A review: FDA-approved fluorine-containing small molecules from 2015 to 2022

F-CPI: A Multimodal Deep Learning Approach for Predicting Compound Bioactivity Changes Induced by Fluorine Substitution

Fluorine (F) substitution is a common method of drug discovery and development. However, there are no accurate approaches available for predicting the bioactivity changes after F-substitution, as the effect of substitution on the interactions between compounds and proteins (CPI) remains a mystery. In this study, we constructed a data set with 111,168 pairs of fluorine-substituted and nonfluorine-substituted compounds. We developed a multimodal deep learning model (F-CPI). In comparison with traditional machine learning and popular CPI task models, the accuracy, precision, and recall of F-CPI (∼90, ∼79, and ∼45%) were higher than those of GraphDTA (∼86, ∼58, and ∼40%). The application of the F-CPI for the structural optimization of hit compounds against SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro by F-substitution achieved a more than 100-fold increase in bioactivity (IC50: 0.23 μM vs 28.19 μM). Therefore, the multimodal deep learning model F-CPI would be a veritable and effective tool in the context of drug discovery and design.

Design, synthesis and investigation of biological activity and mechanism of fluoroaryl-substituted derivatives at the FL118 position 7

Addition of fluorine atoms into chemical compounds is a validated strategy to enhance their physical, chemical and biological properties. In this study, FL118, a novel camptothecin-related small molecule known for its unique mechanism of action and superior antitumor efficacy, was utilized as a foundational drug platform. By replacing the hydrogen atom at position 7 of FL118 with a fluoroaryl group, a diverse array of FL118 derivatives were synthesized. Our investigations revealed that the majority of these newly synthesized compounds exhibited improved cytotoxicity compared to FL118, with some demonstrating enhanced in vivo antitumor efficacy. Among these derivatives, compound 7h stood out and was subjected to detailed analysis. Compound 7h demonstrated a remarkable ability to inhibit colorectal cancer (CRC) cell colony formation and cell migration, while also promoting reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and CRC cell apoptosis. Notably, our studies unveiled that the presence of DDX5 could modulate Topoisomerase I (Top1) activity, a process effectively reversed by a low concentration of 7h, but not SN38. Moreover, only 7h was able to decrease DDX5 expression, SN38 was not. Molecular docking studies further supported the binding of 7h to DDX5. Interestingly, although both 7h and SN38 exhibited similar inhibitory effects on Top1 activity, only 7h, and not SN38, could inhibit DDX5. These findings not only pave the way for deeper mechanistic explorations of FL118 and its derivatives in cancer research but also position the identified compound 7h as a promising candidate for further development.

Exploring Fluorinase Substrate Tolerance at C-2 of SAM

The fluorinase enzyme (EC 2.5.1.63) utilises fluoride ion and S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) as substrates for conversion to 5'-fluoro-5'-deoxy-adenosine (5'-FDA) and L-methionine (L-Met). The enzyme has a very strict substrate specificity, however it has been shown to tolerate acetylenes and NH2 replacements for H at C-2 of the adenine ring of SAM. This substrate tolerance is explored further here with -NHR, -N3, -OR and -SR substituents attached to C-2. New activities are demonstrated, for example with NH-methyl, NH-propyl,NH-butyl and O-butyl substrates at C-2, however azide and thioethers were not tolerated. Outcomes are supported by in silico analysis, revealing favourable H-bonding interactions involving NH and O substituents at the adenine C-2 position with N278 and the backbone amide of A279 at the active site respectively. The study informs on the selectivity of the fluorinase as a tool for radiolabelling candidate ligands with fluorine-18 for positron emission tomography programmes.

Enzyme (α-Glucosidase, α-Amylase, PTP1B & VEGFR-2) Inhibition and Cytotoxicity of Fluorinated Benzenesulfonic Ester Derivatives of the 5-Substituted 2-Hydroxy-3-nitroacetophenones

