Inhibition of gamma-aminobutyric acid uptake: anatomy, physiology and effects against epileptic seizures

Geraniol Ameliorates Pentylenetetrazol-Induced Epilepsy, Neuroinflammation, and Oxidative Stress via Modulating the GABAergic Tract: In vitro and in vivo studies

Introduction

Geraniol (Ger), a monoterpene, is a common constituent of several essential oils. This study explored the anticonvulsant effect of Ger in-vitro using nerve growth factor (NGF) prompted PC12 cell injured by Glutamate (Glu) and in-vivo using Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced kindling through the GABAergic pathway.

Materials

To assess the effect of Ger on NGF prompted PC12 cells injured by Glu, Ger at concentrations of 25, 50, 100, 200 and 400 μg/mL was used. GABA, 5-HT, IL-1β, IL-4, and TNF-α levels and the gene expressions of GABAA-Rα1, NMDAR1, GAD 65, GAD 67, GAT 1 and GAT 3 were measured in NGF-induced PC12 cells treated with Ger (100, and 200 μg/mL). Mice were randomly separated into five groups. Normal and PTZ groups in which mice were injected with saline or PTZ, respectively. PTZ + Ger 100, PTZ + Ger 200 and PTZ + SV groups in which mice orally administered Ger or sodium valproate (SV), respectively, then injected with PTZ.

Results

Ger up to 400 μg/mL did not display any toxicity or injury in PC12 cells. Ger (100 to 200 μg/mL) reduced the injury induced by Glu, increased the gene expression of GABAA-Rα1, GAD65 and GAD67 and decreased GAT 1, GAT 3 and NMDAR1 expression in NGF-induced PC12 cells damaged by Glu. Ger (100 to 200 μg/mL) increased GABA and reduced TNF-α, IL-4 and IL-1β levels in NGF-induced PC12 cells injured by Glu. As for the in-vivo results, Ger increased GABA, GAD, GAT 1 and 3 and lowered GABA T. Ger mitigated MDA, NO, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and IFN-γ, GFAP, caspase-3, and -9 levels and Bax gene expression and escalated GSH, SOD, catalase, BDNF and Bcl2 gene expression.

Conclusion

Ger reduced the oxidative stress status, neuroinflammation and apoptosis and activated GABAergic neurotransmission, which might clarify its anticonvulsant. Ger protects animals against PTZ prompted kindling as established by the enhancement in short term as well as long-term memory. Ger mitigated the injury induced by Glu in NGF prompted PC12 cell.

Discovery of novel multifunctional ligands targeting GABA transporters, butyrylcholinesterase, β-secretase, and amyloid β aggregation as potential treatment of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a global health problem in the medical sector that will increase over time. The limited treatment of AD leads to the search for a new clinical candidate. Considering the multifactorial nature of AD, a strategy targeting number of regulatory proteins involved in the development of the disease is an effective approach. Here, we present a discovery of new multi-target-directed ligands (MTDLs), purposely designed as GABA transporter (GAT) inhibitors, that successfully provide the inhibitory activity against butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), β-secretase (BACE1), amyloid β aggregation and calcium channel blockade activity. The selected GAT inhibitors, 19c and 22a - N-benzylamide derivatives of 4-aminobutyric acid, displayed the most prominent multifunctional profile. Compound 19c (mGAT1 IC50 = 10 μM, mGAT4 IC50 = 12 μM and BuChE IC50 = 559 nM) possessed the highest hBACE1 and Aβ40 aggregation inhibitory activity (IC50 = 1.57 μM and 99 % at 10 μM, respectively). Additionally, it showed a decrease in both the elongation and nucleation constants of the amyloid aggregation process. In contrast compound 22a represented the highest activity and a mixed-type of eqBuChE inhibition (IC50 = 173 nM) with hBACE1 (IC50 = 9.42 μM), Aβ aggregation (79 % at 10 μM) and mGATs (mGAT1 IC50 = 30 μM, mGAT4 IC50 = 25 μM) inhibitory activity. Performed molecular docking studies described the mode of interactions with GATs and enzymatic targets. In ADMET in vitro studies both compounds showed acceptable metabolic stability and low neurotoxicity. Successfully, compounds 19c and 22a at the dose of 30 mg/kg possessed statistically significant antiamnesic properties in a mouse model of amnesia caused by scopolamine and assessed in the novel object recognition (NOR) task or the passive avoidance (PA) task.

Structural insights into GABA transport inhibition using an engineered neurotransmitter transporter

γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter, and its levels in the synaptic space are controlled by the GABA transporter isoforms (GATs). GATs are structurally related to biogenic amine transporters but display interactions with distinct inhibitors used as anti-epileptics. In this study, we engineer the binding pocket of Drosophila melanogaster dopamine transporter to resemble GAT1 and determine high-resolution X-ray structures of the modified transporter in the substrate-free state and in complex with GAT1 inhibitors NO711 and SKF89976a that are analogs of tiagabine, a medication prescribed for the treatment of partial seizures. We observe that the primary binding site undergoes substantial shifts in subsite architecture in the modified transporter to accommodate the two GAT1 inhibitors. We also observe that SKF89976a additionally interacts at an allosteric site in the extracellular vestibule, yielding an occluded conformation. Interchanging SKF89976a interacting residue in the extracellular loop 4 between GAT1 and dDAT suggests a role for this motif in the selective control of neurotransmitter uptake. Our findings, therefore, provide vital insights into the organizational principles dictating GAT1 activity and inhibition.

Elevation of GABA levels in the globus pallidus disinhibits the thalamic reticular nucleus and desynchronized cortical beta oscillations

The external globus pallidus (GP) is a GABAergic node involved in motor control regulation and coordinates firing and synchronization in the basal ganglia-thalamic-cortical network through inputs and electrical activity. In Parkinson's disease, high GABA levels alter electrical activity in the GP and contribute to motor symptoms. Under normal conditions, GABA levels are regulated by GABA transporters (GATs). GAT type 1 (GAT-1) is highly expressed in the GP, and pharmacological blockade of GAT-1 increases the duration of currents mediated by GABA A receptors and induces tonic inhibition. The functional contribution of the pathway between the GP and the reticular thalamic nucleus (RTn) is unknown. This pathway is important since the RTn controls the flow of information between the thalamus and cortex, suggesting that it contributes to cortical dynamics. In this work, we investigated the effect of increased GABA levels on electrical activity in the RTn by obtaining single-unit extracellular recordings from anesthetized rats and on the motor cortex (MCx) by corticography. Our results show that high GABA levels increase the spontaneous activity rate of RTn neurons and desynchronize oscillations in the beta frequency band in the MCx. Our findings provide evidence that the GP exerts tonic control over RTn activity through the GP-reticular pathway and functionally contributes to cortical oscillation dynamics.

