-checkpoint HLA-G/ILT2/ILT4 has caused great interest since it is abnormally expressed in several malignancies generating a tolerogenic microenvironment. Here, we used CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing to block the HLA-G expression in two tumor cell lines expressing HLA-G, including a renal cell carcinoma (RCC7) and a choriocarcinoma (JEG-3). Different sgRNA/Cas9 plasmids targeting HLA-G exon 1 and 2 were transfected in both cell lines. Downregulation of HLA-G was reached to different degrees, including complete silencing. Most importantly, HLA-G - cells triggered a higher in vitro response of immune cells with respect to HLA-G + wild type cells. Altogether, we demonstrated for the first time the HLA-G downregulation through gene editing. We propose this approach as a first step to develop novel clinical immunotherapeutic approaches in cancer.

From Descriptive to Functional Genomics of Leukemias Focusing on Genome Engineering Techniques

Genome engineering makes the precise manipulation of DNA sequences possible in a cell. Therefore, it is essential for understanding gene function. Meganucleases were the start of genome engineering, and it continued with the discovery of Zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), followed by Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs). They can generate double-strand breaks at a desired target site in the genome, and therefore can be used to knock in mutations or knock out genes in the same way. Years later, genome engineering was transformed by the discovery of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR). Implementation of CRISPR systems involves recognition guided by RNA and the precise cleaving of DNA molecules. This property proves its utility in epigenetics and genome engineering. CRISPR has been and is being continuously successfully used to model mutations in leukemic cell lines and control gene expression. Furthermore, it is used to identify targets and discover drugs for immune therapies. The descriptive and functional genomics of leukemias is discussed in this study, with an emphasis on genome engineering methods. The CRISPR/Cas9 system's challenges, viewpoints, limits, and solutions are also explored.

Nanotechnology-based delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 for cancer treatment

CRISPR/Cas9 (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats-associated protein 9) is a potent technology for gene-editing. Owing to its high specificity and efficiency, CRISPR/Cas9 is extensity used for human diseases treatment, especially for cancer, which involves multiple genetic alterations. Different concepts of cancer treatment by CRISPR/Cas9 are established. However, significant challenges remain for its clinical applications. The greatest challenge for CRISPR/Cas9 therapy is how to safely and efficiently deliver it to target sites in vivo. Nanotechnology has greatly contributed to cancer drug delivery. Here, we present the action mechanisms of CRISPR/Cas9, its application in cancer therapy and especially focus on the nanotechnology-based delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 for cancer gene editing and immunotherapy to pave the way for its clinical translation. We detail the difficult barriers for CRISIR/Cas9 delivery in vivo and discuss the relative solutions for encapsulation, target delivery, controlled release, cellular internalization, and endosomal escape.

Recent development of gene therapy for pancreatic cancer using non-viral nanovectors

Pancreatic cancer (PC), characterized by its dense desmoplastic stroma and hypovascularity, is one of the most lethal cancers with a poor prognosis in the world. Traditional treatments such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and targeted therapy show little benefit in the survival rate in patients with advanced PC due to the poor penetration and resistance of drugs, low radiosensitivity, or severe side effects. Gene therapy can modify the morbific and drug-resistant genes as well as insert the tumor-suppressing genes, which has been shown to have great potential in PC treatment. The development of safe non-viral vectors for the highly efficient delivery of nucleic acids is essential for effective gene therapy, and has been attracting much attention. In this review, we first summarized the PC-promoting genes and gene therapies using plasmid DNA, mRNA, miRNA/siRNA-based RNA interference technology, and genome editing technology. Second, the commonly used non-viral nanovector and theranostic gene delivery nanosystem, especially the tumor microenvironment-sensitive delivery nanosystem and the cell/tumor-penetrating delivery nanosystem, were introduced. Third, a combination of non-viral nanovector-based gene therapy and other therapies, such as immunotherapy, chemotherapy, photothermal therapy (PTT), and photodynamic therapy (PDT), for PDAC treatment was discussed. Finally, a number of clinical trials have demonstrated the proof-of-principle that gene therapy or the combination of gene therapy and chemotherapy using non-viral vectors can inhibit the progression of PC. Although most of the non-viral vector-based gene therapies and their combination therapy are still under preclinical research, the development of genetics, molecular biology, and novel vectors would promote the clinical transformation of gene therapy.