The prevalence of small multi-target drugs containing a fluorinated aromatic moiety among approved drugs in the market is due to the unique properties of this halogen atom. With the aim to develop potent antidiabetic agents, a series of phenylsulfonic esters based on the conjugation of the 5-substituted 2-hydroxy-3-nitroacetophenones 1a-d with phenylsulfonyl chloride derivatives substituted with a fluorine atom or fluorine-containing (-CF3 or -OCF3) group were prepared. Their structures were characterized using a combination of spectroscopic techniques complemented with a single-crystal X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis on a representative example. The compounds were, in turn, assayed for inhibitory effect against α-glucosidase, α-amylase, protein tyrosine phosphatase 1 B (PTP1B) and the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR-2) all of which are associated with the pathogenesis and progression of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The antigrowth effect of selected compounds was evaluated on the human breast (MCF-7) and lung (A549) cancer cell lines. The compounds were also evaluated for cytotoxicity against the African Green Monkey kidney (Vero) cell line. The results of an in vitro enzymatic study were augmented by molecular docking (in silico) analysis. Their ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion) properties have been evaluated on the most active compounds against α-glucosidase and/or α-amylase to predict their drug likeness.

In Vitro Cytotoxicity of Fluorinated Quaternary Ammonium Salts in Colorectal Cancer Cells and In Silico Pharmacology

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a multifactorial disease driven by genetic and epigenetic alterations that modulate specific metabolic pathways. Despite the availability of effective treatments like 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), pharmacological therapy for CRC still faces significant challenges, including drug resistance, toxicity, and limited specificity. Therefore, discovering new compounds remains critical to overcoming these barriers and expanding treatment options. This study evaluated the cytotoxicity of fluorinated quaternary ammonium salts (FQAS) library in CRC-derived cell lines with premetastatic and metastatic phenotypes. The genetic and epigenetic background of the CRC cell lines and the selectivity of cytotoxicity compared to nontumor cells and between different CRC stages were also assessed. Additionally, the in silico pharmacological properties of these FQASs were analyzed. Results showed that FQASs 9-14 exhibited significant cytotoxic activity against both premetastatic and metastatic CRC cell lines, with FQASs 9, 13, and 14 displaying selective toxicity toward CRC cells over normal murine colorectal cells. However, in silico studies indicated poor oral bioavailability for these compounds, suggesting that an injection-based delivery route may be more effective for targeting CRC cells. In conclusion, CF3-containing FQASs are promising therapeutic candidates for CRC treatment.

Recent progress in therapeutic applications of fluorinated five-membered heterocycles and their benzo-fused systems

Heterocyclic derivatives grafted with fluorine atom(s) have attracted the attention of scientists due to the unique physicochemical properties of the C-F bond. The inclusion of fluorine atom(s) into organic compounds often increases their lipophilicity and metabolic stability, enhancing their bioavailability and affinity for target proteins. Therefore, it is not surprising to find that more than 20% of the medications on the market contain fluorine, and nearly 300 fluorine-containing drugs have been officially approved for use as medicines. In this review article, we are interested in classifying and describing the reports comprising varied therapeutic activities of the directly fluorinated five-membered heterocycles and their fused systems during the last two decades. These therapeutic activities included antiviral, anti-inflammatory, enzymatic inhibitory, antimalarial, anticoagulant, antipsychotic, antioxidant, antiprotozoal, histamine-H3 receptor, serotonin receptor, chemokine receptor, prostaglandin-D2 receptor, and PBR inhibition activities. In many cases, the activities of fluorinated azoles were almost equal to or exceeded the potency of reference drugs.

A ratiometric fluorescent dark box and smartphone integrated portable sensing platform based on hydrogen bonding induction for on-site determination of enrofloxacin

Enrofloxacin (ENR) residues in animal-derived food and water threaten human health. Simple, low-cost and on-site detection methods are urgently needed. Blue emitting carbon quantum dots (CQDs) and orange rhodamine B (RhB) were used as recognition and reference signals, respectively, to construct a ratiometric fluorescence sensor. After the addition of ENR, the color of the sensor changed from orange to blue because hydrogen bonding induced a considerable increase in CQDs fluorescence. Based on this mechanism, a simple and low cost on-site portable sensing platform was constructed, which integrated a stable UV light strip and a smartphone with voice-controlled phototaking function and an RGB app. The t-test results of spiked ENR recoveries for diluted milk, honey and drinking water revealed no significant differences between the ratiometric fluorescent sensor and portable sensing platform. Thus, this portable sensing platform provides a novel strategy for on-site quantification of quinolone antibiotics in foodstuffs and environmental water.