Unaltered Tonic Inhibition in the Arcuate Nucleus of Diet-induced Obese Mice

The principal inhibitory transmitter, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), is critical for maintaining hypothalamic homeostasis and released from neurons phasically, as well as from astrocytes tonically. Although astrocytes in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) of the hypothalamus are shown to transform into reactive astrocytes, the tonic inhibition by astrocytic GABA has not been adequately investigated in diet-induced obesity (DIO). Here, we investigated the expression of monoamine oxidase-B (MAOB), a GABA-synthesizing enzyme, in reactive astrocytes in obese mice. We observed that a chronic high-fat diet (HFD) significantly increased astrocytic MAOB and cellular GABA content, along with enhanced hypertrophy of astrocytes in the ARC. Unexpectedly, we found that the level of tonic GABA was unaltered in chronic HFD mice using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in the ARC. Furthermore, the GABA-induced current was increased with elevated GABAA receptor α5 (GABRA5) expression. Surprisingly, we found that a nonselective GABA transporter (GAT) inhibitor, nipecotic acid (NPA)-induced current was significantly increased in chronic HFD mice. We observed that GAT1 inhibitor, NO711-induced current was significantly increased, whereas GAT3 inhibitor, SNAP5114-induced current was not altered. The unexpected unaltered tonic inhibition was due to an increase of GABA clearance in the ARC by neuronal GAT1 rather than astrocytic GAT3. These results imply that increased astrocytic GABA synthesis and neuronal GABAA receptor were compensated by GABA clearance, resulting in unaltered tonic GABA inhibition in the ARC of the hypothalamus in obese mice. Taken together, GABA-related molecular pathways in the ARC dynamically regulate the tonic inhibition to maintain hypothalamic homeostasis against the HFD challenge.

Study of analgesic activity and effects of new dipharmacophores – nebracetam and cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors derivatives on the cognitive abilities of rats

Introduction: The aim of the present study was to research the analgesic activity and effect of new dipharmacophore compounds consisting of substances with proven therapeutic activity, namely nebracetam–ibuprofen (NRIP), nebracetam–dexibuprofen (NRDIP), nebracetam–niflumic acid (NRNFA), and nebracetam–mefenamic acid (NRMFA), on the cognitive abilities of rats.

Materials and methods: The experimental study was performed in 110 Wistar rats (male/female ratio 50/50%), weighing 180–200 g, and 50 laboratory mice (male/female ratio 50/50%) weighing 18–22 g. The study of the analgesic activity was carried out using the acetic acid writhing test and the hot plate test. The effect on the cognitive abilities of rats was studied using the pattern recognition test in a model of neurotrauma caused by a drop-weight.

Results and discussion: It has been shown that the administration of dipharmacophores nebracetam–ibuprofen (NRIP), nebracetam–dexibuprofen (NRDIP), nebracetam–niflumic acid (NRNFA) as well as nebracetam–mefenamic acid (NRMFA) in the tested dosages leads to a statistically significant (p<0.05) analgesic action in acetic acid writhing tests and hot plate tests. At the same time, the analgesic activity of the compounds has been shown to conjoin with a statistically significant influence on cognitive functions in the experimental animal groups after simulating a neurotrauma.

Conclusion: The dipharmacophore compounds studied in the present research, having analgesic and nootropic effects, can be used as effective and safe analgesics and can also be used for the treatment and prevention of pain syndrome, enhancing the cognitive abilities of healthy people in complicated professional conditions.

Rapid quantification of extracellular neurotransmitters in mouse brain by PESI/MS/MS and longitudinal data analysis using the R and Stan-based Bayesian state-space model

We developed a methodology for rapid quantification of extracellular neurotransmitters in mouse brain by PESI/MS/MS and longitudinal data analysis using the R and Stan-based Bayesian state-space model. We performed a rapid analysis for quantifying extracellular l-glutamic acid (L-Glu) and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the mouse striatum by combined use of probe electrospray ionization/tandem mass spectrometry (PESI/MS/MS) and in vivo brain microdialysis. We optimized the PESI/MS/MS parameters with the authentic L-Glu, GABA, L-Glu-¹³C₅,¹⁵N₁, and GABA-D₆ standards. We constructed calibration curves of L-Glu and GABA with the stable isotope internal standard correction method (L-Glu-¹³C₅,¹⁵N₁, and GABA-D₆), demonstrating sufficient linearity (R > 0.999). Additionally, the quantitative method for L-Glu and GABA was validated with low-, middle-, and high-quality control samples. The intra- and inter-day accuracy and precision were 0.4%-7.5% and 1.7%-5.4% for L-Glu, respectively, and 0.1%-4.8% and 2.1%-5.7% for GABA, respectively, demonstrating high reproducibility of the method. To evaluate the feasibility of this method, microdialyses were performed on free-moving mice that were stimulated by high-K⁺-induced depolarization under different sampling conditions: 1) every 5 min for 150 min (n = 2) and 2) every 1 min for 30 min (n = 3). We applied the R and Stan-based Bayesian state-space model to each mouse's time-series data considering autocorrelation, and the model successfully detected abnormal changes in the L-Glu and GABA levels in each mouse. Thus, the L-Glu and GABA levels in all microdialysates approximately increased up to two- and seven-fold levels through high-K⁺-induced depolarization. Additionally, a 1-min temporal resolution was achieved using this method, thereby successfully monitoring microenvironmental changes in the extracellular L-Glu and GABA of the mouse striatum. In conclusion, this methodology using PESI/MS/MS and Bayesian state-space model allowed easy monitoring of neurotransmitters at high temporal resolutions and appropriate data interpretation considering autocorrelation of time-series data, which will reveal hidden pathological mechanisms of brain diseases, such as Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease in the future.