Combination Therapy with KRAS and P38α siRNA Suppresses Colorectal Cancer Growth and Development in SW480 Cell Line

PURPOSE

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most prevalence malignancies in a different society with a high rate of death. The KRAS and p38α axes have critical roles in the development, migration, and growth of numerous tumors, such as colorectal malignancy. KRAS mutation acts as an oncogene in various cancers and is correlated with the poor prognosis in colorectal tumors. Also, p38α plays different roles and exhibits tissue-dependent activity. In some tissues act as an oncogene while in others act as a tumor suppressor. In this research, we try to understand the effect of the P38α and KRAS genes suppression by specific siRNAs on the SW480 cell line progression.

METHODS

We evaluate the impact of the P38α and KRAS gene knockdown by special siRNA on the growth and development of the SW480 cell line. SW480 cell line was treated with KRAS and P38α siRNAs, and the cell viability, gene expression, migration ability, and rate of apoptosis were evaluated with MTT assay, real-time PCR, scratch test, and flow cytometry.

RESULTS

After treatment of the cancer cell with KRAs and P38α siRNAs, cell viability reduced to 29.16%. Also, the expression levels of the KRAS and P38α genes reduced to 26.34% and 16.06%, respectively. Apoptosis rate after combination therapy with KRAS and P38α siRNAs increased to 72.1. Also, we found that these siRNAs suppress cell migration in SW480 cell lines.

CONCLUSION

The current study showed that combination therapy with p38α and KRAS siRNA may be considered a novel therapy for colorectal tumor in future.

CRISPR Screens in Toxicology Research: An Overview

The use of genome editing tools is expanding our understanding of various human diseases by providing insight into gene-disease interactions. Despite the recognized role of toxicants in the development of human health issues and conditions, there is currently limited characterization of their mechanisms of action, and the application of CRISPR-based genome editing to the study of toxicants could help in the identification of novel gene-environment interactions. CRISPR-based functional screens enable identification of cellular mechanisms fundamental for response and susceptibility to a given toxicant. The aim of this review is to inform future directions in the application of CRISPR technologies in toxicological studies. We review and compare different types of CRISPR-based methods including pooled, anchored, combinatorial, and perturb-sequencing screens in vitro, in addition to pooled screenings in model organisms. © 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.

ITGB6-Knockout Suppresses Cholangiocarcinoma Cell Migration and Invasion with Declining PODXL2 Expression

Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (iCCA) is a heterogeneous bile duct cancer with a poor prognosis. Integrin αvβ6 (β6) has been shown to be upregulated in iCCA and is associated with its subclassification and clinicopathological features. In the present study, two ITGB6-knockout HuCCT1 CCA cell lines (ITGB6-ko cells) were established using the clustered regulatory interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR), an associated nuclease 9 (Cas9) system, and single-cell cloning. RNA sequencing analysis, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and immunofluorescent methods were applied to explore possible downstream factors. ITGB6-ko cells showed significantly decreased expression of integrin β6 on flow cytometric analysis. Both cell lines exhibited significant inhibition of cell migration and invasion, decreased wound-healing capability, decreased colony formation ability, and cell cycle dysregulation. RNA sequencing and real-time PCR analysis revealed a remarkable decrease in podocalyxin-like protein 2 (PODXL2) expression in ITGB6-ko cells. Colocalization of PODXL2 and integrin β6 was also observed. S100 calcium-binding protein P and mucin 1, which are associated with CCA subclassification, were downregulated in ITGB6-ko cells. These results describe the successful generation of ITGB6-ko CCA cell clones with decreased migration and invasion and downregulation of PODXL2, suggesting the utility of integrin β6 as a possible therapeutic target or diagnostic marker candidate.