Synthetic approaches and application of representative clinically approved fluorine-enriched anti-cancer medications

Fluorine possesses distinctive chemical characteristics, such as its strong electron-withdrawing ability and small atomic size, which render it an invaluable asset in the design and optimization of pharmaceuticals. The utilization of fluorine-enriched medications for combating cancer has emerged as a prominent approach in medicinal chemistry and drug discovery, offering improved clinical outcomes and enhanced pharmacological properties. This comprehensive review explores the synthetic approaches and clinical applications of approved 22 representative fluorinated anti-cancer drugs from 2019 to present, shedding light on their historical development, brand names, drug target activity, mechanism of action, preclinical pharmacodynamics, clinical efficacy, and toxicity. Additionally, the review provides an extensive analysis of the representative synthetic techniques employed. Overall, this review emphasizes the significance of incorporating fluorine chemistry into anti-cancer drug research while highlighting promising future prospects for exploring compounds enriched with fluorine in the battle against cancer.

A Metal-Free Direct Decarboxylative Fluoroacylation of Indole Carboxylic Acids with Fluorinated Acids

A straightforward preparation of diversified fluorinated indol-3-yl ketones was developed by the direct decarboxylative fluoroacylation of indole carboxylic acids. The reaction could be performed on a gram scale under net conditions. Neither a metal catalyst nor an additive was employed. This methodology featured simple reaction conditions, high efficiency, exclusive selectivity, a broad substrate scope, and easy operation, which allowed it to meet the green chemistry requirement of the modern pharmaceutical industry. Control experiments confirmed that a radical process might be involved in the tandem decarboxylative fluoroacylation sequence.

Synthesis and agricultural antimicrobial evaluation of new quinazoline derivatives containing both a piperazine linker and the N-acetyl moiety

BACKGROUND

To discover more efficient agricultural antimicrobial agents, a series of new quinazoline derivatives containing both a piperazine linker and the N-acetyl moiety were prepared and assessed for their antibacterial and antifungal activities.

RESULTS

All the target compounds were characterized by 1H and 13C NMR as well as high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), and the chemical structure of the most potent compound E19 incorporating a 4-trifluoromethoxy substituent was clearly confirmed via single crystal X-ray diffraction measurements. The bioassay results indicated that some compounds possessed notable inhibitory effects in vitro against the bacterium Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola (Xoc). For example, compound E19 had an EC50 (effective concentration for 50% activity) value of 7.1 μg/mL towards this pathogen, approximately 15- and 10-fold more effective than the commercial bactericides thiodiazole copper and bismerthiazol (EC50 = 110.2 and 72.4 μg/mL, respectively). Subsequently, the mechanistic studies showed that compound E19 likely exerted its antibacterial efficacies by altering the cell morphology, increasing the permeability of bacterial cytoplasmic membrane, suppressing the production of bacterial extracellular polysaccharides and the extracellular enzyme activities (amylase and cellulase), and blocking the swimming motility of Xoc. Moreover, the proteomic analysis revealed that compound E19 could reduce the bacterial flagellar biosynthesis and decrease the flagellar motility by down-regulating the expression of the related differential proteins.

CONCLUSION

Compound E19 exhibited good potential for further development as a bactericide candidate for control of Xoc. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Phenylseleno trifluoromethoxylation of alkenes

Trifluoromethoxylated molecules and selenylated compounds find a wide range of interesting applications, but separately. In order to combine the potential of these two motifs and to propose a new class of compounds, we have developed an electrophilic phenylseleno trifluoromethoxylation of alkenes, which leads to β-selenylated trifluoromethoxylated compounds or, upon subsequent reduction, to the trifluoromethoxylated ones.

Photoredox-catalyzed C(sp2)-H trifluoromethylation of 3-methylene-isoindolin-1-ones under metal-free conditions

A facile synthetic method for direct C(sp2)-H bond trifluoromethylation of 3-methylene-isoindolin-1-ones under visible-light-induced metal-free conditions is presented. This protocol features mild reaction conditions, broad substrate scope and excellent functional group tolerance, resulting in a range of structurally diverse trifluoromethylated products in good to excellent yields.