Development of tricyclic N-benzyl-4-hydroxybutanamide derivatives as inhibitors of GABA transporters mGAT1-4 with anticonvulsant, antinociceptive, and antidepressant activity

γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmission has a significant impact on the proper functioning of the central nervous system. Numerous studies have indicated that inhibitors of the GABA transporters mGAT1-4 offer a promising strategy for the treatment of several neurological disorders, including epilepsy, neuropathic pain, and depression. Following our previous results, herein, we report the synthesis, biological evaluation, and structure-activity relationship studies supported by molecular docking and molecular dynamics of a new series of N-benzyl-4-hydroxybutanamide derivatives regarding their inhibitory potency toward mGAT1-4. This study allowed us to identify compound 23a (N-benzyl-4-hydroxybutanamide bearing a dibenzocycloheptatriene moiety), a nonselective GAT inhibitor with a slight preference toward mGAT4 (pIC₅₀ = 5.02 ± 0.11), and compound 24e (4-hydroxy-N-[(4-methylphenyl)-methyl]butanamide bearing a dibenzocycloheptadiene moiety) with relatively high inhibitory activity toward mGAT2 (pIC₅₀ = 5.34 ± 0.09). In a set of in vivo experiments, compound 24e successively showed predominant anticonvulsant activity and antinociception in the formalin model of tonic pain. In contrast, compound 23a showed significant antidepressant-like properties in mice. These results were consistent with the available literature data, which indicates that, apart from seizure control, GABAergic neurotransmission is also involved in the pathophysiology of several psychiatric diseases, however alternative mechanisms underlying this action cannot be excluded. Finally, it is worth noting that the selected compounds showed unimpaired locomotor skills that have been indicated to give reliable results in behavioral assays.

GABA transporter sustains IL-1β production in macrophages

Accumulating evidence shows that nervous system governs host immune responses; however, how γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic system shapes the function of innate immune cells is poorly defined. Here, we demonstrate that GABA transporter (GAT2) modulates the macrophage function. GAT2 deficiency lowers the production of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in proinflammatory macrophages. Mechanistically, GAT2 deficiency boosts the betaine/S-adenosylmethionine (SAM)/hypoxanthine metabolic pathway to inhibit transcription factor KID3 expression through the increased DNA methylation in its promoter region. KID3 regulates oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) via targeting the expression of OXPHOS-related genes and is also critical for NLRP3-ASC-caspase-1 complex formation. Likewise, GAT2 deficiency attenuates macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses in vivo, including lipopolysaccharide-induced sepsis, infection-induced pneumonia, and high-fat diet-induced obesity. Together, we propose that targeting GABAergic system (e.g., GABA transporter) could provide previously unidentified therapeutic opportunities for the macrophage-associated diseases.

Elucidation of the Structure and Synthesis of Neuroprotective Low Molecular Mass Components of the Parawixia bistriata Spider Venom

The South American social spider Parawixia bistriata produces a venom containing complex organic compounds with intriguing biological activities. The crude venom leads to paralysis in termites and stimulates l-glutamate uptake and inhibits GABA uptake in rat brain synaptosomes. Glutamate is the major neurotransmitter at the insect neuromuscular junction and at the mammalian central nervous system, suggesting a modulation of the glutamatergic system by the venom. Parawixin1, 2, and 10 (Pwx1, 2 and 10) are HPLC fractions that demonstrate this bioactivity. Pwx1 stimulates l-glutamate uptake through the main transporter in the brain, EAAT2, and is neuroprotective in in vivo glaucoma models. Pxw2 inhibits GABA and glycine uptake in synaptosomes and inhibits seizures and neurodegeneration, and Pwx10 increases l-glutamate uptake in synaptosomes and is neuroprotective and anticonvulsant, shown in in vivo epilepsy models. Herein, we investigated the low molecular mass compounds in this venom and have found over 20 small compounds and 36 unique acylpolyamines with and without amino acid linkers. The active substances in fractions Pwx1 and Pwx2 require further investigation. We elucidated and confirmed the structure of the active acylpolyamine in Pwx10. Both fraction Pwx10 and the synthesized component enhance the activity of transporters EAAT1 and EAAT2, and, importantly, offer in vitro neuroprotection against excitotoxicity in primary cultures. These data suggest that compounds with this mechanism could be developed into therapies for disorders in which l-glutamate excitotoxicity is involved.

N-Substituted Nipecotic Acids as (S)-SNAP-5114 Analogues with Modified Lipophilic Domains

Potential mGAT4 inhibitors derived from the lead substance (S)-SNAP-5114 have been synthesized and characterized for their inhibitory potency. Variations from the parent compound included the substitution of one of its aromatic 4-methoxy and 4-methoxyphenyl groups, respectively, with a more polar moiety, including a carboxylic acid, alcohol, nitrile, carboxamide, sulfonamide, aldehyde or ketone function, or amino acid partial structures. Furthermore, it was investigated how the substitution of more than one of the aromatic 4-methoxy groups affects the potency and selectivity of the resulting compounds. Among the synthesized test substances (S)-1-{2-[(4-formylphenyl)bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-methoxy]ethyl}piperidine-3-carboxylic acid, that features a carbaldehyde function in place of one of the aromatic 4-methoxy moieties of (S)-SNAP-5114, was found to have a pIC50 value of 5.89±0.07, hence constituting a slightly more potent mGAT4 inhibitor than the parent substance while showing comparable subtype selectivity.

Structure modeling of γ-aminobutyric acid transporters - Molecular basics of ligand selectivity

γ-Aminobutyric acid transporters are responsible for regulating the GABA level in the synaptic cleft. In this way, they affect GABA-ergic transmission which is important for the proper functioning of the central nervous system. The exact structure of GABA transporters is still unknown, which hinders the design of new, potent and selective inhibitors. For these reasons, we decided to create models of all types of human gamma-aminobutyric acid transporters. They were built based on crystal structures of related proteins from the SLC6 family using homology modeling methods. The reliability of the received models has been confirmed by a number of tools assessing the quality of protein models. To determine the ligand binding mode and indicate the amino acids responsible for selectivity, docking studies and molecular dynamics simulations were performed. The amino acids lining the bottom of the main binding site have a major impact on the selective ligand binding. In addition, an important element is the non-helical fragment of the transmembrane domain 10, and several amino acids within the vestibule of the transporters, which affect its volume. To check whether obtained models are suitable to distinguish active compounds from inactive ones, enrichment plots were prepared. Results suggest that our models may be useful in the search for new inhibitors of GABA transporters of the desired selectivity.