CRISPR-Cas and Its Wide-Ranging Applications: From Human Genome Editing to Environmental Implications, Technical Limitations, Hazards and Bioethical Issues

The CRISPR-Cas system is a powerful tool for in vivo editing the genome of most organisms, including man. During the years this technique has been applied in several fields, such as agriculture for crop upgrade and breeding including the creation of allergy-free foods, for eradicating pests, for the improvement of animal breeds, in the industry of bio-fuels and it can even be used as a basis for a cell-based recording apparatus. Possible applications in human health include the making of new medicines through the creation of genetically modified organisms, the treatment of viral infections, the control of pathogens, applications in clinical diagnostics and the cure of human genetic diseases, either caused by somatic (e.g., cancer) or inherited (mendelian disorders) mutations. One of the most divisive, possible uses of this system is the modification of human embryos, for the purpose of preventing or curing a human being before birth. However, the technology in this field is evolving faster than regulations and several concerns are raised by its enormous yet controversial potential. In this scenario, appropriate laws need to be issued and ethical guidelines must be developed, in order to properly assess advantages as well as risks of this approach. In this review, we summarize the potential of these genome editing techniques and their applications in human embryo treatment. We will analyze CRISPR-Cas limitations and the possible genome damage caused in the treated embryo. Finally, we will discuss how all this impacts the law, ethics and common sense.

CRISPR/Cas9 Technology as a Modern Genetic Manipulation Tool for Recapitulating of Neurodegenerative Disorders in Large Animal Models

BACKGROUND

Neurodegenerative diseases are often the consequence of alterations in structures and functions of the Central Nervous System (CNS) in patients. Despite obtaining massive genomic information concerning the molecular basis of these diseases and since the neurological disorders are multifactorial, causal connections between pathological pathways at the molecular level and CNS disorders development have remained obscure and need to be elucidated to a great extent.

OBJECTIVE

Animal models serve as accessible and valuable tools for understanding and discovering the roles of causative factors in the development of neurodegenerative disorders and finding appropriate treatments. Contrary to rodents and other small animals, large animals, especially non-human primates (NHPs), are remarkably similar to humans; hence, they establish suitable models for recapitulating the main human's neuropathological manifestations that may not be seen in rodent models. In addition, they serve as useful models to discover effective therapeutic targets for neurodegenerative disorders due to their similarity to humans in terms of physiology, evolutionary distance, anatomy, and behavior.

METHODS

In this review, we recommend different strategies based on the CRISPR-Cas9 system for generating animal models of human neurodegenerative disorders and explaining in vivo CRISPR-Cas9 delivery procedures that are applied to disease models for therapeutic purposes.

RESULTS

With the emergence of CRISPR/Cas9 as a modern specific gene-editing technology in the field of genetic engineering, genetic modification procedures such as gene knock-in and knock-out have become increasingly easier compared to traditional gene targeting techniques. Unlike the old techniques, this versatile technology can efficiently generate transgenic large animal models without the need to complicate lab instruments. Hence, these animals can accurately replicate the signs of neurodegenerative disorders.

CONCLUSION

Preclinical applications of CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing technology supply a unique opportunity to establish animal models of neurodegenerative disorders with high accuracy and facilitate perspectives for breakthroughs in the research on the nervous system disease therapy and drug discovery. Furthermore, the useful outcomes of CRISPR applications in various clinical phases are hopeful for their translation to the clinic in a short time.

A genome-scale CRISPR Cas9 dropout screen identifies synthetically lethal targets in SRC-3 inhibited cancer cells

Steroid receptor coactivator 3 (SRC-3/NCoA3/AIB1), is a key regulator of gene transcription and it plays a central role in breast cancer (BC) tumorigenesis, making it a potential therapeutic target. Beyond its function as an important regulator of estrogen receptor transcriptional activity, SRC-3 also functions as a coactivator for a wide range of other transcription factors, suggesting SRC-3 inhibition can be beneficial in hormone-independent cancers as well. The recent discovery of a potent SRC-3 small molecule inhibitor, SI-2, enabled the further development of additional related compounds. SI-12 is an improved version of SI-2 that like SI-2 has anti-proliferative activity in various cancer types, including BC. Here, we sought to identify gene targets, that when inhibited in the presence of SI-12, would lead to enhanced BC cell cytotoxicity. We performed a genome-scale CRISPR-Cas9 screen in MCF-7 BC cells under conditions of pharmacological pressure with SI-12. A parallel screen was performed with an ER inhibitor, fulvestrant, to shed light on both common and distinct activities between SRC-3 and ERα inhibition. Bearing in mind the key role of SRC-3 in tumorigenesis of other types of cancer, we extended our study by validating potential hits identified from the MCF-7 screen in other cancer cell lines.

