The cellular mechanisms of the antiemetic action of dexamethasone and related glucocorticoids against vomiting

Dexamethasone versus 5-HT3 receptor antagonists in preventing nausea during awake craniotomy: a propensity score matching study

BACKGROUND

Nausea and vomiting during awake craniotomy (AC) can increase cerebral pressure and cause asphyxia and aspiration. 5-HT3 receptor antagonists, such as granisetron, are often administered before awakening to prevent nausea during AC. Recently, dexamethasone was reported to prevent nausea and vomiting during AC; however, the efficacy of both drugs in preventing nausea has not yet been investigated.

METHODS

We examined the frequency of nausea and vomiting in AC patients (n = 170) treated at our hospital until the end of September 2019. We divided patients as those who received dexamethasone (n = 71) and or granisetron (n = 99) before awakening and examined the frequency of nausea and vomiting after propensity score (PS) matching.

RESULT

Eighty-two patients were selected after PS matching. The incidence of nausea was significantly lower in the dexamethasone group than in the granisetron group (9.8% vs 41.5%, p = 0.002). In the logistic regression analysis after matching, the incidence of nausea significantly reduced with dexamethasone treatment (odds ratio: 0.12, 95% confidence interval: 0.029-0.499, p = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, dexamethasone was more effective than granisetron in preventing nausea during AC.

The effect of dexamethasone and bupivacaine on postoperative pain and nausea and vomiting by preperitoneal nerve blocking in laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a randomized clinical trial

Background

This study aims to examine the effects of preperitoneal administration of dexamethasone and bupivacaine surrounding laparoscopic trocars on postoperative pain (POP) and nausea and vomiting (PONV) in patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC).

Method

In this randomized triple-blinded trial with a 1:1 randomization ratio, 104 patients with chronic cholecystitis were candidates for elective LC. A total of 40 mg (8 ml) of bupivacaine was mixed with 8 mg (2 ml) of dexamethasone or normal saline. The solution was injected preperitoneally via an 18G needle parallel and lateral to trocars until a bulge in the interior surface of the parietal peritoneum was observed by the camera. Primary outcomes were the severity of POP based on 0-10 Likert visual analog scale (VAS) and rates of PONV and secondary outcomes were rate of postoperative opioid usage and any side-effects.

Result

The mean VAS score was significantly lower in the dexamethasone group (3.5 vs. 6.2, P<0.001). The dexamethasone group had 46.2% and 26.9% lower rates of nausea and vomiting after LC compared to the other group (P=0.001 and 0.015, respectively). Postoperative opioid use was lower in the dexamethasone group, but its difference was insignificant (P=0.3).

Conclusions

Preperitoneal dexamethasone injection around laparoscopic trocars may lower the intensity of POP and PONV rates. Perioperative local corticosteroids can be used as an effective, available, and inexpensive analgesic and antiemetic prevention for laparoscopic procedures.

Tailored small molecule for inflammation treatment: Dual scavenger targeting nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species

Inflammation-related diseases are often marked by elevated levels of nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), which play important roles in the modulation of inflammation. However, the development of organic materials effective in managing NO/ROS levels has remained a challenge. This study introduces a novel organic compound, NmeGA, engineered to scavenge both NO and ROS. NmeGA ingeniously integrates N-methyl-1,2,-phenylenediamine (Nme), a NO scavenger, with gallic acid (GA), a ROS scavenger, through an amide bond, endowing it with enhanced scavenging capabilities over its individual component. This compound exhibits reduced toxicity and increased lipophilicity value, underlining its increased biological applicability and highlighting its potential as an inflammation management tool. Through in vitro studies on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells, NmeGA displayed remarkable scavenging efficiency for NO and ROS, coupled with significant anti-inflammatory effects. In an LPS-induced peritonitis model, administration of NmeGA substantially decreased mortality rates, NO and ROS levels, and inflammatory cytokine concentrations. These findings highlight NmeGA's versatility as a therapeutic agent against various inflammatory diseases.

Dexamethasone-Associated Hyperglycemia is Not Associated With Infectious Complications After Total Joint Arthroplasty in Diabetic Patients

BACKGROUND

Postoperative infection is a devastating complication of total joint arthroplasty (TJA). Perioperative use of dexamethasone in patients who have diabetes mellitus (DM) remains controversial due to concern for increased infection risk. This study aimed to evaluate the association between dexamethasone and infection risk among patients who have DM undergoing TJA.

METHODS

This was a retrospective cohort study conducted on adult patients who underwent primary, elective total knee arthroplasty (TKA) or total hip arthroplasty (THA) between January 2016 and December 2021 using a large national database. We identified 110,568 TJA patients (TKA: 66.6%; THA: 33.4%), 31.0% (34,298) of which had DM. Patients who received perioperative dexamethasone were compared to those who did not. The primary end points were the 90-day risk of postoperative periprosthetic joint infection, surgical site infection (SSI), and other non-SSI (urinary tract infection, pneumonia, sepsis).

RESULTS

When modeling the association between dexamethasone exposure and study outcomes while accounting for the interaction between dexamethasone and morning blood glucose levels, dexamethasone administration conferred no increased odds of postoperative periprosthetic joint infection nor SSI in diabetics. However, dexamethasone significantly lowered the adjusted odds of other postoperative infections in diabetic patients (TKA: adjusted odds ratio = 09, 95% confidence interval = 0.8 to 1.0, P = .030; THA: adjusted odds ratio = 0.7, 95% confidence interval = 0.6 to 0.9, P = .001); specifically in patients with morning blood glucose levels between 110 to 248 mg/dL in TKA and ≤ 172 mg/dL in THA.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides strong evidence against withholding dexamethasone in diabetic patients undergoing TJA based on concern for infection. Instead, short-course perioperative dexamethasone reduced infection risk in select patients. The narrative surrounding dexamethasone should shift away from questions about whether dexamethasone is appropriate for diabetic patients, and instead focus on how best to optimize its use.

Anti-Emetics in Children Receiving Chemotherapy for Solid Tumors and Leukemia: Pharmacology and Optimization of Therapy for Nausea and Vomiting

The management of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV) in children remains challenging due to differences in the chemotherapy regimens, their relative emetogenicity compared to that in adults and differences in drug metabolism and the available formulations. The common four classes of anti-emetics used for the treatment and prophylaxis of CINV in children include dexamethasone, neurokinin-1 receptor antagonists, 5-hydroxytryptamine-3 receptor antagonists (5HT3RAs), and olanzapine. The appropriate dose of dexamethasone for CINV prophylaxis in children is unknown, with a significant variability in dosage ranging between 6 and 32 mg/m2/day. The dose of dexamethasone is decreased by 30% when this drug is combined with (fos)aprepitant in children, in contrast to a decrease of 50% required in adults. The use of aprepitant in younger children (<12 years) is often hampered by the non-availability of oral suspension formulations in many countries; alternatively, 80 mg capsules are administered for 1-3 days in certain institutes to children weighing between 15 and 40 kg. Among the different 5HT3RAs, palonosetron is comparatively metabolized faster in children than in adults, requiring a higher dosage for similar efficacy to that achieved in adults. Olanzapine is a newer agent, used in doses between 0.1 and 0.14 mg/kg/day in children, with good anti-emetic efficacy, but has sedation and hyperglycemia as concerning adverse effects. Drug interactions between anti-emetics and between anti-emetics and chemotherapy/supportive agents (azole antifungals, cyclosporine, arsenic trioxide), especially QTc prolongation, should be considered during prescription.

Management of Neurologic Complications in Patients with Brain and Spine Tumors

Patients with brain and spine tumors represent a distinct population with unique needs. We provide a practical review of neurologic care in this group with an emphasis on familiarizing the general neurologist to the nuances of neuro-oncologic supportive care. We review the management of cerebral edema, steroid dosing, and pertinent side effects. We discuss seizure management, including choice of anticonvulsants, putative antitumor effects, and important seizure mimics like drop attacks. We review the presentation and symptomatology of stroke-like migraine attack after radiation therapy (SMART syndrome). We describe the signs and symptoms that should prompt concern for metastatic spinal cord compression, as well as both acute and definitive treatment options. Finally, we discuss the underappreciated incidence of venous thromboembolic events, particularly in patients with gliomas, and review the data on management.