γ-Aminobutyric acid transporters as relevant biological target: Their function, structure, inhibitors and role in the therapy of different diseases

γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system. It plays a crucial role in many physiological processes. Upon release from the presynaptic element, it is removed from the synaptic cleft by reuptake due to the action of GABA transporters (GATs). GATs belong to a large SLC6 protein family whose characteristic feature is sodium-dependent relocation of neurotransmitters through the cell membrane. GABA transporters are characterized in many contexts, but their spatial structure is not fully known. They are divided into four types, which differ in occurrence and role. Herein, the special attention was paid to these transporting proteins. This comprehensive review presents the current knowledge about GABA transporters. Their distribution in the body, physiological functions and possible utilization in the therapy of different diseases were fully discussed. The important structural features were described based on published data, including sequence analysis, mutagenesis studies, and comparison with known SLC6 transporters for leucine (LeuT), dopamine (DAT) and serotonin (SERT). Moreover, the most important inhibitors of GABA transporters of various basic scaffolds, diverse selectivity and potency were presented.

The Effect of Protein-Rich Extract from Bombyx Batryticatus against Glutamate-Damaged PC12 Cells Via Regulating γ-Aminobutyric Acid Signaling Pathway

Bombyx Batryticatus (BB) is a known traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) utilized to treat convulsions, epilepsy, cough, asthma, headaches, etc. in China for thousands of years. This study is aimed at investigating optimum extraction of protein-rich extracts from BB (BBPs) using response surface methodology (RSM) and exploring the protective effects of BBPs against nerve growth factor (NGF)-induced PC12 cells injured by glutamate (Glu) and their underlying mechanisms. The results indicated optimum process of extraction was as follows: extraction time 1.00 h, ratio of liquid to the raw material 3.80 mL/g and ultrasonic power 230.0 W. The cell viability of PC12 cells stimulated by Glu was determined by CCK-8 assay. The levels of γ-aminobutyric (GABA), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-4 (IL-4), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and glucocorticoid receptor alpha (GR) in PC12 cells were assayed by ELISA. Furthermore, the Ca²⁺ levels in PC12 cells were determined by flow cytometry analysis. Protein and mRNA expressions of GABAA-Rα1, NMDAR1, GAD 65, GAD 67, GAT 1 and GAT 3 in PC12 cells were evaluated by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blotting assays. Results revealed that BBPs decreased toxic effects due to Glu treatment and decreased Ca²⁺ levels in PC12 cells. After BBPs treatments, levels of GABA and 5-HT were increased and contents of TNF-α, IL-4 and IL-1β were decreased in NGF-induced PC12 cells injured by Glu. Moreover, BBPs up-regulated the expressions of GABAA-Rα1, GAD 65 and GAD 67, whereas down-regulated that of NMDAR1 GAT 1 and GAT 3. These findings suggested that BBPs possessed protective effects on NGF-induced PC12 cells injured by Glu via γ-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) signaling pathways, which demonstrated that BBPs has potential anti-epileptic effect in vitro. These findings may be useful in the development of novel medicine for the treatment of epilepsy.

Inhibitory regulation of the prefrontal cortex following behavioral sensitization to amphetamine and/or methamphetamine psychostimulants: A review of GABAergic mechanisms

Behavioral sensitization to repeated psychostimulant administration has been proposed to reflect many of the neurochemical and behavioral changes that are characteristic of a range of disorders, including drug addiction and psychoses. While previous studies have examined the role of dopamine and glutamate neurotransmission in mediating sensitization, particularly within the prefrontal cortex (PFC), the role of inhibitory GABAergic processing of the PFC in the expression of sensitization is not well understood. Recent research, however, has proposed an emerging role of GABA synthesis, reuptake, ionotropic and metabotropic receptor regulation, and interneuronal changes following sensitization to methamphetamine and/or amphetamine within the PFC. The aim of this review, therefore, is to synthesize research findings on changes to the GABAergic network following sensitization induced by amphetamines (i.e., amphetamine and/or methamphetamine) in the PFC. In addition to providing an overview of global PFC changes, we also provide evidence of regional specific inhibitory influences on sensitized circuitry, focusing on the prelimbic and orbitofrontal cortices. We propose a neural circuit through which inhibitory PFC GABA changes mediate sensitized disease states, focusing on the interaction between the prelimbic and orbitofrontal cortices with subcortical brain structures and the mesolimbic system. Methodological considerations and avenues for future research are also discussed.

Association of mGluR-Dependent LTD of Excitatory Synapses with Endocannabinoid-Dependent LTD of Inhibitory Synapses Leads to EPSP to Spike Potentiation in CA1 Pyramidal Neurons

The input-output relationships in neural circuits are determined not only by synaptic efficacy but also by neuronal excitability. Activity-dependent alterations of synaptic efficacy have been extensively investigated, but relatively less is known about how the neuronal output is modulated when synaptic efficacy changes are associated with neuronal excitability changes. In this study, we demonstrate that paired pulses of low-frequency stimulation (PP-LFS) induced metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR)-dependent LTD at Schaffer collateral (SC)-CA1 synapses in Sprague Dawley rats (both sexes), and this LTD was associated with EPSP to spike (E-S) potentiation, leading to the increase in action potential (AP) outputs. Threshold voltage (V_th) for APs evoked by synaptic stimulation and that by somatic current injection were hyperpolarized significantly after PP-LFS. Blockers of GABA receptors mimicked and occluded PP-LFS effects on E-S potentiation and V_th hyperpolarization, suggesting that suppression of GABAergic mechanisms is involved in E-S potentiation after PP-LFS. Indeed, IPSCs and tonic inhibitory currents were reduced after PP-LFS. The IPSC reduction was accompanied by increased paired-pulse ratio, and abolished by AM251, a blocker for Type 1 cannabinoid receptors, suggesting that PP-LFS suppresses presynaptic GABA release by mGluR-dependent endocannabinoids signaling. By contrast, a Group 1 mGluR agonist, 3, 5-dihydroxyphenylglycine, induced LTD at SC-CA1 synapses but failed to induce significant IPSC reduction and AP output increase. We propose that mGluR signaling that induces LTD coexpression at excitatory and inhibitory synapses regulates an excitation-inhibition balance to increase neuronal output in CA1 neurons.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Long-lasting forms of synaptic plasticity are usually associated with excitability changes, the ability to fire action potentials. However, excitability changes have been regarded to play subsidiary roles to synaptic plasticity in modifying neuronal output. We demonstrate that, when metabotropic glutamate receptor-dependent LTD is induced by paired pulses of low-frequency stimulation, the action potential output in response to a given input paradoxically increases, indicating that increased excitability is more powerful than synaptic depression. This increase is mediated by the suppression of a presynaptic GABA release via metabotropic glutamate receptor-dependent endocannabinoid signaling. Our study shows that neuronal output changes do not always follow the direction of synaptic plasticity at excitatory synapses, highlighting the importance of regulating inhibitory tone via endocannabinoid signaling.

