Toxicity, formation, contamination, determination and mitigation of acrylamide in thermally processed plant-based foods and herbal medicines: A review

Impact of Metabolites from Foodborne Pathogens on Cancer

Foodborne pathogens are microorganisms that cause illness through contamination, presenting significant risks to public health and food safety. This review explores the metabolites produced by these pathogens, including toxins and secondary metabolites, and their implications for human health, particularly concerning cancer risk. We examine various pathogens such as Salmonella sp., Campylobacter sp., Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes, detailing the specific metabolites of concern and their carcinogenic mechanisms. This study discusses analytical techniques for detecting these metabolites, such as chromatography, spectrometry, and immunoassays, along with the challenges associated with their detection. This study covers effective control strategies, including food processing techniques, sanitation practices, regulatory measures, and emerging technologies in pathogen control. This manuscript considers the broader public health implications of pathogen metabolites, highlighting the importance of robust health policies, public awareness, and education. This review identifies research gaps and innovative approaches, recommending advancements in detection methods, preventive strategies, and policy improvements to better manage the risks associated with foodborne pathogens and their metabolites.

Detection and simultaneous imaging of acrylamide, miR-21 and miR-221 based on multicolor aggregation-induced emission nanoparticles and DNAzyme walker

Acrylamide (AA) in heat-processed foods has emerged as a global health problem, mainly carcinogenic, neurotoxic, and reproductive toxicity, and an increasing number of researchers have delved into elucidating its toxicological mechanisms. Studies have demonstrated that exposure of HepG2 by AA in a range of concentrations can induce the upregulation of miR-21 and miR-221. Monitoring the response of intracellular miRNAs can play an important role in unraveling the mechanisms of AA toxicity. Here, multicolor aggregation induced emission nano particle (AIENP) probes were constructed from three AIE dyes for simultaneous imaging of intracellular AA and AA-induced miR-21/miR-221 by combining the recognition function of AA aptamers and the signal amplification of a DNAzyme walker. The surface of these nanoparticles contains carboxyl groups, facilitating their linkage to a substrate chain modified with a fluorescent quencher group via an amide reaction. Optimization experiments were conducted to determine the optimal substrate-to-DNAzyme ratio, confirming its efficacy as a walker for signal amplification. Sensitive detection of AA, miR-21 and miR-221 was achieved in extracellular medium, with detection limits of 0.112 nM for AA, 0.007 pM and 0.003 pM for miR-21 and miR-221, respectively, demonstrating excellent selectivity. Intracellularly, ZIF-8 structure collapsed, releasing Zn2+, activating DNAzyme cleavage activity, and the fluorescence of multicolor AIENPs within HepG2 cells gradually recovered with increasing stimulation time (0-12 h) and concentrations of AA (0-500 μM). This dynamic response unveiled the relationship between AA exposure and miR-21/miR-221 expression, further validating the carcinogenicity of AA.

Acrylamide Exposure Impairs Ovarian Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle and Reduces Oocyte Quality in Mouse

Acrylamide (AAM), a compound extensively utilized in various industrial applications, has been reported to induce toxic effects across multiple tissues in living organisms. Despite its widespread use, the impact of AAM on ovarian function and the mechanisms underlying these effects remain poorly understood. Here, we established an AAM-exposed mouse toxicological model using 21 days of intragastric AAM administration. AAM exposure decreased ovarian coefficient and impaired follicle development. Further investigations revealed AAM would trigger apoptosis and disturb tricarboxylic acid cycle in ovarian tissue, thus affecting mitochondrial electron transport function. Moreover, AAM exposure decreased oocyte and embryo development potential, mechanically associated with pericentrin and phosphorylated Aurora A cluster failure, leading to meiotic spindle assembly defects. Collectively, these results suggest that AAM exposure may lead to apoptosis, glucose metabolic disorders, and mitochondrial dysfunction in ovary tissue, ultimately compromising oocyte quality.