Efficacy and safety of aniseed powder for treating gastrointestinal symptoms of COVID-19: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial

Background: Gastrointestinal symptoms are prevalent amongst patients with a confirmed diagnosis of COVID-19 and may be associated with an increased risk of disease severity. This trial aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of aniseed (Pimpinella anisum L.) powder as an add-on therapy to standard care for treating gastrointestinal symptoms experienced by adults with an acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. Methods: The study was a randomized parallel-group double-blinded placebo-controlled add-on therapy trial. Adults with an acute SARS-CoV-2 infection who did not require hospitalization and reported at least one gastrointestinal symptom in the preceding 48 h were assigned to either the aniseed or placebo group in a 1:4 ratio. All 225 participants (45 in the aniseed group and 180 in the placebo group) were instructed to use 25 g of powdered aniseed or placebo twice daily for 2 weeks. The primary outcomes were the proportion of patients who experienced an improvement of at least one point in the symptom score after adjusting for age group, gender, and time. Backwards stepwise logistic regression was applied to calculate the risk ratios. The clinical symptoms and adverse events were assessed at the beginning, 1 week later, and at the end of the trial (week two). Results: Participants in the aniseed group were significantly more likely to report symptom improvement for abdominal pain [adjusted risk ratio (RR):0.55; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.46-0.72], anorexia (RR:0.62; 95% CI: 0.47-0.82), and diarrhea (RR:0.19; 95% CI: 0.12-0.30), but not nausea/vomiting (RR:0.87; 95% CI: 0.71-1.08) or bloating (RR:0.87; 95% CI: 0.72-1.05). Two participants in the aniseed group and three participants in the placebo group reported mild to moderate adverse events. Conclusion: This study showed that 2 weeks of aniseed powder containing trans-anethole (87%-94%) may help improve abdominal pain, anorexia, and diarrhea in COVID-19 patients. The findings align with the known biological, multitargeted activity of P. anisum and trans-anethole, which includes inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 along with other anti-infective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, and anti-dysbiosis properties. Multicenter trials with larger sample sizes and longer follow-up are warranted to confirm these findings. Clinical Trial Registration: Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials (IRCT20120506009651N3).

Brain circuits for retching-like behavior

Nausea and vomiting are important defensive responses to cope with pathogens and toxins that invade the body. The nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) is important for initiating these responses. However, the molecular heterogeneities and cellular diversities of the NTS occlude a better understanding of these defensive responses. Here, we constructed the single-nucleus transcriptomic atlas of NTS cells and found multiple populations of NTS neurons that may be involved in these defensive responses. Among these, we identified Calbindin1-positive (Calb1+) NTS neurons that are molecularly distinct from Tac1+ neurons. These Calb1+ neurons are critical for nausea and retching induced by cereulide; an emetic toxin secreted by Bacillus Cereus. Strikingly, we found that cereulide can directly modulate vagal sensory neurons that innervate Calb1+ NTS neurons, a novel mechanism distinct from that for nausea and retching induced by Staphylococcal enterotoxin A. Together, our transcriptomic atlas of NTS neurons and the functional analyses revealed the neural mechanism for cereulide-induced retching-like behavior. These results demonstrate the molecular and cellular complexities in the brain that underlie defensive responses to the diversities of pathogens and toxins.

Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting following Endoscopic Sinus Surgery under the Guidance of Adequacy of Anesthesia or Pupillometry with Intravenous Propofol/Remifentanil

Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) constitutes an adverse event after endoscopic sinus surgery (ESS) under general anesthesia (GA) with intravenous opioids, such as remifentanil (RMF). Monitoring the nociception/antinociception balance using the surgical pleth index (SPI) or pupillary dilatation reflex (PRD) helps guide intravenous RMF infusion. We aimed to investigate whether their employment could help reduce the incidence of PONV in patients undergoing ESS. The data of 30 patients from the GA group, 31 from the SPI group, and 28 from the PRD group were analyzed. The initial RMF infusion rate of 0.25 µg/kg body weight/minute was increased by 50% when the SPI, PRD, or Boezaart Bleeding Scale (BBS) were elevated by >15, >5%, or >2 points, respectively, until they normalized. PONV was present in 7/89 patients (7.9%): 2/31 patients (6.5%) of the SPI group, 1/30 patients (3.3%) of the GA group, and 4/28 patients (14.3%) of the PRD group. Neither PRD nor SPI guidance for RMF administration reduced the incidence of PONV compared to standard practice. Further studies are required in order to investigate the possibility of PONV eradication in patients undergoing ESS under GA when it is possibly combined with paracetamol/metamizole preventive analgesia, as well as those using antiemetic prophylaxis based on the Apfel Score and premedication with midazolam.

Effect of dexamethasone administration for postoperative nausea and vomiting prophylaxis on glucose levels in adults with diabetes undergoing elective surgery: a systematic review with meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this review was to evaluate the effect of intravenous dexamethasone given intraoperatively for postoperative nausea and vomiting prophylaxis on maximal blood glucose level within the initial 24 hours following elective surgery for patients with diabetes.

INTRODUCTION

Postoperative nausea and vomiting is a prevalent adverse effect of anesthesia that leads to morbidity, increased health care costs, and unanticipated hospital admissions. Dexamethasone is an effective prophylactic agent that confers secondary analgesic and anti-inflammatory benefits. However, its use in patients with diabetes remains controversial due to the potential for increased postoperative blood glucose levels.

INCLUSION CRITERIA

This review considered studies with participants 18 years of age or older with type 1 or 2 diabetes undergoing an elective surgical procedure. Eligible studies reported postoperative blood glucose levels in adults with diabetes after receiving a single 4-10 mg prophylactic dose of intravenous dexamethasone intraoperatively for postoperative nausea and vomiting. The primary outcome was maximum blood glucose level in the first 24 hours after surgery. All study designs were eligible for inclusion. Studies were excluded if they lacked a control group with diabetes or if they did not report maximum blood glucose values in both groups.

METHODS

A search of MEDLINE, CINAHL Complete, Embase, Web of Science, TRIP database, and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews was completed in October 2021. Gray literature resources were also searched. No date or language restrictions were applied. Methodological quality was assessed using JBI appraisal tools for randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, and case-control studies. A meta-analysis of maximal postoperative blood glucose level within 24 hours of surgery was performed, as well as subgroup analyses by dexamethasone dose, insulin treatment, and study design type.

RESULTS

Eleven studies (4 randomized controlled trials, 6 cohort studies, and 1 case-control study) were included in this review, with 1 study excluded from meta-analysis and results reported narratively. The total sample size of studies included in meta-analysis was 2567. The administration of dexamethasone significantly increased maximal blood glucose levels in the 24 hours immediately following surgery compared with control groups with diabetes, as demonstrated by randomized controlled trials (mean difference [MD] 39.56 mg/dL; 95% CI 16.18 to 62.94; P < 0.001; I2 = 87%) and observational studies (MD 26.31 mg/dL; 95% CI 7.10 to 45.52; P = 0.007; I2 = 92%). This increase in blood glucose was significant for all doses of dexamethasone: 4 mg (MD 40.81 mg/dL; 95% CI 2.42 to 79.19; P = 0.001; I2 = 91%), 8 mg (randomized controlled trials only; MD 39.45 mg/dL; 95% CI 15.32 to 63.58; P = 0.001; I2 = 86%), and mixed 4-10 mg dose (MD 30.82 mg/dL; 95% CI 6.75 to 54.88; P < 0.012; I2 = 93%). Postoperative hyperglycemia persisted in studies using insulin treatment as well as those not using insulin protocols. The overall certainty of the findings ranged from very low for outcomes that included cohort studies to moderate when outcomes from randomized controlled trials were analyzed separately. However, the quantitative findings of the experimental and observational studies were clinically similar. Risk of bias presented minimal concerns in all included studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Dexamethasone leads to transient postoperative hyperglycemia in patients with diabetes undergoing elective surgery when given as a single 4-10 mg intravenous dose for postoperative nausea and vomiting prophylaxis. The clinical relevance of hyperglycemia is debatable given its small magnitude and transient nature. Without more tightly controlled data, methodological consistency, and baseline blood glucose values, it is impossible to test causal links between hyperglycemia and pre-existing patient factors (eg, hemoglobin A1C levels) or postoperative complications.

REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO CRD42020185607.

Chemotherapy-induced gastrointestinal toxicity: Pathogenesis and current management

Chemotherapy is the most common treatment for malignant tumors. However, chemotherapy-induced gastrointestinal toxicity (CIGT) has been a major concern for cancer patients, which reduces their quality of life and leads to treatment intolerance and even cessation. Nevertheless, prevention and treatment for CIGT are challenging, due to the prevalence and complexity of the condition. Chemotherapeutic drugs directly damage gastrointestinal mucosa to induce CIGT, including nausea, vomiting, anorexia, gastrointestinal mucositis, and diarrhea, etc. The pathogenesis of CIGT involves multiple factors, such as gut microbiota disorders, inflammatory responses and abnormal neurotransmitter levels, that synergistically contribute to its occurrence and development. In particular, the dysbiosis of gut microbiota is usually linked to abnormal immune responses that increases inflammatory cytokines' expression, which is a common characteristic of many types of CIGT. Chemotherapy-induced intestinal neurotoxicity is also a vital concern in CIGT. Currently, modern medicine is the dominant treatment of CIGT, however, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has attracted interest as a complementary and alternative therapy that can greatly alleviate CIGT. Accordingly, this review aimed to comprehensively summarize the pathogenesis and current management of CIGT using PubMed and Google Scholar databases, and proposed that future research for CIGT should focus on the gut microbiota, intestinal neurotoxicity, and promising TCM therapies, which may help to develop more effective interventions and optimize managements of CIGT.