Catalytic Enantioselective Synthesis of Guvacine Derivatives through [4 + 2] Annulations of Imines with α-Methylallenoates

P-Chiral [2.2.1] bicyclic phosphines (HypPhos catalysts) have been applied to reactions between α-alkylallenoates and imines, producing guvacine derivatives. These HypPhos catalysts were assembled from trans-4-hydroxyproline, with the modular nature of the synthesis allowing variations of the exocyclic P and N substituents. Among them, exo-( p-anisyl)-HypPhos was most efficacious for [4 + 2] annulations between ethyl α-methylallenoate and imines. Through this method, ( R)-aplexone was identified as being responsible for the decrease in the cellular levels of cholesterol.

Structure, Function, and Modulation of γ-Aminobutyric Acid Transporter 1 (GAT1) in Neurological Disorders: A Pharmacoinformatic Prospective

γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) Transporters (GATs) belong to sodium and chloride dependent-transporter family and are widely expressed throughout the brain. Notably, GAT1 is accountable for sustaining 75% of the synaptic GABA concentration and entails its transport to the GABAA receptors to initiate the receptor-mediated inhibition of post-synaptic neurons. Imbalance in ion homeostasis has been associated with several neurological disorders related to the GABAergic system. However, inhibition of the GABA uptake by these transporters has been accepted as an effective approach to enhance GABAergic inhibitory neurotransmission in the treatment of seizures in epileptic and other neurological disorders. Here, we reviewed computational methodologies including molecular modeling, docking, and molecular dynamic simulations studies to underscore the structure and function of GAT1 in the GABAergic system. Additionally, various SAR and QSAR methodologies have been reviewed to probe the 3D structural features of inhibitors required to modulate GATs activity. Overall, present review provides an overview of crucial role of GAT1 in GABAergic system and its modulation to evade neurological disorders.

GABA beyond the synapse: defining the subtype-specific pharmacodynamics of non-synaptic GABAA receptors

KEY POINTS

Physiologically relevant combinations of recombinant GABAA receptor (GABAR) subunits were expressed in HEK293 cells. Using whole-cell voltage clamp and rapid drug application, we measured the GABAR-subtype-specific properties to convey either synaptic or extrasynaptic signalling in a range of physiological contexts. α4βδ GABARs are optimally tuned to submicromolar tonic GABA and transient surges of micromolar GABA concentrations. α5β2γ2l GABARs are better suited to higher tonic GABA levels, but also convey robust responses to brief synaptic and perisynaptic GABA fluctuations. α1β2/3δ GABARs function well at prolonged, micromolar (>2 μm) GABA levels, but not to low tonic (<1 μm GABA) or synaptic/transient GABAergic signalling. These results help illuminate the context- and isoform-specific modes of GABAergic signalling in the brain.

ABSTRACT

GABAA receptors (GABARs) mediate a remarkable diversity of signalling modalities in vivo. Yet most published work characterizing responses to GABA has focused on the properties needed to convey fast, phasic synaptic inhibition. We therefore aimed to characterize the most prevalent (α4βδ, α5β3γ2L) and least prevalent (α1β2δ) non-synaptic GABAR currents, using whole-cell voltage clamp recordings of recombinant GABAR expressed in HEK293 cells and drug application protocols to recapitulate the GABA concentration profiles occurring during both fast synaptic and slow extrasynaptic signalling. We found that α4βδ GABARs were very sensitive to submicromolar GABA, with a rank order potency of α4β2δ ≥ α4β1δ ≈ α4β3δ GABARs. In comparison, the GABA EC50 was up to 20 times higher for α1β2γ2L GABARs, with α1β2δ and α5β3γ2L GABARs having intermediate GABA potency. Both α4βδ and α5β3γ2L GABAR currents exhibited slow, but substantial, desensitization as well as prolonged rates of deactivation. These GABAR current properties defined distinct 'dynamic ranges' of responsiveness to changing GABA for α4β2δ (0.1-1 μm), α5β3γ2L (0.5-7 μm) and α1β2γ2L (0.6-9 μm) GABARs. Finally, α1β2δ GABARs were notable for their relative lack of desensitization and extremely quick deactivation. In summary, our results help delineate the roles that specific GABARs may play in mediating non-synaptic GABA signals. Since ambient GABA levels may be altered during development as well as by drugs and disease states, these findings may help future efforts to understand disrupted inhibition underlying a variety of neurological illnesses, such as epilepsy.

Revised Ion/Substrate Coupling Stoichiometry of GABA Transporters

The purpose of this review is to highlight recent evidence in support of a 3 Na⁺: 1 Cl^-: 1 GABA coupling stoichiometry for plasma membrane GABA transporters (SLC6A1 , SLC6A11 , SLC6A12 , SLC6A13 ) and how the revised stoichiometry impacts our understanding of the contribution of GABA transporters to GABA homeostasis in synaptic and extrasynaptic regions in the brain under physiological and pathophysiological states. Recently, our laboratory probed the GABA transporter stoichiometry by analyzing the results of six independent measurements, which included the shifts in the thermodynamic transporter reversal potential caused by changes in the extracellular Na⁺, Cl^-, and GABA concentrations, as well as the ratio of charge flux to substrate flux for Na⁺, Cl^-, and GABA under voltage-clamp conditions. The shifts in the transporter reversal potential for a tenfold change in the external concentration of Na⁺, Cl^-, and GABA were 84 ± 4, 30 ± 1, and 29 ± 1 mV, respectively. Charge flux to substrate flux ratios were 0.7 ± 0.1 charges/Na⁺, 2.0 ± 0.2 charges/Cl^-, and 2.1 ± 0.1 charges/GABA. We then compared these experimental results with the predictions of 150 different transporter stoichiometry models, which included 1-5 Na⁺, 0-5 Cl^-, and 1-5 GABA per transport cycle. Only the 3 Na⁺: 1 Cl^-: 1 GABA stoichiometry model correctly predicts the results of all six experimental measurements. Using the revised 3 Na⁺: 1 Cl^-: 1 GABA stoichiometry, we propose that the GABA transporters mediate GABA uptake under most physiological conditions. Transporter-mediated GABA release likely takes place under pathophysiological or extreme physiological conditions.