Genome-editing approaches and applications: a brief review on CRISPR technology and its role in cancer

The development of genome-editing technologies in 1970s has discerned a new beginning in the field of science. Out of different genome-editing approaches such as Zing-finger nucleases, TALENs, and meganucleases, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) is a recent and versatile technology that has the ability of making changes to the genome of different organisms with high specificity. Cancer is a complex process that is characterized by multiple genetic and epigenetic changes resulting in abnormal cell growth and proliferation. As cancer is one of the leading causes of deaths worldwide, a large number of studies are done to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying the development of cancer. Because of its high efficiency and specificity, CRISPR/Cas9 has emerged as a novel and powerful tool in the field of cancer research. CRISPR/Cas9 has the potential to accelerate cancer research by dissecting tumorigenesis process, generating animal and cellular models, and identify drug targets for chemotherapeutic approaches. However, despite having tremendous potential, there are certain challenges associated with CRISPR/Cas9 such as safe delivery to the target, potential off-target effects and its efficacy which needs to be addressed prior to its clinical application. In this review, we give a gist of different genome-editing technologies with a special focus on CRISPR/Cas9 development, its mechanism of action and its applications, especially in different type of cancers. We also highlight the importance of CRISPR/Cas9 in generating animal models of different cancers. Finally, we present an overview of the clinical trials and discuss the challenges associated with translating CRISPR/Cas9 in clinical use.

CRISPR/Cas9: A powerful genome editing technique for the treatment of cancer cells with present challenges and future directions

Cancer is one of the most leading causes of death and a major public health problem, universally. According to accumulated data, annually, approximately 8.5 million people died because of the lethality of cancer. Recently, a novel RNA domain-containing endonuclease-based genome engineering technology, namely the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-associated protein-9 (Cas9) have been proved as a powerful technique in the treatment of cancer cells due to its multifunctional properties including high specificity, accuracy, time reducing and cost-effective strategies with minimum off-target effects. The present review investigates the overview of recent studies on the newly developed genome-editing strategy, CRISPR/Cas9, as an excellent pre-clinical therapeutic option in the reduction and identification of new tumor target genes in the solid tumors. Based on accumulated data, we revealed that CRISPR/Cas9 significantly inhibited the robust tumor cell growth (breast, lung, liver, colorectal, and prostate) by targeting the oncogenes, tumor-suppressive genes, genes associated to therapies by inhibitors, genes associated to chemotherapies drug resistance, and suggested that CRISPR/Cas9 could be a potential therapeutic target in inhibiting the tumor cell growth by suppressing the cell-proliferation, metastasis, invasion and inducing the apoptosis during the treatment of malignancies in the near future. The present review also discussed the current challenges and barriers, and proposed future recommendations for a better understanding.

Resistance and Overcoming Resistance in Breast Cancer

The incidence and mortality of breast cancer (BC) have increased in recent years, and BC is the main cause of cancer-related death in women worldwide. One of the most significant clinical problems in the treatment of patients with BC is the development of therapeutic resistance. Therefore, elucidating the molecular mechanisms involved in drug resistance is critical. The therapeutic decision for the management of patients with BC is based not only on the assessment of prognostic factors but also on the evaluation of clinical and pathological parameters. Although this has been a successful approach, some patients relapse and/or eventually develop resistance to treatment. This review is focused on recent studies on the possible biological and molecular mechanisms involved in both response and resistance to treatment in BC. Additionally, emerging treatments that seek to overcome resistance and reduce side effects are also described. A greater understanding of the mechanisms of action of treatments used in BC might contribute not only to the enhancement of our understanding of the mechanisms involved in the development of resistance but also to the optimization of the existing treatment regimens.