Dietary acrylamide disrupts the functioning of the biological clock

Acrylamide (ACR) is a known carcinogen and neurotoxin. It is chronically consumed in carbohydrate-rich snacks processed at high temperatures. This calls for systematic research into the effects of ACR intake, best performed in an experimental model capable of detecting symptoms of its neurotoxicity at both high and low doses. Here, we study the influence of 10 µg/g (corresponding to the concentrations found in food products) and, for comparison, 60, 80 and 110 µg/g dietary ACR, on the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. We show that chronic administration of ACR affects lifespan, activity level and, most importantly, the daily and circadian pattern of locomotor activity of Drosophila. ACR-treated flies show well-defined and concentration-dependent symptoms of ACR neurotoxicity; a reduced anticipation of upcoming changes in light conditions and increased arrhythmicity in constant darkness. The results suggest that the rhythm-generating neural circuits of their circadian oscillator (biological clock) are sensitive to ACR even at low concentrations if the exposure time is sufficiently long. This makes the behavioural readout of the clock, the rhythm of locomotor activity, a useful tool for studying the adverse effects of ACR and probably other compounds.

Reduction of eEF2 kinase alleviates the learning and memory impairment caused by acrylamide

BACKGROUND

The impact of acrylamide (ACR) on learning and memory has garnered considerable attention. However, the targets and mechanisms are still unclear.

RESULTS

Elongation factor 2 (eEF2) was significantly upregulated in the results of serum proteomics. Results from in vitro and in vivo experiments indicated a notable upregulation of Eukaryotic elongation factor 2 kinase (eEF2K), the sole kinase responsible for eEF2 phosphorylation, following exposure to ACR (P < 0.05). Subsequent in vitro experiments using eEF2K siRNA and in vivo experiments with eEF2K-knockout mice demonstrated significant improvements in abnormal indicators related to ACR-induced learning and memory deficits (P < 0.05). Proteomic analysis of the hippocampus revealed Lpcat1 as a crucial downstream protein regulated by eEF2K. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses indicated that eEF2K may play a role in the process of ACR-induced learning and memory impairment by affecting ether lipid metabolism.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, eEF2K as a pivotal treatment target in the mechanisms underlying ACR-induced learning and memory impairment, and studies have shown that it provides robust evidence for potential clinical interventions targeting ACR-induced impairments.

Epicatechin-Promoted Formation of Acrylamide from 3-Aminopropionamide Via Postoxidative Reaction of B-Ring

The role of thermally generated 3-aminopropionamide as an intermediate in acrylamide formation in the Maillard reaction has been well established. Herein, the effect of epicatechin on the conversion of 3-aminopropionamide into acrylamide under oxidative conditions was investigated at 160-220 °C. Epicatechin promoted acrylamide generation and 3-aminopropionamide degradation. The stable isotope-labeling technique combined with UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS/MS analysis showed adduct formation between 3-aminopropionamide and the oxidized B ring of epicatechin to form a Schiff base. This initially formed Schiff base could directly degrade to acrylamide, undergo reduction or dehydration to other intermediates, and subsequently generate acrylamide. Based on accurate mass analysis, five intermediates with intact or dehydrated C rings were tentatively identified. Furthermore, reaction pathways were proposed that were supported by the changes in the levels of adducts formed during heating. To the authors' knowledge, this study is the first to reveal pathways through which flavanols promoted the formation of acrylamide in Maillard reactions.

Determination of α-Dicarbonyl compounds in traditional Chinese herbal medicines

α-DCs (α-dicarbonyls) have been proven to be closely related to aging and the onset and development of many chronic diseases. The wide presence of this kind of components in various foods and beverages has been unambiguously determined, but their occurrence in various phytomedicines remains in obscurity. In this study, we established and evaluated an HPLC-UV method and used it to measure the contents of four α-DCs including 3-deoxyglucosone (3-DG), glyoxal (GO), methylglyoxal (MGO), and diacetyl (DA) in 35 Chinese herbs after they have been derivatized with 4-nitro-1,2-phenylenediamine. The results uncover that 3-DG is the major component among the α-DCs, being detectable in all the selected herbs in concentrations ranging from 22.80 μg/g in the seeds of Alpinia katsumadai to 7032.75 μg/g in the fruit of Siraitia grosuenorii. The contents of the other three compounds are much lower than those of 3-DG, with GO being up to 22.65 μg/g, MGO being up to 55.50 μg/g, and DA to 18.75 μg/g, respectively. The data show as well the contents of the total four α-DCs in the herbs are generally in a comparable level to those in various foods, implying that herb medicines may have potential risks on human heath in view of the α-DCs.