Glial GABA Transporters as Modulators of Inhibitory Signalling in Epilepsy and Stroke

Imbalances in GABA-mediated tonic inhibition are involved in several pathophysiological conditions. A classical way of controlling tonic inhibition is through pharmacological intervention with extrasynaptic GABA_A receptors that sense ambient GABA and mediate a persistent GABAergic conductance. An increase in tonic inhibition may, however, also be obtained indirectly by inhibiting glial GABA transporters (GATs). These are sodium-coupled membrane transport proteins that normally act to terminate GABA neurotransmitter action by taking up GABA into surrounding astrocytes. The aim of the review is to provide an overview of glial GATs in regulating tonic inhibition, especially in epilepsy and stroke. This entails a comprehensive summary of changes known to occur in GAT expression levels and signalling following epileptic and ischemic insults. Further, we discuss the accumulating pharmacological evidence for targeting GATs in these diseases.

Effects of new fluorinated analogues of GABA, pregabalin bioisosters, on the ambient level and exocytotic release of [3H]GABA from rat brain nerve terminals

Recently, we have shown that new fluorinated analogues of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), bioisosters of pregabalin (β-i-Bu-GABA), i.e. β-polyfluoroalkyl-GABAs (FGABAs), with substituents: β-CF₃-β-OH (1), β-CF₃ (2); β-CF₂CF₂H (3), are able to increase the initial rate of [³H]GABA uptake by isolated rat brain nerve terminals (synaptosomes), and this effect is higher than that of pregabalin. So, synthesized FGABAs are structural but not functional analogues of GABA. Herein, we assessed the effects of synthesized FGABAs (100μM) on the ambient level and exocytotic release of [³H]GABA in nerve terminals and compared with those of pregabalin (100μM). It was shown that FGABAs 1-3 did not influence the ambient level of [³H]GABA in the synaptosomal preparations, and this parameter was also not altered by pregabalin. During blockage of GABA transporters GAT1 by specific inhibitor NO-711, FGABAs and pregabalin also did not change ambient [³H]GABA in synaptosomal preparations. Exocytotic release of [³H]GABA from synaptosomes decreased in the presence of FGABAs 1-3 and pregabalin, and the effects of FGABAs 1 &3 were more significant than those of FGABAs 2 and pregabalin. FGABAs 1-3/pregabalin-induced decrease in exocytotic release of [³H]GABA from synaptosomes was not a result of changes in the potential of the plasma membrane. Therefore, new synthesized FGABAs 1 &3 were able to decrease exocytotic release of [³H]GABA from nerve terminals more effectively in comparison to pregabalin. Absence of unspecific side effects of FGABAs 1 &3 on the membrane potential makes these compounds perspective for medical application.

GABA Signaling and Neuroactive Steroids in Adrenal Medullary Chromaffin Cells

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is produced not only in the brain, but also in endocrine cells by the two isoforms of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), GAD65 and GAD67. In rat adrenal medullary chromaffin cells only GAD67 is expressed, and GABA is stored in large dense core vesicles (LDCVs), but not synaptic-like microvesicles (SLMVs). The α3β2/3γ2 complex represents the majority of GABAA receptors expressed in rat and guinea pig chromaffin cells, whereas PC12 cells, an immortalized rat chromaffin cell line, express the α1 subunit as well as the α3. The expression of α3, but not α1, in PC12 cells is enhanced by glucocorticoid activity, which may be mediated by both the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) and the glucocorticoid receptor (GR). GABA has two actions mediated by GABAA receptors in chromaffin cells: it induces catecholamine secretion by itself and produces an inhibition of synaptically evoked secretion by a shunt effect. Allopregnanolone, a neuroactive steroid which is secreted from the adrenal cortex, produces a marked facilitation of GABAA receptor channel activity. Since there are no GABAergic nerve fibers in the adrenal medulla, GABA may function as a para/autocrine factor in the chromaffin cells. This function of GABA may be facilitated by expression of the immature isoforms of GAD and GABAA receptors and the lack of expression of plasma membrane GABA transporters (GATs). In this review, we will consider how the para/autocrine function of GABA is achieved, focusing on the structural and molecular mechanisms for GABA signaling.

Plasticity of Hippocampal Excitatory-Inhibitory Balance: Missing the Synaptic Control in the Epileptic Brain

Synaptic plasticity is the capacity generated by experience to modify the neural function and, thereby, adapt our behaviour. Long-term plasticity of glutamatergic and GABAergic transmission occurs in a concerted manner, finely adjusting the excitatory-inhibitory (E/I) balance. Imbalances of E/I function are related to several neurological diseases including epilepsy. Several evidences have demonstrated that astrocytes are able to control the synaptic plasticity, with astrocytes being active partners in synaptic physiology and E/I balance. Here, we revise molecular evidences showing the epileptic stage as an abnormal form of long-term brain plasticity and propose the possible participation of astrocytes to the abnormal increase of glutamatergic and decrease of GABAergic neurotransmission in epileptic networks.

Co-existence of Functionally Different Vesicular Neurotransmitter Transporters

The vesicular transmitter transporters VGLUT, VGAT, VMAT2 and VAChT, define phenotype and physiological properties of neuronal subtypes. VGLUTs concentrate the excitatory amino acid glutamate, VGAT the inhibitory amino acid GABA, VMAT2 monoamines, and VAChT acetylcholine (ACh) into synaptic vesicle (SV). Following membrane depolarization SV release their content into the synaptic cleft. A strict segregation of vesicular transporters is mandatory for the precise functioning of synaptic communication and of neuronal circuits. In the last years, evidence accumulates that subsets of neurons express more than one of these transporters leading to synaptic co-release of different and functionally opposing transmitters and modulation of synaptic plasticity. Synaptic co-existence of transporters may change during pathological scenarios in order to ameliorate misbalances in neuronal activity. In addition, evidence increases that transporters also co-exist on the same vesicle providing another layer of regulation. Generally, vesicular transmitter loading relies on an electrochemical gradient ΔμH⁺ driven by the proton ATPase rendering the lumen of the vesicle with respect to the cytosol positive (Δψ) and acidic (ΔpH). While the activity of VGLUT mainly depends on the Δψ component, VMAT, VGAT and VAChT work best at a high ΔpH. Thus, a vesicular synergy of transporters depending on the combination may increase or decrease the filling of SV with the principal transmitter. We provide an overview on synaptic co-existence of vesicular transmitter transporters including changes in the excitatory/inhibitory balance under pathological conditions. Additionally, we discuss functional aspects of vesicular synergy of transmitter transporters.