Evolution of the Experimental Models of Cholangiocarcinoma

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a rare, aggressive disease with poor overall survival. In advanced cases, surgery is often not possible or fails; in addition, there is a lack of effective and specific therapies. Multidisciplinary approaches and advanced technologies have improved the knowledge of CCA molecular pathogenesis, highlighting its extreme heterogeneity and high frequency of genetic and molecular aberrations. Effective preclinical models, therefore, should be based on a comparable level of complexity. In the past years, there has been a consistent increase in the number of available CCA models. The exploitation of even more complex CCA models is rising. Examples are the use of CRISPR/Cas9 or stabilized organoids for in vitro studies, as well as patient-derived xenografts or transgenic mouse models for in vivo applications. Here, we examine the available preclinical CCA models exploited to investigate: (i) carcinogenesis processes from initiation to progression; and (ii) tools for personalized therapy and innovative therapeutic approaches, including chemotherapy and immune/targeted therapies. For each model, we describe the potential applications, highlighting both its advantages and limits.

Transcriptional activation of cyclin D1 via HER2/HER3 contributes to EGFR-TKI resistance in lung cancer

Several different mechanisms are implicated in the resistance of lung cancer cells to epidermal growth factor receptor-tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKIs), and only few have been functionally investigated. Here, using genetically knocked out EGFR and TKI-resistant lung cancer cells, we show that loss of wild-type EGFR attenuates cell proliferation, migration and 3D-spheroid formation, whereas loss of mutant EGFR or resistance to TKIs reinforces those processes. Consistently, disruption of wild-type EGFR leads to suppression of HER2/HER3, while mutant EGFR ablation or resistance to TKIs increases HER2/HER3 expression, compensating for EGFR loss. Furthermore, HER2/HER3 nuclear translocation mediates overexpression of cyclin D1, leading to tumor cell survival and drug resistance. Cyclin D1/CDK4/6 inhibition resensitizes erlotinib-resistant (ER) cells to erlotinib. Analysis of cyclin D1 expression in patients with non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) showed that its expression is negatively associated with overall survival and disease-free survival. Our results provide biological and mechanistic insights into targeting EGFR and TKI resistance.

CRISPR-mediated ablation of overexpressed EGFR in combination with sunitinib significantly suppresses renal cell carcinoma proliferation

Receptor tyrosine kinases, such as VEGFR, PDGFR and EGFR, play important roles in renal cancer. In this study, we investigated EGFR knockout as a therapeutic approach in renal cell carcinoma (RCC). We showed that a renal cell carcinoma cell line (RC21) has higher expression of EGFR as compared to other frequently used cell lines such as HEK293, A549, Hela and DLD1. Ablation of EGFR by CRISPR/Cas9 significantly restrained tumor cell growth and activated the MAPK (pERK1/2) pathway. The VEGFR and PDGFR inhibitor, sunitinib, attenuated the expression of MAPK (pERK1/2) and pAKT induced by EGFR loss and further inhibited EGFR-/- cell proliferation. We showed that loss of EGFR eventually leads to resistance to SAHA and cisplatin. Furthermore, EGFR loss induced G2/M phase arrest and resulted in an increased resistance to TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) in renal cell carcinoma. Thus, ablation of overexpressed EGFR by CRISPR/Cas9 alone or in combination with sunitinib may be a new treatment option for renal cell carcinoma.

Inhibition of histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) and HDAC2 enhances CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing

Despite the rapid development of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing technology, the gene editing potential of CRISPR/Cas9 is hampered by low efficiency, especially for clinical applications. One of the major challenges is that chromatin compaction inevitably limits the Cas9 protein access to the target DNA. However, chromatin compaction is precisely regulated by histone acetylation and deacetylation. To overcome these challenges, we have comprehensively assessed the impacts of histone modifiers such as HDAC (1–9) inhibitors and HAT (p300/CBP, Tip60 and MOZ) inhibitors, on CRISPR/Cas9 mediated gene editing efficiency. Our findings demonstrate that attenuation of HDAC1, HDAC2 activity, but not other HDACs, enhances CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene knockout frequencies by NHEJ as well as gene knock-in by HDR. Conversely, inhibition of HDAC3 decreases gene editing frequencies. Furthermore, our study showed that attenuation of HDAC1, HDAC2 activity leads to an open chromatin state, facilitates Cas9 access and binding to the targeted DNA and increases the gene editing frequencies. This approach can be applied to other nucleases, such as ZFN and TALEN.