Concomitant prednisone may alleviate methotrexate side-effects in rheumatoid arthritis patients

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate whether addition of low-moderate dose prednisone to methotrexate (MTX) treatment can alleviate common MTX side-effects in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients.

METHODS

We performed a post-hoc analysis of the CAMERA-II trial which randomized (1:1) 236 early DMARD and prednisone naive RA patients to treatment with MTX + prednisone 10 mg daily, or MTX monotherapy during two years. MTX dose was increased using a treat-to-target approach. We used Generalized Estimating Equations to model the occurrence of common MTX side-effects and of any adverse event over time, controlling for disease activity and MTX dose over time and other possible predictors of adverse events. To assess whether a possible effect was prednisone-specific, we performed the same analysis in the U-ACT-EARLY trial, in which the addition of tocilizumab (TCZ) to MTX was compared to MTX monotherapy in a comparable setting.

RESULTS

MTX side-effects were reported at 5.9% of visits in the prednisone-MTX group, compared to 11.2% in the MTX monotherapy group. After controlling for MTX dose and disease activity over time, treatment duration, age, sex, and baseline transaminase levels, addition of prednisone significantly decreased the occurrence of MTX side-effects (OR: 0.54, CI: 0.38-0.77, p = 0.001). Specifically, the occurrence of nausea (OR 0.46, CI: 0.26-0.83,  p = 0.009)) and elevated ALT/AST (OR 0.29, CI: 0.17-0.49, p  < 0.001) was decreased. There was a trend towards fewer overall adverse events in the prednisone-MTX arm (OR: 0.89, CI: 0.72-1.11, p = 0.30). No difference in MTX side-effects was found between TCZ-MTX and MTX monotherapy in U-ACT-EARLY (OR 1.05, CI: 0.61-1.80, p  = 0.87).

CONCLUSION

Addition of 10 mg prednisone daily to MTX treatment in RA patients may ameliorate MTX side-effects, specifically nausea and elevated ALT/AST.

A narrative review of the principal glucocorticoids employed in cancer

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are a pharmacological class of drugs widely used in oncology in both supportive and palliative settings. GCs differentially impact organs with immediate and long-term effects; with suppressive effect on the immune system anchoring their use to manage the toxicities of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). In addition, GCs are often used in the management of symptoms related to cancer or chemotherapy and as adjuvants in the treatment of pain in the management of other. In the palliative setting, GCs, especially administered subcutaneously can be to assist in the control of nausea, dyspnea, asthenia, and anorexia-cachexia syndrome. In this narrative review, we aim to summarize the role of GCs in the different settings (curative, supportive, and palliative) to help clinicians use these important drugs in their daily clinical practice with cancer patients.

Corticosteroids in oncology: use, overuse, indications, contraindications. An Italian Association of Medical Oncology (AIOM)/ Italian Association of Medical Diabetologists (AMD)/ Italian Society of Endocrinology (SIE)/ Italian Society of Pharmacology (SIF) multidisciplinary consensus position paper

Corticosteroids (CSs) are widely used in oncology, presenting several different indications. They are useful for induction of apoptosis in hematological neoplasms, for management of anaphylaxis and cytokine release/hypersensitivity reaction and for the symptomatic treatment of many tumour- and treatment-related complications. If the employment of CSs in the oncological setting results in several benefits for patients and satisfaction for clinicians, on the other hand, many potential adverse events (AEs), both during treatment and after withdrawal of CSs, as well as the duality of the effects of these compounds in oncology, recommend being cautious in clinical practice. To date, several gray zones remain about indications, contraindications, dose, and duration of treatment. In this article, a panel of experts provides a critical review on CSs therapy in oncology, focusing on mechanisms of action and pharmacological characteristics, current and emerging therapeutic indications/contraindications, AEs related to CSs treatment, and the impact on patient outcome.

Reduction of postoperative nausea and vomiting risk in the second stage during bilateral total knee arthroplasty with a 1-week interval

PURPOSE

Total knee arthroplasty (TKA) is often performed sequentially on both sides during a single hospital stay. Patients who experience postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) after the first operation are concerned about PONV recurrence after the second operation. However, there are few studies regarding the incidence of PONV in staged bilateral TKA with a ≥ 1-week interval. This study aimed to identify the differences in (1) PONV incidence, (2) use of rescue antiemetics, and (3) the amount of opioid consumption between the first and second operations for staged bilateral TKA with a 1-week interval. Based on our anecdotal experience, the hypothesis of this study was that during staged bilateral TKA at a 1-week interval, the PONV incidence and rescue antiemetic requirement after the second operation will be lower than those after the first operation, regardless of opioid consumption.

METHODS

Fifty-eight consecutive patients who underwent staged bilateral TKA with a 1-week interval were retrospectively reviewed. All second-stage operations were performed with the same anaesthesia protocol and perioperative patient management protocol as the first-stage operation. PONV incidence was the primary outcome. The requirement for rescue antiemetic drugs and the amount of opioid consumption were secondary outcome variables. The outcome variables were recorded during three postoperative days (Days 0-2) for each stage and were compared between the first and second operations.

RESULTS

The incidence rates of nausea and vomiting on Day 0 (p = 0.001 and p = 0.004, respectively) and nausea on Day 1 (p = 0.008) were significantly lower after the second operation. Rescue antiemetic use on Day 0 was significantly lower after the second operation (p = 0.001). The total opioid consumption 72 h after surgery was significantly higher after the second operation (61.76 vs. 34.28 mg, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

During staged bilateral TKA with a 1-week interval, PONV incidence was lower after the second operation, even with increased opioid consumption.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

III.

Opioid Sparing Analgesics in Spine Surgery

Combinations of various nonopioid analgesics have been used to decrease pain and opioid consumption postoperatively allowing for faster recovery, improved patient satisfaction, and decreased morbidity. These opioid alternatives include acetaminophen, NSAIDs, COX-2 specific inhibitors, gabapentinoids, local anesthetics, dexamethasone, and ketamine. Each of these drugs presents its own advantages and disadvantages which can make it difficult to implement universally. In addition, ambiguous administration guidelines for these nonopioid analgesics lead to a difficult implementation of standardization protocols in spine surgery. A focus on the efficacy of different pain modalities specifically within spine surgery was implemented to assist with this standardized protocol endeavor and to educate surgeons on limiting opioid prescribing in the postoperative period. The purpose of this review article is to investigate the various opioid sparing medications that have been used to decrease morbidity in spine surgery and better assist surgeons in managing postoperative pain. Methods. A narrative review of published literature was conducted using the search function in Google scholar and PubMed was used to narrow down search criteria. The keywords “analgesics,” “spine,” and “pain” were used.

Comparison of Fentanyl plus different doses of dexamethasone with Fentanyl alone on postoperative pain, nausea, and vomiting after lower extremity orthopedic surgery

Intravenous patient controlled analgesia (PCA) with opioids to provide perioperative analgesia is commonly used after orthopedic surgery, but have side-effects. Addition of adjutant drugs results in reducing the side-effects and the dosage of opioids. The aim of current study was to evaluation the analgesic efficacy of combination of fentanyl and dexamethasone (8 and 16 mg) in compared with fentanyl alone in patients undergoing orthopedic surgery of the lower extremity. In a double-blind clinical trial, 102 patients were randomly allocated to receive PCA, which included: F+S group (fentanyl 1 mcg/ml + isotonic saline), F+8mD group (fentanyl 1 mcg/ml + dexamethasone 8 mg/ml), and F+16mD group (fentanyl 1 mcg/ml + dexamethasone 16 mg/ml). Anesthesia technique and rescue analgesia regimen were standardized. Postoperatively, pain was assessed based on visual analog scale (VAS). In addition, we evaluated the postoperative nausea and vomiting (POVN) in different groups. In over the post-operative period, the mean VAS-score was significantly lower in the F+16mD group than the F+S and the F+8mD groups (p<0.001 and p<0.01, respectively). In addition, the incidence of PONV significantly was lower in the F+18mD group than the F+S group (p<0.05). We conclude that the addition of preoperative intravenous high dose of dexamethasone (16 mg) to fentanyl was effective in reducing postoperative pain and PONV after orthopedic surgery of the lower extremity.

A Randomized Controlled Trial for Prevention of Postspinal Anesthesia Shivering in Gynecological Surgeries: Mirtazapine vs. Dexamethasone

Background

The frequency of shivering regarding regional anesthesia is 55%. Newer effective and tolerable options for postspinal anesthesia shivering (PSAS) prophylaxis are necessary to improve patients' quality of care. This research assessed the impact of preemptive mirtazapine versus preemptive dexamethasone to decrease frequency and severity of PSAS in gynecological procedures.

Methods

300 patients booked for gynecological procedures under spinal anesthesia (SA) were randomly apportioned into three groups (100 each) to get one preemptive dose of 30 mg mirtazapine tablet (M group), 8 mg dexamethasone diluted in 100 ml of saline infusion (D group) or placebo (C group) two hours before surgery. Incidence of clinically significant PSAS was the primary outcome. Core temperature, shivering score, hemodynamics changes, adverse events, and patient satisfaction score were documented as secondary outcomes.