Framing Neuro-Glia Coupling in Antiepileptic Drug Design

We delineate perspectives for the design and discovery of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) with fewer side effects by focusing on astroglial modulation of spatiotemporal seizure dynamics. It is now recognized that the major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the brain, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), can be released through the reversal of astroglial GABA transporters. Synaptic spillover and subsequent glutamate (Glu) uptake in neighboring astrocytes evoke replacement of extracellular Glu for GABA, driving neurons away from the seizure threshold. Attenuation of synaptic signaling by this negative feedback through the interplay of Glu and GABA transporters of adjacent astroglia can result in shortened seizures. By contrast, long-range activation of astroglia through gap junctions may promote recurrent seizures on the model of pharmacoresistant temporal lobe epilepsy. From their first detection to our current understanding, we identify various targets that shape both short- and long-range neuro-astroglia coupling, as these are manifest in epilepsy phenomena and in the associated research promotions of AED.

Synthesis of new fluorinated analogs of GABA, Pregabalin bioisosteres, and their effects on [(3)H]GABA uptake by rat brain nerve terminals

Fluorinated analogs of natural substances take an essential place in the design of new biologically active compounds. New fluorinated analogs of γ-aminobutyric acid, that is, β-polyfluoroalkyl-GABAs (FGABAs), were synthesized with substituents: β-CF3-β-OH (1), β-CF3 (2); β-CF2CF2H (3). FGABAs are bioisosteres of Pregabalin (Lyrica®, Pfizer's blockbuster drug, β-i-Bu-GABA), and have lipophilicity close to this medicine. The effects of synthesized FGABAs on [(3)H]GABA uptake by isolated rat brain nerve terminals (synaptosomes) were assessed and compared with those of Pregabalin. FGABAs 1-3 (100μM) did not influence the initial velocity of [(3)H]GABA uptake when applied acutely, whereas an increase in this parameter was found after preliminary incubation of FGABAs with synaptosomes. Pregabalin after preliminary incubation with synaptosomes caused unidirectional changes in the initial velocity of [(3)H]GABA uptake. Using specific inhibitors of GAT1 and GAT3, NO-711 and SNAP5114, respectively, the ability of FGABAs 1-3 to influence non-GAT1 and non-GAT3 uptake activity of nerve terminals was analyzed, but no specificity was found. Therefore, new synthesized FGABAs are structural but not functional analogs of GABA (because they did not inhibit synaptosomal [(3)H]GABA uptake). Moreover, FGABAs are able to increase the initial velocity of [(3)H]GABA uptake by synaptosomes, and this effect is higher than that of Pregabalin.

Enhanced astroglial GABA uptake attenuates tonic GABAA inhibition of the presympathetic hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus neurons in heart failure

γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) generates persistent tonic inhibitory currents (Itonic) and conventional inhibitory postsynaptic currents in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) via activation of GABAA receptors (GABAARs). We investigated the pathophysiological significance of astroglial GABA uptake in the regulation of Itonic in the PVN neurons projecting to the rostral ventrolateral medulla (PVN-RVLM). The Itonic of PVN-RVLM neurons were significantly reduced in heart failure (HF) compared with sham-operated (SHAM) rats. Reduced Itonic sensitivity to THIP argued for the decreased function of GABAAR δ subunits in HF, whereas similar Itonic sensitivity to benzodiazepines argued against the difference of γ2 subunit-containing GABAARs in SHAM and HF rats. HF Itonic attenuation was reversed by a nonselective GABA transporter (GAT) blocker (nipecotic acid, NPA) and a GAT-3 selective blocker, but not by a GAT-1 blocker, suggesting that astroglial GABA clearance increased in HF. Similar and minimal Itonic responses to bestrophin-1 blockade in SHAM and HF neurons further argued against a role for astroglial GABA release in HF Itonic attenuation. Finally, the NPA-induced inhibition of spontaneous firing was greater in HF than in SHAM PVN-RVLM neurons, whereas diazepam induced less inhibition of spontaneous firing in HF than in SHAM neurons. Overall, our results showed that combined with reduced GABAARs function, the enhanced astroglial GABA uptake-induced attenuation of Itonic in HF PVN-RVLM neurons explains the deficit in tonic GABAergic inhibition and increased sympathetic outflow from the PVN during heart failure.

The search for novel analgesics: targets and mechanisms

The management of the pain state is of great therapeutic relevance to virtually every medical specialty. Failure to manage its expression has deleterious consequence to the well-being of the organism. An understanding of the complex biology of the mechanisms underlying the processing of nociceptive information provides an important pathway towards development of novel and robust therapeutics. Importantly, preclinical models have been of considerable use in determining the linkage between mechanism and the associated behaviorally defined pain state. This review seeks to provide an overview of current thinking targeting pain biology, the use of preclinical models and the development of novel pain therapeutics. Issues pertinent to the strengths and weaknesses of current development strategies for analgesics are considered.

The effect of GABA transporter 1 (GAT1) inhibitor, tiagabine, on scopolamine-induced memory impairments in mice

BACKGROUND

GABAergic neurotransmission is involved in long-term potentiation, a neurophysiological basis for learning and memory. On the other hand, GABA-enhancing drugs may impair memory and learning in humans and animals. The present study aims at investigating the effect of GAT1 inhibitor tiagabine on memory and learning.

METHODS

Albino Swiss (CD-1) and C57BL/6J mice were used in the passive avoidance (PA), Morris water maze (MWM) and radial arm water maze (RAWM) tasks. Scopolamine (1mg/kg ip) was applied to induce cognitive deficits.

RESULTS

In the retention trial of PA scopolamine reduced step-through latency as compared to vehicle-treated mice, and pretreatment with tiagabine did not have any influence on this effect. In MWM the results obtained for vehicle-treated mice, scopolamine-treated group and combined scopolamine+tiagabine-treated mice revealed variable learning abilities in these groups. Tiagabine did not impair learning in the acquisition trial. In RAWM on day 1 scopolamine-treated group made nearly two-fold more errors than vehicle-treated mice and mice that received combined scopolamine and tiagabine. Learning abilities in the latter group were similar to those of vehicle-treated mice in the corresponding trial block on day 1, except for the last trial block, during which tiagabine+scopolamine-injected mice made more errors than control mice and the scopolamine-treated group. In all groups a complete reversal of memory deficits was observed in the last trial block of day 2.

CONCLUSIONS

The lack of negative influence of tiagabine on cognitive functions in animals with scopolamine-induced memory impairments may be relevant for patients treated with this drug.