Quality in Non-GxP Research Environment

There has been increasing evidence in recent years that research in life sciences is lacking in reproducibility and data quality. This raises the need for effective systems to improve data integrity in the evolving non-GxP research environment. This chapter describes the critical elements that need to be considered to ensure a successful implementation of research quality standards in both industry and academia. The quality standard proposed is founded on data integrity principles and good research practices and contains basic quality system elements, which are common to most laboratories. Here, we propose a pragmatic and risk-based quality system and associated assessment process to ensure reproducibility and data quality of experimental results while making best use of the resources.

Cas9 Protein Triggers Differential Expression of Inherent Genes Especially NGFR Expression in 293T Cells

Introduction

CRISPR/CAS9 systems, which can be utilized in vitro biological experiments, have recently captured much attention for their important roles and benefits. However, full realization of the potential of CRISPR/CAS9 approaches requires addressing many challenges and side effects. The expression of genes and potential side effects of CRISPR/CAS9 in human cells remains to be elucidated. The aim of our study was to explore the effect of CRISPR/CAS9 on gene expression in 293T cells.

Methods

A Cas9-expressing PX458 plasmid and Cas9-deactivated PX458-T2A plasmid were used to study the role of CRISPR/CAS9 on regulating gene expression in 293T cells. Gene expression in 293T cells after transfection of the PX458 plasmid or PX458-T2A plasmid was detected by RNA sequencing and correlative statistical analysis. Differential gene expression in both PX458 transfected 293T cells and PX458-T2A transfected 293T cells compared with normal 293T cells was detected using quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT qPCR). The mRNA and protein levels were measured using reverse transcription PCR and Western blot. Co-IP assay combined with shotgun LC-MS/MS were used to investigate the differences of NGFR-interaction proteins between PX458 transfected 293T cells and PX458-T2A transfected 293T cells.

Results

In this study, we observed that PX458 plasmid transfection and Cas9 expression can affect the expression of different genes, including FOSB (FBJ murine osteosarcoma viral oncogene homolog B), IL-11 (Interleukin-11), MMP1 (matrix metalloproteinase), CYP2D6 (CytochromeP4502D6), and NGFR (matrix metalloproteinase 1). Downregulation of NGFR after PX458 transfection was confirmed by RT qPCR and western blot analysis. NGFR expression was significantly lower in PX458 transfected 293T cells than in normal 293T cells and PX458-T2A transfected 293T cells. The co-IP dilutions analyzed by shotgun LC-MS/MS showed a total of 183 proteins interact with NGFR in PX458 transfected 293T cells while 221 proteins interact with NGFR were identified in PX458-T2A transfected 293T cells using the MASCOT engine.

Conclusions

Cas9 expression by transfection of the PX458 plasmid was negatively correlated with the NGFR mRNA level and NGFR protein expression in 293T cells, while PX458-T2A, in which Cas9 is deactivated, did not affect NGFR expression. The decrease in NGFR expression also affects the amount of proteins that interact with NGFR. These results suggest that the effect of Cas9 on NGFR expression and the expression of other genes should be noticed when developing cell-based studies and therapies utilizing CRISPR/CAS9 systems.