Results

Compared with C group, mirtazapine and dexamethasone decreased incidence of clinically significant shivering (74% vs. 16% and 31%, respectively; P < 0.001). M and D groups had less hypotensive episodes during 5–25 min after intrathecal injection (P < 0.001). 90 min after SA, tympanic temperatures were lower than baseline values in the three groups (P < 0.001). Pruritus, nausea, and vomiting were more often in C group (P < 0.001), whereas sedation was more frequent in M group (P < 0.001). C group had the lowest satisfaction scores (P < 0.001).

Conclusion

Prophylactic administration of mirtazapine or dexamethasone attenuated shivering with minimal hazards in patients scheduled for gynecological surgeries under spinal anesthesia with priority to mirtazapine. The trial is registered with NCT03675555.

Impact of Glucocorticoid Use in Oncology in the Immunotherapy Era

Thanks to their anti-inflammatory, anti-oedema, and anti-allergy properties, glucocorticoids are among the most widely prescribed drugs in patients with cancer. The indications for glucocorticoid use are very wide and varied in the context of cancer and include the symptomatic management of cancer-related symptoms (compression, pain, oedema, altered general state) but also prevention or treatment of common side effects of anti-cancer therapies (nausea, allergies, etc.) or immune-related adverse events (irAE). In this review, we first give an overview of the different clinical situations where glucocorticoids are used in oncology. Next, we describe the current state of knowledge regarding the effects of these molecules on immune response, in particular anti-tumour response, and we summarize available data evaluating how these effects may interfere with the efficacy of immunotherapy using immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Genetic Susceptibility Toward Nausea and Vomiting in Surgical Patients

Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) are frequently occurring adverse effects following surgical procedures. Despite predictive risk scores and a pallet of prophylactic antiemetic treatments, it is still estimated to affect around 30% of the patients, reducing their well-being and increasing the burden of post-operative care. The aim of the current study was to characterize selected genetic risk factors of PONV to improve the identification of at risk patients. We genotyped 601 patients followed during the first 24 h after surgery for PONV symptoms in the absence of any antiemetic prophylaxis. These patients were recruited in the frame of a randomized, placebo controlled clinical study aiming to test the efficacy of dexamethasone as a treatment of established PONV. We examined the impact of selected single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) located around 13 different genes and the predicted activity of 6 liver drug metabolizing enzymes from the cytochromes P450 family (CYP) on the occurrence and recurrence of PONV. Our genetic study confirms the importance of genetic variations in the type 3B serotonin receptor in the occurrence of PONV. Our modelling shows that integration of rs3782025 genotype in preoperative risk assessments may help improve the targeting of antiemetic prophylaxis towards patients at risk of PONV.

Analysis of Factors Associated with Hiccups Using the FAERS Database

In this study, we used the large number of cases in the FDA adverse-event reporting system (FAERS) database to investigate risk factors for drug-induced hiccups and to explore the relationship between hiccups and gender. From 11,810,863 adverse drug reactions reported between the first quarter of 2004 and the first quarter of 2020, we extracted only those in which side effects occurred between the beginning and end of drug administration. Our sample included 1454 adverse reactions for hiccups, with 1159 involving males and 257 involving females (the gender in 38 reports was unknown). We performed univariate analyses of the presence or absence of hiccups for each drug and performed multivariate analysis by adding patient information. The multivariate analysis showed nicotine products to be key suspect drugs for both men and women. For males, the risk factors for hiccups included older age, lower body weight, nicotine, and 14 other drugs. For females, only nicotine and three other drugs were extracted as independent risk factors. Using FAERS, we were thus able to extract new suspect drugs for drug-induced hiccups. Furthermore, this is the first report of a gender-specific analysis of risk factors for hiccups that provides novel insights into drug-induced hiccups, and it suggests that the mechanism responsible is strongly related to gender. Thus, this study can contribute to elucidating the mechanism underlying this phenomenon.

Nutrition challenges of cancer cachexia

Cancer cachexia, or progressive weight loss, often despite adequate nutrition contributes greatly to cancer morbidity and mortality. Cachexia is metabolically distinct from starvation or protein malnutrition, although many patients with cancer and cachexia exhibit lowered appetite and food consumption. Tumors affect neural mechanisms that regulate appetite and energy expenditure, while promoting wasting of peripheral tissues via catabolism of cardiac and skeletal muscle, adipose, and bone. These multimodal actions of tumors on the host suggest a need for multimodal interventions. However, multiple recent consensus guidelines for management of cancer cachexia differ in treatment recommendations, highlighting the lack of effective, available therapies. Challenges to defining appropriate nutrition or other interventions for cancer cachexia include lack of consensus on definitions, low strength of evidence from clinical trials, and a scarcity of robust, rigorous, and mechanistic studies. However, efforts to diagnose, stage, and monitor cachexia are increasing along with clinical trial activity. Furthermore, preclinical models for cancer cachexia are growing more sophisticated, encompassing a greater number of tumor types in organ-appropriate contexts and for metastatic disease to model the clinical condition more accurately. It is expected that continued growth, investment, and coordination of research in this topic will ultimately yield robust biomarkers, clinically useful classification and staging algorithms, targetable pathways, pivotal clinical trials, and ultimately, cures. Here, we provide an overview of the clinical and scientific knowledge and its limitations around cancer cachexia.

Dexamethasone for the treatment of established postoperative nausea and vomiting: A randomised dose finding trial

BACKGROUND

Dexamethasone is widely used for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) but little is known about its efficacy for the treatment of established PONV.

OBJECTIVE

To test the antiemetic efficacy of intravenous dexamethasone for the treatment of established PONV in adults undergoing surgery under general anaesthesia and to determine whether there is dose-responsiveness.

DESIGN

The DexPonv trial is a multicentre, placebo-controlled, randomised, double-blind, dose-finding study. Inclusion of patients was between September 2012 and November 2017. Follow-up for PONV symptoms was for 24 h. Thirty days postoperatively, patients were contacted by study nurses for any information on postoperative bleeding and infection.

SETTING

Four public hospitals in Switzerland.

PATIENTS

A total of 803 adults scheduled for elective surgery without any antiemetic prophylaxis signed the consent form; 714 were included. Among those, 319 had PONV and 281 patients were eventually randomised (intention to treat population and safety set). The per protocol set consisted of 260 patients.

INTERVENTIONS

Patients with PONV symptoms (including retching) were randomised to a single intravenous dose of dexamethasone 3, 6 or 12 mg or matching placebo.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The primary endpoint was the absence of further nausea or vomiting (including retching), within 24 h after administration of the study drug.

RESULTS

Dexamethasone was ineffective during the first 24 h, whatever the dosage, compared to placebo, even when the model was adjusted for known risk factors (P = 0.170). There were no differences in the time to treatment failure or the quality of sleep during the first night. There was a positive correlation between the dose of dexamethasone and blood glucose concentrations (P < 0.001), but not with bleeding risk, wound infections or other adverse effects.

CONCLUSION

This randomised trial failed to show antiemetic efficacy of any of the tested intravenous regimens of dexamethasone for the treatment of established PONV in adults undergoing surgery under general anaesthesia.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

clinicaltrials.gov (NCT01975727).

Activation of activator protein-1-fibroblast growth factor 21 signaling attenuates Cisplatin hepatotoxicity

Fibroblast growth factor (Fgf/FGF) 21, which plays important roles in sugar, lipid and energy metabolism, has been accepted as a mito-stress marker gene. We recently reported that FGF21 expression can be up-regulated via activation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) or glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and that FGF21 plays important cytoprotective roles. Cisplatin (cis-diamminedichloroplatinum, CDDP) is a widely used chemotherapeutic drug. Numerous adverse effects including hepatotoxicity have been noted during CDDP therapy. It is known that CDDP can induce mitochondrial dysfunction. The studies were designed to determine the regulation of Fgf/FGF21 expression by CDDP, and to characterize the underlying mechanisms of its regulation, as well as to determine the impact of gain or loss of Fgf/FGF21 function on the progression of CDDP hepatotoxicity. Our results showed that CDDP and phorbol ester induced mRNA and protein expression of Fgf/FGF21 and β-Klotho, two essential components of Fgf21 signaling, in mouse livers and cultured mouse/human hepatocytes. Luciferase reporter assays and ChIP-qPCR assays demonstrated that the cJun-AP-1 activation is responsible for CDDP- and phorbol ester-induced Fgf/FGF21 expression. Such induction is abolished after cotreated with AP-1 inhibitor SR11302. In addition, CDDP produces more severe liver injury in Fgf21-null than wild-type mice. Pre-treatment of GR activator dexamethasone or AhR activator β-Naphthoflavone, both of which can induce Fgf21 expression, attenuated CDDP-induced hepatotoxicity in vivo and in vitro. In conclusion, Fgf/FGF21-β-Klotho signaling can be activated via AP-1 activation. Gain of Fgf/FGF21 function attenuates the progression of CDDP hepatotoxicity, which may be considered clinically to improve CDDP therapy.