Deletion of mouse FXR gene disturbs multiple neurotransmitter systems and alters neurobehavior

Farnesoid X receptor (FXR) is a nuclear hormone receptor involved in bile acid synthesis and homeostasis. Dysfunction of FXR is involved in cholestasis and atherosclerosis. FXR is prevalent in liver, gallbladder, and intestine, but it is not yet clear whether it modulates neurobehavior. In the current study, we tested the hypothesis that mouse FXR deficiency affects a specific subset of neurotransmitters and results in an unique behavioral phenotype. The FXR knockout mice showed less depressive-like and anxiety-related behavior, but increased motor activity. They had impaired memory and reduced motor coordination. There were changes of glutamatergic, GABAergic, serotoninergic, and norepinephrinergic neurotransmission in either hippocampus or cerebellum. FXR deletion decreased the amount of the GABA synthesis enzyme GAD65 in hippocampus but increased GABA transporter GAT1 in cerebral cortex. FXR deletion increased serum concentrations of many bile acids, including taurodehydrocholic acid, taurocholic acid, deoxycholic acid (DCA), glycocholic acid (GCA), tauro-α-muricholic acid, tauro-ω-muricholic acid, and hyodeoxycholic acid (HDCA). There were also changes in brain concentrations of taurocholic acid, taurodehydrocholic acid, tauro-ω-muricholic acid, tauro-β-muricholic acid, deoxycholic acid, and lithocholic acid (LCA). Taken together, the results from studies with FXR knockout mice suggest that FXR contributes to the homeostasis of multiple neurotransmitter systems in different brain regions and modulates neurobehavior. The effect appears to be at least partially mediated by bile acids that are known to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) inducing potential neurotoxicity.

Role for pro-inflammatory cytokines in regulating expression of GABA transporter type 1 and 3 in specific brain regions of kainic acid-induced status epilepticus

In general, pro-inflammatory cytokines (PICs) contribute to regulation of epilepsy-associated pathophysiological processes in the central nerve system. In this report, we examined the specific activation of PICs, namely IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in rat brain after kainic acid (KA)-induced status epilepticus (SE). Also, we examined the role played by PICs in regulating expression of GABA transporter type 1 and 3 (GAT-1 and GAT-3, respectively), which are the two important subtypes of GATs responsible for the regulation of extracellular GABA levels in the brain. Our results show that IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α were significantly increased in the parietal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala of KA-rats as compared with sham control animals (P < 0.05, KA rats vs. control rats). KA-induced SE also significantly increased (P < 0.05 vs. controls) the protein expression of GAT-1 and GAT-3 in those brain regions. In addition, central administration of antagonists to IL-1β and TNF-α receptors significantly attenuated amplified GAT-1 and GAT-3 (P < 0.05 vs. vehicle control for each antagonist group). However, antagonist to IL-6 receptor failed to attenuate enhancement in expression of GAT-1 and GAT-3 induced by KA-induced SE. Overall, our data demonstrate that PIC pathways are activated in the specific brain regions during SE which thereby selectively leads to upregulation of GABA transporters. As a result, it is likely that de-inhibition of GABA system is increased in the brain. This support a role for PICs in engagement of the adaptive mechanisms associated with epileptic activity, and has pharmacological implications to target specific PICs for neuronal dysfunction and vulnerability related to epilepsy.

Design, synthesis and SAR studies of GABA uptake inhibitors derived from 2-substituted pyrrolidine-2-yl-acetic acids

In this paper, we disclose the design and synthesis of a series of 2-substituted pyrrolidine-2-yl-acetic acid as core structures and the N-arylalkyl derivatives thereof as potential GABA transport inhibitors. The 2-position in the side chain of pyrrolidine-2-yl-acetic acid derivatives was substituted with alkyl, hydroxy and amino groups to modulate the activity and selectivity to mGAT1 and mGAT4 proteins. SAR studies of the compounds performed for the four mouse GABA transporter proteins (mGAT1-mGAT4) implied significant potencies and subtype selectivities for 2-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidine-2-yl-acetic acid derivatives. The racemate rac-(u)-13c exhibited the highest potency (pIC50 5.67) at and selectivity for mGAT1 in GABA uptake assays. In fact, the potency of rac-(u)-13c at hGAT-1 (pIC50 6.14) was even higher than its potency at mGAT1. These uptake results for rac-(u)-13c are in line with the binding affinities to the aforesaid proteins mGAT1 (pKi 6.99) and hGAT-1 (pKi 7.18) determined by MS Binding Assay based on NO711 as marker quantified by LC-ESI-MS-MS analysis. Interestingly, the 2-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidine-2-yl-acetic acid rac-(u)-13d containing 2-{[tris(4-methoxyphenyl)]methoxy} ethyl group at the nitrogen atom of the pyrrolidine ring showed high potency at mGAT4 and a comparatively better selectivity for this protein (>15 against mGAT3) than the well known mGAT4 uptake inhibitor (S)-SNAP-5114.

Dynamic combinatorial chemistry: a tool to facilitate the identification of inhibitors for protein targets

Dynamic combinatorial chemistry enables efficient identification of protein binder(s) from a library of interconverting compounds. The library responds to the addition of the target by amplifying the strongest binder.

Anticonvulsant active inhibitor of GABA transporter subtype 1, tiagabine, with activity in mouse models of anxiety, pain and depression

BACKGROUND

Tiagabine, a selective inhibitor of GABA transporter subtype 1 is used as an add-on therapy of partial seizures in humans but its mechanism of action suggests other potential medical indications for this drug. In this research we assess its pharmacological activity in several screening models of seizures, pain, anxiety and depression in mice.

METHODS

For pharmacological tests tiagabine was administered intraperitoneally 60 min before the assay. Behavioral tests were performed using models of chemically and electrically induced seizures, thermal acute pain and formalin-induced tonic pain. Anxiolytic-like properties were evaluated using the four plate test and the elevated plus maze test. Antidepressant-like activity was assessed in the forced swim test. In addition, to exclude false positive results in these assays, the influence of tiagabine on animals' locomotor activity and motor coordination was investigated, too.

RESULTS

Tiagabine demonstrated anticonvulsant properties in chemically induced seizures (pentylenetetrazole and pilocarpine seizures). At the dose of 100mg/kg it also elevated the seizure threshold for electrically induced seizures by 31.6% (p<0.01), but it had no activity in the maximal electroshock seizure test. Tiagabine showed anxiolytic-like and antidepressant-like effects. Although it apparently reduced animals' nociceptive responses in pain tests, these activities rather resulted from its sedative and motor-impairing properties demonstrated in the locomotor activity and the rotarod tests, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The results obtained in the present study suggest that tiagabine, apart its anticonvulsant effect, has anxiolytic-like, sedative and antidepressant-like properties. In view of this, it can be potentially used in the treatment of anxiety and mood disorders.