New Therapeutics for Heart Failure Worsening: Focus on Vericiguat

Heart failure (HF) is a syndrome characterized by signs and symptoms resulting from structural or functional cardiac abnormalities, confirmed by elevated natriuretic peptides or evidence of congestion. HF patients are classified according to left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Worsening HF (WHF) is associated with increased short- and long-term mortality, re-hospitalization, and healthcare costs. The standard treatment of HF includes angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitors, mineralocorticoid-receptor antagonists, beta-blockers, and sodium-glucose-co-transporter 2 inhibitors. To manage systolic HF by reducing mortality and hospitalizations in patients experiencing WHF, treatment with vericiguat, a direct stimulator of soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC), is indicated. This drug acts by stimulating sGC enzymes, part of the nitric oxide (NO)-sGC-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) signaling pathway, regulating the cardiovascular system by catalyzing cGMP synthesis in response to NO. cGMP acts as a second messenger, triggering various cellular effects. Deficiencies in cGMP production, often due to low NO availability, are implicated in cardiovascular diseases. Vericiguat stimulates sGC directly, bypassing the need for a functional NO-sGC-cGMP axis, thus preventing myocardial and vascular dysfunction associated with decreased sGC activity in heart failure. Approved by the FDA in 2021, vericiguat administration should be considered, in addition to the four pillars of reduced EF (HFrEF) therapy, in symptomatic patients with LVEF < 45% following a worsening event. Cardiac rehabilitation represents an ideal setting where there is more time to implement therapy with vericiguat and incorporate a greater number of medications for the management of these patients. This review covers vericiguat's metabolism, molecular mechanisms, and drug-drug interactions.

Comparative electrochemical study of veterinary drug danofloxacin at glassy carbon electrode and electrified liquid-liquid interface

This work compares the electroanalytical performance of two electroanalytical systems based on (1) the glassy carbon electrode (GCE), and (2) the electrified liquid-liquid interface (eLLI), for the detection of fluoroquinolone antibiotic-danofloxacin (DANO). Our aim was to define the optimal conditions to detect the chosen analyte with two employed systems, extract a number of electroanalytical parameters, study the mechanism of the charge transfer reactions (oxidation at GCE and ion transfer across the eLLI), and to provide physicochemical constants for DANO. Detection of the chosen analyte was also performed in the spiked milk samples. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work that directly compares the electroanalytical parameters obtained with solid electrode (in this case GCE) and eLLI. We have found that for DANO the latter provides better electroanalytical parameters (lower LOD and LOQ) as well as good selectivity when the milk was analyzed.

Improved synthesis, molecular modeling and anti-inflammatory activity of new fluorinated dihydrofurano-naphthoquinone compounds

A series of new fluorinated dihydrofurano-napthoquinone compounds were sucessfully synthesized in good yields using microwave-assisted multi-component reactions of 2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone, fluorinated aromatic aldehydes, and pyridinium bromide. The products were fully characterized using spectroscopic techniques and evaluated for their anti-inflammatory activity using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells. Among 12 new compounds, compounds 8b, 8d, and 8e showed high potent NO inhibitory activity in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells with IC50 values ranging from 1.54 to 3.92 µM. The levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-6 in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages were remarkably decreased after the application of 8b, 8d, 8e and 8k. Molecular docking simulations revealed structure-activity relationships of 8b, 8d, and 8e toward NO synthase, cyclooxygenase (COX-2 over COX-1), and prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES-1). Further physicochemical and pharmacokinetic computations also demonstrated the drug-like characteristics of synthesized compounds. These findings demonstrated the importance of fluorinated dihydrofurano-napthoquinone moieties in the development of potential anti-inflammatory agents.

Fluorine in the pharmaceutical industry: Synthetic approaches and application of clinically approved fluorine-enriched anti-infectious medications

The strategic integration of fluorine atoms into anti-infectious agents has become a cornerstone in the field of medicinal chemistry, owing to the unique influence of fluorine on the chemical and biological properties of pharmaceuticals. This review examines the synthetic methodologies that enable the incorporation of fluorine into anti-infectious drugs, and the resultant clinical applications of these fluorine-enriched compounds. With a focus on clinically approved medications, the discussion extends to the molecular mechanisms. It further outlines the specific effects of fluorination, which contribute to the heightened efficacy of anti-infective therapies. By presenting a comprehensive analysis of current drugs and their developmental pathways, this review underscores the continuing evolution and significance of fluorine in advancing anti-infectious treatment options. The insights offered extend valuable guidance for future drug design and the development of next-generation anti-infectious agents.