Postspinal anesthesia shivering in lower abdominal and lower limb surgeries: a randomized controlled comparison between paracetamol and dexamethasone

Background

Shivering is known to be a frequent complication in patients undergoing surgery under neuraxial anesthesia with incidence of 40–70%. Although many pharmacological agents have been used to treat or prevent postspinal anesthesia shivering (PSAS), the ideal treatment wasn’t found. This study evaluated the efficacy of paracetamol and dexamethasone to prevent PSAS in patients undergoing lower abdominal and lower limb surgeries.

Methods

Three hundred patients scheduled for surgeries under spinal anesthesia (SA) were allocated into three equal groups to receive a single preoperative dose of oral paracetamol 1 g (P group), dexamethasone 8 mg intravenous infusion (IVI) in 100 ml normal saline (D group) or placebo (C group), 2 h preoperatively, in a randomized, double-blind trial. The primary endpoint was the incidence of clinically significant PSAS. Secondary endpoints included shivering score, the change in hemodynamics, adverse events (e.g., nausea, vomiting and pruritis) and patients` satisfaction.

Results

Clinically significant PSAS was recorded as (15%) in P group, (40%) in D group and (77%) in C group (P < 0.001). The mean blood pressure values obtained over a 5-25 min observation period were significantly higher in the D group (P < 0.001). Core temperature 90 min after SA was significantly lower in the 3 groups compared to prespinal values (P < 0.001). Nausea, vomiting and pruritis were significantly higher in the C group (P < 0.001). P and D groups were superior to C group regarding the patients’ satisfaction score (P < 0.001).

Conclusion

Paracetamol and dexamethasone were effective in prevention of PSAS in patients undergoing lower abdominal and lower limb surgeries compared to placebo controls.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03679065 / Registered 20 September 2018 - Retrospectively registered, http://www.ClinicalTrial.gov.

A modular ROS-responsive platform co-delivered by 10-hydroxycamptothecin and dexamethasone for cancer treatment

Traditional and single treatment strategies are difficult to achieve good results due to tumor resistance and complex mechanisms. Combination therapy through co-delivery systems is one of the methods to improve the effectiveness of cancer treatment. The polyprodrug platform has inherent advantages such as high drug loading and strong stability. Herein, a new reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive micelle composed of poly 10-hydroxycamptothecin (pHCPT) and PEG is reported, which loaded dexamethasone (DEX) as synergistic drugs. The micelles collapse in the complex microenvironment of tumor cells to release DEX. The first released DEX can increase the ROS level of tumor cells, thereby facilitating the cleavage of thioketal bonds to release intact HCPT molecules. Meanwhile, DEX can normalize tumor blood vessels, reduce adverse reactions, and further improve the efficacy of HCPT. This co-delivery system shows an ideal tumor suppressive effect in vivo and in vitro. Designing drugs into a modular multi-drug platform and selecting appropriate synergistic drugs according to the treatment plan provides a convenient strategy for future clinical treatment.

Effect of Adding Midazolam to Dual Prophylaxis for Preventing Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting

Multimodal prophylaxis for postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) has been recommended, even in low-risk patients. Midazolam is known to have antiemetic properties. We researched the effects of adding midazolam to the dual prophylaxis of ondansetron and dexamethasone on PONV after gynecologic laparoscopy. In this prospective, randomized, double-blinded trial, 144 patients undergoing gynecological laparoscopic surgery under sevoflurane anesthesia were randomized to receive either normal saline (control group, n = 72) or midazolam 0.05 mg/kg (midazolam group, n = 72) intravenously at pre-induction. All patients were administered dexamethasone 4 mg at induction and ondansetron 4 mg at the completion of the laparoscopy, intravenously. The primary outcome was the incidence of complete response, which implied the absence of PONV without rescue antiemetic requirement until 24 h post-surgery. The complete response during the 24 h following laparoscopy was similar between the two groups: 41 patients (59%) in the control group and 48 patients (72%) in the midazolam group (p = 0.11). The incidence of nausea, severe nausea, retching/vomiting, and administration of rescue antiemetic was comparable between the two groups. The addition of 0.05 mg/kg midazolam at pre-induction to the dual prophylaxis had no additive preventive effect on PONV after gynecologic laparoscopy.

Randomized Controlled Trial: Perioperative Dexamethasone Reduces Excessive Postoperative Inflammatory Response and Ileus After Surgery for Inflammatory Bowel Disease

BACKGROUND

An excessive postoperative inflammatory response is common after surgery for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and may be associated with an increased incidence of postoperative ileus. This study assessed the role of perioperative dexamethasone in postoperative ileus after IBD surgery.

METHOD

Patients undergoing elective IBD surgery were randomized to either an intravenous 8-mg dose of dexamethasone (n = 151) or placebo (n = 151) upon induction of anesthesia. The primary outcome was the incidence of prolonged postoperative ileus. Secondary outcomes included incidence of reported nausea or vomiting, time to first passage of flatus and stool, GI-2 recovery, postoperative pain, length of stay, and surgical complications.

RESULTS

An intention-to-treat analysis revealed that patients who received dexamethasone exhibited a lower incidence of prolonged postoperative ileus (22.5% vs 38.4%; P = 0.003), shorter time to first passage of stool (28 vs 48 h, P < 0.001), GI-2 recovery (72 vs 120 h; P < 0.001), reduced postoperative length of stay (9.0 vs 10.0 d; P = 0.002), and less postoperative pain (P < 0.05) compared with controls. Moreover, there were no significant differences in postoperative nausea or vomiting (P = 0.531), major postoperative complications (P = 0.165), or surgical site infections (P = 0.337) between the groups. A benefit was only observed in patients with Crohn's disease, restored bowel continuity, colon/rectal resections, and those who underwent open operations.

CONCLUSION

A single, intravenous 8-mg dose of dexamethasone upon induction of anesthesia reduced the incidence of prolonged postoperative ileus, the intensity of postoperative pain, and shortened the postoperative length of stay for IBD patients undergoing elective surgery. ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03456752.

The Nuts and Bolts of a Successful Non-Narcotic Perioperative Enhanced Recovery After Surgery Protocol

BACKGROUND

Enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) protocols are widely utilized approaches to perioperative care that advocate preoperative counseling, multimodal perioperative medication management, and early postoperative mobilization to improve post-surgical patient outcomes and satisfaction.

OBJECTIVES

The authors aimed to elucidate the mechanism by which each medication utilized in the senior author's ERAS protocol acts, determine the efficacy of this protocol in postoperative pain management, and reveal other factors that may play a role in patients' degree of postoperative pain.

METHODS

A literature review was performed on the medications utilized in the senior author's ERAS protocol. Evidence from the author's previous study on the efficacy of this regimen and anecdotal evidence regarding the psychological component of pain was also compiled.

RESULTS

There is evidence that an ERAS protocol is as effective if not more effective than regimens involving opioid medications in management of postoperative pain. These medications act synergistically to block perception of pain by multiple pathways, while minimizing adverse effects that may be associated with high doses of a single medication and are affordable for both the patient and the surgeon.

CONCLUSIONS

ERAS protocols effectively manage postoperative pain while avoiding the adverse effects associated with opioid medications. Although an emphasis has often been placed on the medications involved in various protocols and avoidance of opioid medications, appropriate counseling on patients' expectations concerning postoperative "pain" or discomfort and a systemic shift in the approach to perioperative pain are perhaps the most important components to holistic non-narcotic postoperative care.

Perioperative ADministration of Dexamethasone And blood Glucose concentrations in patients undergoing elective non-cardiac surgery - the randomised controlled PADDAG trial

BACKGROUND

The hyperglycaemic effect of dexamethasone in diabetic and nondiabetic patients in the peri-operative period is unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the effect of a single dose of intra-operative dexamethasone on peri-operative blood glucose.

DESIGN

Multicentre, stratified, randomised trial.

SETTING

University hospitals in Australia and Hong Kong.

PATIENTS

A total of 302 adults scheduled for elective, noncardiac and nonobstetric surgical procedures under general anaesthesia, stratified by diabetes mellitus status, were randomised to receive placebo, 4 or 8 mg dexamethasone administered intravenously after induction of anaesthesia.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Maximum blood glucose within 24 h of surgery, and the interaction between glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) and dexamethasone were the primary and secondary outcomes.

RESULTS

The median [IQR] baseline blood glucose in the nondiabetes stratum in the placebo (n=81), 4 mg (n=81) and 8 mg dexamethasone (n=77) trial arms were respectively 5.3 [4.6 to 5.8], 5.0 [4.7 to 5.4] and 5.0 [4.2 to 5.9] mmol l-1. In the diabetes stratum these values were 6.6 [6.0 to 8.3]; (n=22), 6.1 [5.5 to 10.4]; (n=22) and 6.7 [5.6 to 8.3]; (n=19) mmol l-1. The median [IQR] maximum peri-operative blood glucose values in the nondiabetes stratum were 6.0 [5.3 to 6.8], 6.3 [5.5 to 7.3] and 6.3 [5.8 to 7.4] mmol l-1 in the control, dexamethasone 4 mg and dexamethasone 8 mg arms, respectively. In the diabetes stratum these values were 10.3 [8.1 to 12.4], 12.6 [10.3 to 18.3] and 13.6 [11.2 to 20.1] mmol l-1. There was a significant interaction between pre-operative HbA1c value and 8 mg dexamethasone: every 1% increment in HbA1c produced a 4.0 mmol l-1 elevation in maximal peri-operative glucose concentration.