Molecular mechanisms, off-target activities, and clinical potentials of genome editing systems

Methodologies of genome editing are rapidly developing with the improvement of gene science and technology, mechanism-based understanding, and urgent needs. In addition to the specificity and efficiency of on-target sites, one of the most important issues is to find and avoid off-targets before clinical application of gene editing as a therapy. Various algorithms, modified nucleases, and delivery vectors are developed to localize and minimize off-target sites. The present review aimed to clarify off-targets of various genome editing and explore potentials of clinical application by understanding structures, mechanisms, clinical applications, and off-target activities of genome editing systems, including CRISPR/Cas9, CRISPR/Cas12a, zinc finger nucleases, transcription activator-like effector nucleases, meganucleases, and recent developments. Current genome editing in cancer therapy mainly targeted immune systems in tumor microenvironment by ex vivo modification of the immune cells in phases I/II of clinical trials. We believe that genome editing will be the critical part of clinical precision medicine strategy and multidisciplinary therapy strategy by integrating gene sequencing, clinical transomics, and single cell biomedicine. There is an urgent need to develop on/off-target-specific biomarkers to monitor the efficacy and side-effects of gene therapy. Thus, the genome editing will be an alternative of clinical therapies for cancer with the rapid development of methodology and an important part of clinical precision medicine strategy.

Hematopoietic stem cell gene therapy: The optimal use of lentivirus and gene editing approaches

Due to pioneering in vitro investigations on gene modification, gene engineering platforms have incredibly improved to a safer and more powerful tool for the treatment of multiple blood and immune disorders. Likewise, several clinical trials have been initiated combining autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (auto-HSCT) with gene therapy (GT) tools. As several GT modalities such as lentivirus and gene editing tools have a long developmental path ahead to diminish its negative side effects, it is hard to decide which modality is optimal for treating a specific disease. Gene transfer by lentiviruses is the platform of choice for loss-of-mutation diseases, whereas gene correction/addition or gene disruption by gene editing tools, mainly CRISPR/Cas9, is likely to be more efficient in diseases where tight regulation is needed. Therefore, in this review, we compiled pertinent information about lentiviral gene transfer and CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing, their evolution to a safer platform for HSCT, and their applications on other types of gene disorders based on the etiology of the disease and cell fitness.

CRISPR/Cas9 facilitates genomic editing for large-scale functional studies in pluripotent stem cell cultures

Pluripotent stem cell (PSC) cultures form an integral part of biomedical and medical research due to their capacity to rapidly proliferate and differentiate into hundreds of highly specialized cell types. This makes them a highly useful tool in exploring human physiology and disease. Genomic editing of PSC cultures is an essential method of attaining answers to basic physiological functions, developing in vitro models of human disease, and exploring potential therapeutic strategies and the identification of drug targets. Achieving reliable and efficient genomic editing is an important aspect of using large-scale PSC cultures. The CRISPR/Cas9 genomic editing tool has facilitated highly efficient gene knockout, gene correction, or gene modifications through the design and use of single-guide RNAs which are delivered to the target DNA via Cas9. CRISPR/Cas9 modification of PSCs has furthered the understanding of basic physiology and has been utilized to develop in vitro disease models, to test therapeutic strategies, and to facilitate regenerative or tissue repair approaches. In this review, we discuss the benefits of the CRISPR/Cas9 system in large-scale PSC cultures.

CX Chemokine Receptor 7 Contributes to Survival of KRAS-Mutant Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer upon Loss of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor

KRAS-driven non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients have no effective targeted treatment. In this study, we aimed to investigate targeting epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) as a therapeutic approach in KRAS-driven lung cancer cells. We show that ablation of EGFR significantly suppressed tumor growth in KRAS-dependent cells and induced significantly higher expression of CX chemokine receptor 7 (CXCR7) and activation of MAPK (ERK1/2). Conversely, rescue of EGFR led to CXCR7 downregulation in EGFR^−/− cells. Dual EGFR and CXCR7 inhibition led to substantial reduction of MAPK (pERK) and synergistic inhibition of cell growth. Analysis of two additional EGFR knockout NSCLC cell lines using CRISPR/Cas9 revealed genotype dependency of CXCR7 expression. In addition, treatment of different cells with gefitinib increased CXCR7 expression in EGFR^wt but decreased it in EGFR^mut cells. CXCR7 protein expression was detected in all NSCLC patient samples, with higher levels in adenocarcinoma as compared to squamous cell lung carcinoma and healthy control cases. In conclusion, EGFR and CXCR7 have a crucial interaction in NSCLC, and dual inhibition may be a potential therapeutic option for NSCLC patients.