High-Valent Copper Catalysis Enables Regioselective Fluoroarylation of Gem-Difluorinated Cyclopropanes

Transition-metal (TM) catalyzed reaction of gem-difluorinated cyclopropanes (gem-DFCPs) has drawn much attention recently. The reaction generally occurs via the activation of the distal C─C bond in gem-DFCPs by a low-valent TM through oxidative addition, eventually producing mono-fluoro olefins as the coupling products. However, achieving regioselective activation of the proximal C─C bond in gem-DFCPs that overcomes the intrinsic reactivity via TM catalysis remains elusive. Here, a new reaction mode of gem-DFCPs enabled by high-valent copper catalysis, which allows exclusive activation of the congested proximal C─C bond is presented. The reaction that achieves fluoroarylation of gem-DFCPs uses NFSI (N-fluorobenzenesulfonimide) as electrophilic fluoro reagent and arenes as the C─H nucleophiles, enabling the synthesis of diverse CF3-containing scaffolds. It is proposed that a high-valent copper species plays an important role in the regioselective activation of the proximal C─C bond possibly via a σ-bond metathesis.

Controllable Fluorocarbon Chain Elongation: TMSCF2Br-Enabled Trifluorovinylation and Pentafluorocyclopropylation of Aldehydes

Controllable fluorocarbon chain elongation (CFCE) is a promising yet underdeveloped strategy for the well-defined synthesis of structurally novel polyfluorinated compounds. Herein, the direct and efficient trifluorovinylation and pentafluorocyclopropylation of aldehydes are described by using TMSCF2Br (TMS = trimethylsilyl) as the sole fluorocarbon source, accomplishing the goals of CFCE from C1 to C2 and from C1 to C3, respectively. The key to the success of these CFCE processes lies in the unique and diversified chemical reactivity of TMSCF2Br, which can serve as two different precursors, namely, a TMSCF2 radical precursor and a difluorocarbene precursor. Various functional groups are amenable to this new synthetic protocol, providing streamlined access to a broad range of alcohols containing trifluorovinyl or pentafluorocyclopropyl moieties from abundantly available aldehydes. The potential utility of these methods is further demonstrated by the gram-scale synthesis, derivatization, and measurement of log P values of the products.

An Expedition on Synthetic Methodology of FDA-approved Anticancer Drugs (2018-2021)

New drugs being established in the market every year produce specified structures for selective biological targeting. With medicinal insights into molecular recognition, these begot molecules open new rooms for designing potential new drug molecules. In this review, we report the compilation and analysis of a total of 56 drugs including 33 organic small molecules (Mobocertinib, Infigratinib, Sotorasib, Trilaciclib, Umbralisib, Tepotinib, Relugolix, Pralsetinib, Decitabine, Ripretinib, Selpercatinib, Capmatinib, Pemigatinib, Tucatinib, Selumetinib, Tazemetostat, Avapritinib, Zanubrutinib, Entrectinib, Pexidartinib, Darolutamide, Selinexor, Alpelisib, Erdafitinib, Gilteritinib, Larotrectinib, Glasdegib, Lorlatinib, Talazoparib, Dacomitinib, Duvelisib, Ivosidenib, Apalutamide), 6 metal complexes (Edotreotide Gallium Ga-68, fluoroestradiol F-18, Cu 64 dotatate, Gallium 68 PSMA-11, Piflufolastat F-18, 177Lu (lutetium)), 16 macromolecules as monoclonal antibody conjugates (Brentuximabvedotin, Amivantamab-vmjw, Loncastuximabtesirine, Dostarlimab, Margetuximab, Naxitamab, Belantamabmafodotin, Tafasitamab, Inebilizumab, SacituzumabGovitecan, Isatuximab, Trastuzumab, Enfortumabvedotin, Polatuzumab, Cemiplimab, Mogamulizumab) and 1 peptide enzyme (Erwiniachrysanthemi-derived asparaginase) approved by the U.S. FDA between 2018 to 2021. These drugs act as anticancer agents against various cancer types, especially non-small cell lung, lymphoma, breast, prostate, multiple myeloma, neuroendocrine tumor, cervical, bladder, cholangiocarcinoma, myeloid leukemia, gastrointestinal, neuroblastoma, thyroid, epithelioid and cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. The review comprises the key structural features, approval times, target selectivity, mechanisms of action, therapeutic indication, formulations, and possible synthetic approaches of these approved drugs. These crucial details will benefit the scientific community for futuristic new developments in this arena.