CONCLUSION

Dexamethasone 4 mg or 8 mg did not induce greater hyperglycaemia compared with placebo for nondiabetic and well controlled diabetic patients. Maximal peri-operative blood glucose concentrations in patients with diabetes were related to baseline HbA1c values in a concentration-dependent fashion after 8 mg of dexamethasone.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Australia and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ACTRN12614001145695): URL: https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=367272.

Physical and Chemical Stability of Dexamethasone Sodium Phosphate in Intravenous Admixtures Used to Prevent Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea and Vomiting

Purpose: Dilute intravenous (IV) admixtures of dexamethasone sodium phosphate (DSP) are becoming increasingly used in antiemetic regimens to prevent chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV). Based on its chemical structure and previous studies, DSP is known to be susceptible to hydrolysis and oxidation under certain conditions. There are limited data to directly support the selection of IV diluents, storage conditions, and beyond-use dates for the dilute IV solutions of DSP used in the antiemetic regimens. This study was designed to investigate these parameters. Methods: A stability-indicating high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was first developed for the analysis of DSP. Commercially available 100 mg/10 mL DSP injection vials were used to prepare the IV admixtures of DSP in 0.9% sodium chloride injection or 5% dextrose injection. The final DSP concentrations were 0.08 or 0.4 mg/mL, which bracketed the range commonly used in antiemetic regimens. These admixtures were packaged in 50-mL polyvinylchloride (PVC) bags and stored at room temperature or under refrigeration for 14 days. Samples from each IV bag underwent visual, pH, and HPLC assessments on days 0, 1, 3, 7, and 14. Results: Immediately after preparation, the IV admixtures of DSP appeared clear, colorless, and free of particulate matters. The initial pH values were 6.4 to 6.8 and 7.0 to 7.8 for samples in 0.9% sodium chloride and 5% dextrose, respectively. The initial DSP concentrations of all samples were within 96% to 100% of the expected values. Over the 14 days of storage at room temperature or refrigeration, no significant change was observed for the visual appearance of any IV bags. The pH of all samples remained within one pH unit from the initial values. The HPLC results confirmed that all samples retained 94% to 100% of original drug concentrations and that no significant degradation products were observed. Conclusions: Intravenous admixtures of DSP at 0.08 to 0.4 mg/mL are compatible with 0.9% sodium chloride and 5% dextrose in PVC bags. These admixtures are also chemically and physically stable when stored at room temperature or under refrigeration for up to 14 days.

Mechanisms of Nausea and Vomiting: Current Knowledge and Recent Advances in Intracellular Emetic Signaling Systems

Nausea and vomiting are common gastrointestinal complaints that can be triggered by diverse emetic stimuli through central and/or peripheral nervous systems. Both nausea and vomiting are considered as defense mechanisms when threatening toxins/drugs/bacteria/viruses/fungi enter the body either via the enteral (e.g., the gastrointestinal tract) or parenteral routes, including the blood, skin, and respiratory systems. While vomiting is the act of forceful removal of gastrointestinal contents, nausea is believed to be a subjective sensation that is more difficult to study in nonhuman species. In this review, the authors discuss the anatomical structures, neurotransmitters/mediators, and corresponding receptors, as well as intracellular emetic signaling pathways involved in the processes of nausea and vomiting in diverse animal models as well as humans. While blockade of emetic receptors in the prevention of vomiting is fairly well understood, the potential of new classes of antiemetics altering postreceptor signal transduction mechanisms is currently evolving, which is also reviewed. Finally, future directions within the field will be discussed in terms of important questions that remain to be resolved and advances in technology that may help provide potential answers.

Reconsidering Dexamethasone for Antiemesis when Combining Chemotherapy and Immunotherapy

Whether the immune suppressive action of glucocorticoid steroids, such as dexamethasone, might reduce the benefits of cancer immunotherapy has long been a concern. Observations that established tumor regressions in response to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) often persist, despite the use of steroids to mitigate ICI-related autoimmune breakthrough, are not sufficiently reassuring, because these observations do not address the potential blunting of immune priming at the initiation of ICI therapy. With increasing indications for ICI in combination with chemotherapy, this issue merits reconsideration. Professional society guidance advises that dexamethasone should be used as first-line prophylaxis for nausea and vomiting in patients receiving ICI and highly emetogenic chemotherapy combination regimens. Here, we review the availability of data on this subject and propose an alternative approach focused on the adoption of steroid minimization or sparing for prophylaxis of nausea until the underlying immune biology is better understood.

Prophylactic antiemetic effects of dexamethasone versus 5-HT3 receptor antagonists in ear surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background The optimal strategy for reducing the high incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) after otologic surgical procedures remains inconclusive. Aim of the review This study compared the prophylactic antiemetic effects of dexamethasone with 5-hydroxytryptamine 3 receptor antagonists (5-HT3-RAs) in ear surgery. Method PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library were searched up to October 31, 2020 for randomized controlled trials that used dexamethasone either singly or in combination with 5-HT3-RAs for PONV prophylaxis in adults undergoing ear surgery. Studies in languages other than English and those without a control group of 5-HT3-RAs were excluded. Random effects meta-analyses were performed, and risk of bias was assessed using the version 2 of the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool. Main outcome measures include incidences of early (< 6 h) and overall (0-48 h) PONV, the overall requirement for rescue antiemetics, and the occurrence of adverse events. Results Eight trials of 733 adults were included, and the overall risks of bias were generally low. Pooled risk ratios (RRs) of early and overall PONV of dexamethasone versus 5-HT3-RAs were 2.0 (95% CI 0.8-5.1, I² = 82%), and 1.3 (95% CI 0.6-2.6, I² = 86%). In studies comparing dexamethasone plus 5-HT3-RAs with 5-HT3-RAs alone, pooled RRs of early and overall PONV were 0.8 (95% CI 0.4-1.4, I² = 30%), and 0.5 (95% CI 0.3-0.6, I² = 0%), respectively. Pooled RRs of the overall need for rescue antiemetics comparing 5-HT3-RAs with dexamethasone alone and in combination with 5-HT3-RAs were 1.2 (95% CI 0.4-3.9, I² = 73%) and 0.4 (95% CI 0.1-1.4, I² = 61%), respectively. Common adverse events reported were headache and dizziness, and the incidences range from 0 to 10% without significant differences between the groups. Conclusion The prophylactic antiemetic effects of dexamethasone versus 5-HT3-RAs in ear surgery did not significantly differ in the early and overall postoperative phases. The combination of dexamethasone with 5-HT3-RAs showed superior overall PONV prophylactic effects to 5-HT3-RAs alone in ear surgery, but their differences in the need for rescue antiemetics remained non-significant.

PONV management in patients with QTc prolongation on the EKG

Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) is a commonly encountered problem in surgical practice. It delays discharge from the post-anesthesia care unit, requires additional resources to treat, and may increase the morbidity in some patients. Many effective drugs are available to treat or prevent PONV, however many of these drugs have the potential to prolong the QTc on the electrocardiogram (EKG) and increase the risk of serious ventricular arrhythmias, in particular, torsade de pointes. The QTc prolongation may be a manifestation of a genetic mutation resulting in abnormal myocyte repolarization or it may be acquired and associated with the use of various medications, electrolyte disorders, and physiological conditions. Patients predisposed to QTc prolongation presenting for surgery constitute a challenging group, since many drugs commonly used for PONV management will put them at risk for perioperative serious arrhythmias. This is an important topic, and our mini-review is an attempt to highlight the problem, summarize the existing experience, and generate recommendations for safe management of PONV for patients, who are at increased risk of QTc prolongation and arrhythmias. Focused prospective studies will help to find definitive answers to the discussed problems and challenges and develop specific guidelines for clinical application.

Dexamethasone blunts postspinal hypotension in geriatric patients undergoing orthopedic surgery: a double blind, placebo-controlled study

BACKGROUND

Post-spinal anesthesia (PSA) hypotension in elderly patients is challenging. Correction of PSA hypotension by fluids either colloids or crystalloids or by vasoconstrictors pose the risk of volume overload or compromising cardiac conditions. Dexamethasone is used to treat conditions manifested by decrease of peripheral vascular resistance. The research team was the first to test the hypothesis of its role in preventing or decreasing the incidence of PSA hypotension.

METHODS

One hundred ten patients, aged 60 years or more were recruited to receive a single preoperative dose of dexamethasone 8 mg IVI in 100 ml normal saline (D group) (55 patients) 2 h preoperatively, and 55 patients were given placebo (C group) in a randomized, double-blind trial. Variations in blood pressure and heart rate in addition to the needs of ephedrine and/or atropine following spinal anesthesia (SA) were recorded. SA was achieved using subarachnoid injection of 3 ml hyperbaric bupivacaine 0.5%.