Advancements in Chemical and Biosensors for Point-of-Care Detection of Acrylamide

Acrylamide (AA), an odorless and colorless organic small-molecule compound found generally in thermally processed foods, possesses potential carcinogenic, neurotoxic, reproductive, and developmental toxicity. Compared with conventional methods for AA detection, bio/chemical sensors have attracted much interest in recent years owing to their reliability, sensitivity, selectivity, convenience, and low cost. This paper provides a comprehensive review of bio/chemical sensors utilized for the detection of AA over the past decade. Specifically, the content is concluded and systematically organized from the perspective of the sensing mechanism, state of selectivity, linear range, detection limits, and robustness. Subsequently, an analysis of the strengths and limitations of diverse analytical technologies ensues, contributing to a thorough discussion about the potential developments in point-of-care (POC) for AA detection in thermally processed foods at the conclusion of this review.

Probabilistic Risk Assessment of Metals, Acrylamide and Ochratoxin A in Instant Coffee from Brazil, Colombia, Mexico and Peru

This study analysed the probabilistic risk to consumers associated with the presence of iAs, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb, acrylamide (AA) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in instant coffee from Brazil, Colombia, Mexico and Peru. The results found iAs to be the metal with the highest concentrations (3.50 × 10-2 to 6.00 × 10-2 mg/kg), closely followed by Pb (1.70 × 10-2 to 2.70 × 10-2 mg/kg) and Cr (5.00 × 10-3 to 1.00 × 10-2 mg/kg), although these differences were not significant between countries. Cd and Hg were not detected. Focusing on AA, the concentrations ranged from 1.77 × 10-1 mg/kg (Peru) to 4.77 × 10-1 mg/kg (Brazil), while OTA ranged from 1.32 × 10-3 (Peru) to 1.77 × 10-3 mg/kg (Brazil) with significant differences between countries in both cases. As regards risk, the hazard quotient and hazard index were less than 1, meaning that the consumption of instant coffee represents a low level of concern for non-genotoxic effects. The results of the combination of margin of exposure and probability of exceedance indicated that the non-genotoxic effects of Pb, AA and OTA pose no threat. However, the probability values of suffering cancer from iAs and AA (between 1 × 10-6 and 1 × 10-4) indicated a moderate risk and that management measures should be taken.

A Review of Food Contaminants and Their Pathways Within Food Processing Facilities Using Open Food Processing Equipment

This study focuses on the chemical, physical, and biological hazards that pose food contamination risks during the processing of food in facilities using open food processing equipment through a review of published literature from 2015 to 2023. Ten main pathways for food contamination were developed and a list of chemical, physical, and biological food hazards, along with descriptions of process parameters and inputs that can contribute to food contamination, and prevention strategies associated with each pathway were compiled. The paper briefly discusses the relation between food contamination and the sustainable development goals (SDGs). The presented overview of contamination pathways and their associated food hazards can provide insights for food safety management plans, food processing equipment design, food processing facility layout, HACCP programs, and further studies on hygienic monitoring methods.

Acrylamide toxicity in aquatic animals and its mitigation approaches: an updated overview

Acrylamide (ACR) is widely applied in various industrial activities, as well as in the water purification process. Furthermore, ACR is synthesized naturally in some starchy grains exposed to high temperatures for an extended time during the cooking process. Because of its widespread industrial usage, ACR might be released into water stream sources. Also, ACR poses a high risk of contaminated surface and ground-water resources due to its high solubility and mobility in water. Furthermore, animal studies have indicated that ACR exposure may cause cancer (in many organs such as lung, prostate, uterus, and pancreas), genetic damage (in both somatic and germ cells), and severe effects on reproduction and development. Recently, numerous studies have shown that ACR has a mild acute cytotoxic impact on aquatic species, particularly during early life stages. Besides, wide-spectrum usage of ACR in many industrial activities presented higher environmental risks as well as major hazards to consumer health. This literature was designed to include all potential and accessible reports on ACR toxicity related with aquatic species. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews were applied to evaluate the risk effects of ACR on aquatic organisms, the ACR sub-lethal concentration in the ecosystem, and the possible protective benefits of various feed additives against ACR toxicity in fish. The major findings are summarized in Tables 2 and 3. The primary aim of this literature was to specify the hazards of ACR toxicity related with fish welfare and possible suggested strategies to reduce its risks.