RESULTS

Demographic data and the quality of sensory and motor block were comparable between groups. At 5th, 10th minutes post SA; systolic, diastolic and mean arterial pressures were statistically significant higher in D group. At 20th minutes post SA; the obtained blood pressure readings and heart rate changes didn't show any statistically significance between groups. The need for ephedrine and side effects were statistically significant lower in D group than C group.

CONCLUSION

Post-spinal anesthesia hypotension, nausea, vomiting and shivering in elderly patients were less common after receiving a single preoperative dose of dexamethasone 8 mg IVI than control.

REGISTRATION NUMBER

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03664037 , Registered 17 September 2018 - Retrospectively registered, http://www.ClinicalTrial.gov.

Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea and Vomiting: Pathogenesis, Recommendations, and New Trends

The significant physical and emotional effects of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV) are experienced by cancer patients. Severe symptoms decrease the patient's quality of life and potentially deters further treatment. The five main forms of CINV (i.e., acute, delayed, anticipatory, breakthrough, and refractory) require different treatment regimens, which often include 5-HT3 receptor antagonists, NK1 receptor antagonists, and corticosteroids. Despite a significant amount of research and development of antiemetic agents, management of CINV remains a great challenge with many needs waiting to be adequately addressed, such as controlling non-acute CINV, developing appropriate CINV treatment protocols for multiple-day chemotherapy patients, and providing options for those prone to CINV despite treatment. Further research is required to optimize CINV management for these patients.

[Perioperative dexamethasone]

Dexamethasone is a synthetic steroid that has been used for many years in the clinical routine due to its anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic and immunosuppressive properties. Furthermore, dexamethasone has been used for a long time for prophylaxis and treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. In the meantime dexamethasone has been approved as standard for the prophylaxis and treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV). This review article outlines the indications and side effects of the perioperative administration of dexamethasone.

The optimal dosage, route and timing of glucocorticoids administration for improving knee function, pain and inflammation in primary total knee arthroplasty: A systematic review and network meta-analysis of 34 randomized trials

PURPOSE

Glucocorticoids are a mainstay to control postoperative pain, inflammation, nausea and vomiting (PONV) in total knee arthroplasty (TKA). Understanding the optimal dose and route of glucocorticoids administration in TKA is of great significance in speedy functional recovery. We aimed to summarize, evaluate and rank order the efficacy of glucocorticoids regimens in TKA.

METHODS

Electronic databases (PubMed et al.) were systematically searched from inception up to April 30, 2020. The primary outcomes were visual analogue scale (VAS), range of motion (ROM) and knee society score (KSS). C-reactive Protein (CRP) and PONV were also evaluated. Multivariable Bayesian random effects models were used to synthesize and rank the comparative efficacy of glucocorticoids regimens.

RESULTS

A total of 34 eligible randomized controlled trials with 11 different glucocorticoids regimens were assessed. Overall inconsistency and heterogeneity were acceptable. Multiple medium dose perioperative intravenous injection (IV) ranked first in the analgesia network and a single high doses of preoperative IV ranked first in the inflammation and PONV network. There was no statistically significant increase in ROM or KSS in all the glucocorticoid formulations and doses compared with controls on postoperative day 30.

CONCLUSIONS

Glucocorticoid multiple intravenous injection was preferable to a single intravenous injection (preoperative and postoperative), periarticular injection and intra-articular injection in analgesia. Based on the available evidence, a medium dose of hydrocortisone of 2-4 mg/kg is optimal.

Dopamine receptors in emesis: Molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic function

Dopamine is a member of the catecholamine family and is associated with multiple physiological functions. Together with its five receptor subtypes, dopamine is closely linked to neurological disorders such as schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, depression, attention deficit-hyperactivity, and restless leg syndrome. Unfortunately, several dopamine receptor-based agonists used to treat some of these diseases cause nausea and vomiting as impending side-effects. The high degree of cross interactions of dopamine receptor ligands with many other targets including G-protein coupled receptors, transporters, enzymes, and ion-channels, add to the complexity of discovering new targets for the treatment of nausea and vomiting. Using activation status of signaling cascades as mechanism-based biomarkers to foresee drug sensitivity combined with the development of dopamine receptor-based biased agonists may hold great promise and seems as the next step in drug development for the treatment of such multifactorial diseases. In this review, we update the present knowledge on dopamine and dopamine receptors and their potential roles in nausea and vomiting. The pre- and clinical evidence provided in this review supports the implication of both dopamine and dopamine receptor agonists in the incidence of emesis. Besides the conventional dopaminergic antiemetic drugs, potential novel antiemetic targeting emetic protein signaling cascades may offer superior selectivity profile and potency.

Analgesic sparing effect of dexamethasone with levobupivacaine in quadratus lumborum block in patients undergoing unilateral inguinal hernia repair: A prospective randomised controlled trial

Background

Quadratus lumborum block (QLB) provides somatic and visceral analgesia to the lower thoracic and abdominal wall. The aim was to investigate the analgesic effect of dexamethasone with levobupivacaine in QLB in patients undergoing unilateral inguinal hernia repair surgery.

Methods

A total of 90 patients of American Society of Anaesthesiologists (ASA) I/II were randomly divided into two groups. Group L received 0.25% levobupivacaine (20 ml) + normal saline (1 ml) and group D received 0.25% levobupivacaine (20 ml) + 4 mg dexamethasone (1 ml) in QL plane on the operated side using ultrasound, after completion of surgery under spinal anaesthesia. The primary objective was to compare time for first rescue analgesia. The secondary objectives were total rescue analgesic consumption and numeric rating scale (NRS) in the first 24 h.

Results

The demographic data age, sex, height, weight and ASA were comparable in both groups. The mean time to request for first rescue analgesia was longer in group D compared to group L (1016.02 ± 205.97 min versus 640 ± 132.96 min; P < 0.0001). The mean total tramadol consumption in the first 24 h was lower in group D compared to group L (233.55 ± 86.92 mg versus 328.22 ± 78.74 mg; P < 0.0001). Patients in group D had significantly lower NRS scores at rest and on movement as compared to group L.

Conclusions

The addition of dexamethasone to levobupivacaine in QLB results in prolonged duration of postoperative analgesia, less rescue analgesic requirements and better quality of analgesia as compared to levobupivacaine in unilateral inguinal hernia repair surgery.

Genetic variability in postoperative nausea and vomiting: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) is the most frequent side effect following anaesthesia. Predisposition to developing PONV is multifactorial with patient risk factors and anaesthetic techniques both being contributory. However, there is also a genetic susceptibility to PONV, and several studies have aimed to identify polymorphisms contributing to a genetic PONV risk.

OBJECTIVE

We summarised previous published studies investigating genetic contribution to PONV risk.

DESIGN

Systematic review without meta-analysis.

DATA SOURCE

We searched MEDLINE until June 2019.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Articles were chosen for review when PONV and polymorphisms were included. Exclusion criteria were reviews/meta-analysis/comments, articles not in the English language, nonappropriate content (e.g. PONV not as primary aim of the study, study investigated opioid-induced nausea) or if articles were pharmacogenetic studies addressing treatment of PONV.

RESULTS

A total of 59 studies were screened and 14 articles were reviewed including one genome-wide association study (GWAS). Seven studies were performed in East Asians, and seven in Caucasians. Seventeen polymorphisms have been positively associated with PONV in at least one study. Allele frequency of the investigated polymorphisms differs widely between the ethnicities. Furthermore, the anaesthesia regimen and the postoperative time point at which the association with PONV was reported were quite different. Only two polymorphisms, the CHRM3 rs2165870 and the KCNB2 rs349358 (both first associated with PONV in a GWAS), have been significantly associated with PONV incidence in Caucasians in independent studies.

CONCLUSION

There is a genetic susceptibility to the development of PONV. Two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), the CHRM3 rs2165870 and the KCNB2 rs349358 SNP, seem to have a major influence on PONV incidence, at least in Caucasians. Both SNPs were primarily identified in a GWAS and this association may lead to a better understanding of the disease aetiology. Further high-quality studies are needed to reveal more insights in genetic PONV susceptibility, particularly so in non-Caucasian ethnicities.

Polysaccharide κ-Carrageenan as Doping Agent in Conductive Coatings for Electrochemical Controlled Release of Dexamethasone at Therapeutic Doses

Smart conductive materials are developed in regenerative medicine to promote a controlled release profile of charged bioactive agents in the vicinity of implants. The incorporation and the active electrochemical release of the charged compounds into the organic conductive coating is achieved due to its intrinsic electrical properties. The anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone was added during the polymerization, and its subsequent release at therapeutic doses was reached by electrical stimulation. In this work, a Poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene): κ-carrageenan: dexamethasone film was prepared, and κ-carrageenan was incorporated to keep the electrochemical and physical stability of the electroactive matrix. The presence of κ-carrageenan and dexamethasone in the conductive film was confirmed by µ-Raman spectroscopy and their effect in the topographic was studied using profilometry. The dexamethasone release process was evaluated by cyclic voltammetry and High-Resolution mass spectrometry. In conclusion, κ-carrageenan as a doping agent improves the electrical properties of the conductive layer allowing the release of dexamethasone at therapeutic levels by electrochemical stimulation, providing a stable system to be used in organic bioelectronics systems.

GDF15 Is Elevated in Conditions of Glucocorticoid Deficiency and Is Modulated by Glucocorticoid Replacement

CONTEXT

GDF15 is a stress-induced hormone acting in the hindbrain that activates neural circuitry involved in establishing aversive responses and reducing food intake and body weight in animal models. Anorexia, weight loss, nausea and vomiting are common manifestations of glucocorticoid deficiency, and we hypothesized that glucocorticoid deficiency may be associated with elevated levels of GDF15.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the impact of primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) and glucocorticoid replacement on circulating GDF15 levels.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We measured circulating concentrations of GDF15 in a cohort of healthy volunteers and Addison's disease patients following steroid withdrawal. Significantly higher GDF15 (mean ± standard deviation [SD]) was observed in the Addison's cohort, 739.1 ± 225.8 pg/mL compared to healthy controls, 497.9 ± 167.7 pg/mL (P = 0.01). The effect of hydrocortisone replacement on GDF15 was assessed in 3 independent PAI cohorts with classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia or Addison's disease; intravenous hydrocortisone replacement reduced GDF15 in all groups. We examined the response of GDF15 to increasing doses of glucocorticoid replacement in healthy volunteers with pharmacologically mediated cortisol deficiency. A dose-dependent difference in GDF15 (mean ± SD) was observed between the groups with values of 491.0 ± 157.7 pg/mL, 427.0 ± 152.1 pg/mL and 360 ± 143.1 pg/mL, in the low, medium and high glucocorticoid replacement groups, respectively, P < .0001.

CONCLUSIONS

GDF15 is increased in states of glucocorticoid deficiency and restored by glucocorticoid replacement. Given the site of action of GDF15 in the hindbrain and its effects on appetite, further study is required to determine the effect of GDF15 in mediating the anorexia and nausea that is a common feature of glucocorticoid deficiency.

Efficacy and safety of multiple doses of NEPA without dexamethasone in preventing nausea and vomiting induced by multiple-day and high-dose chemotherapy in patients with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma undergoing autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: a phase IIa, multicenter study

Despite the availability of several antiemetics, clinical findings show that control of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV) continues to be a serious concern for hematological patients, mainly for those receiving multiple-day (MD) and high-dose (HD) chemotherapy (CT). For CINV prophylaxis, 5-hydroxytryptamine type-3 receptor antagonists (5HT₃-RAs) and neurokinin 1 receptor antagonists (NK₁-RAs) are usually administered together with dexamethasone, which may increase the risk of serious infections in patients undergoing myeloablative treatment. The rationale of this multicenter, open-label and phase IIa study was to explore the efficacy of multiple doses of NEPA (netupitant/palonosetron) given as an every-other-day regimen without dexamethasone in preventing CINV in patients with relapsed-refractory aggressive non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (R/R-NHL), eligible for autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT) and treated with MD-HD-CT. Seventy patients participated to the study. According to the adopted Fleming one-stage design, the primary endpoint of this study was achieved. The CR values were 87.1% (primary endpoint, overall phase: days 1–8), 88.6% (acute phase: days 1–6), and 98.6% (delayed phase: days 7–8), while complete control (CR with no more than mild nausea) was 85.7% (overall phase), 88.6% (acute phase), and 95.7% (delayed phase). Moderate and severe episodes of nausea were reported by less than 10% of patients in the overall phase and less than 5% in both the acute and delayed phases. Regarding safety, NEPA was well tolerated with only one adverse event (constipation) evaluated as possibly related to NEPA administration. In conclusion, our study demonstrated that multiple alternate dosing of NEPA without the addition of dexamethasone is highly effective for preventing nausea and vomiting in this difficult setting, with a good tolerability profile.

High-Dose Dexamethasone Manipulates the Tumor Microenvironment and Internal Metabolic Pathways in Anti-Tumor Progression

High-dose dexamethasone (DEX) is used to treat chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting or to control immunotherapy-related autoimmune diseases in clinical practice. However, the underlying mechanisms of high-dose DEX in tumor progression remain unaddressed. Therefore, we explored the effects of high-dose DEX on tumor progression and the potential mechanisms of its anti-tumor function using immunohistochemistry, histological examination, real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR), and Western blotting. Tumor volume, blood vessel invasion, and levels of the cell proliferation markers Ki67 and c-Myc and the anti-apoptotic marker Bcl2 decreased in response to high-dose DEX. However, the cell apoptosis marker cleaved caspase 3 increased significantly in mice treated with 50 mg/kg DEX compared with controls. Some genes associated with immune responses were significantly downregulated following treatment with 50 mg/kg DEX e.g., Cxcl9, Cxcl10, Cd3e, Gzmb, Ifng, Foxp3, S100a9, Arg1, and Mrc1. In contrast, the M1-like tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) activation marker Nos2 was shown to be increased. Moreover, the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors α and γ (Pparα and Pparg, respectively) was shown to be significantly upregulated in livers or tumors treated with DEX. However, high-dose DEX treatment decreased the expression of glucose and lipid metabolic pathway-related genes such as glycolysis-associated genes (Glut1, Hk2, Pgk1, Idh3a), triglyceride (TG) synthesis genes (Gpam, Agpat2, Dgat1), exogenous free fatty acid (FFA) uptake-related genes (Fabp1, Slc27a4, and CD36), and fatty acid oxidation (FAO) genes (Acadm, Acaa1, Cpt1a, Pnpla2). In addition, increased serum glucose and decreased serum TG and non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) were observed in DEX treated-xenografted tumor mice. These findings indicate that high-dose DEX-inhibited tumor progression is a complicated process, not only activated by M1-like TAMs, but also decreased by the uptake and consumption of glucose and lipids that block the raw material and energy supply of cancer cells. Activated M1-like TAMs and inefficient glucose and lipid metabolism delayed tumor cell growth and promoted apoptosis. These findings have important implications for the application of DEX combined with drugs that target key metabolism pathways for tumor therapy in clinical practice.

Intravenous Dexamethasone Injection Reduces Pain From 12 to 21 Hours After Total Knee Arthroplasty: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Pain after total knee arthroplasty (TKA) affects postoperative recovery and patient satisfaction. The analgesic benefits of corticosteroids have not been well studied. We, therefore, investigated the analgesic effects of intravenous (IV) dexamethasone (DEX) in patients undergoing a TKA.

METHODS

This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 0.15 mg/kg of IV DEX vs saline placebo in unilateral TKA. Fifty patients/arm were recruited. Primary outcomes were pain level, determined by a visual analog scale, and the amount of morphine consumption (mg) ≤48 hours post-TKA. Secondary outcomes were rates of nausea and vomiting, C-reactive protein concentrations, and functional outcomes.

RESULTS

The DEX group had a significantly lower mean visual analog scale score both at rest and during motion at 12, 15, 18, and 21 hours (P < .05). At 21 hours, the mean difference (Δ) in pain at rest was -11 points (95% confidence interval [CI], -21 to -2 points; P = .02) while the mean difference in pain during motion was -15 points (95% CI, -25 to -5 points; P = .004). The DEX group also had lower rates of nausea and vomiting: 29/50 (58%) vs 42/50 (84%) (P = .008) and lower mean C-reactive protein level: 89 vs 167, Δ = -78 mg/L (95% CI, -100 to -58 mg/L, P < .0001). There were no significant differences in mean morphine consumption by 48 hours, modified Western Ontario and McMaster University Osteoarthritis Index scores, and range of motion of the knee at 3-month follow-up (P > .05).

CONCLUSION

IV DEX relieves postoperative pain between 12 to 21 hours after TKA and may be a useful adjunct for controlling pain in patients undergoing TKA.

Effect of Timing of Intravenous Fentanyl Administration on the Incidence of Posttonsillectomy Nausea and Vomiting

OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS

Fentanyl is commonly administered toward the end of tonsillectomy to prevent emergence delirium and reduce postoperative pain. However, it can delay emergence from anesthesia and increase the risk of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV). The goal of our study was to compare the risk of PONV based on the timing of fentanyl administration at the end of tonsillectomy in children.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective, double-blind, randomized controlled trial.

METHODS

One hundred forty patients aged 3 to 7 years undergoing tonsillectomy were divided into two groups. Fentanyl (1 μg/kg) was administered at the end of surgery in group 1 (n = 70) and at 10 to 15 minutes before the end of surgery in group 2 (n = 70). Time to regular breathing and time to emergence from anesthesia were measured from the end of surgery. PONV and pediatric anesthesia emergence delirium scale scores were assessed every 10 minutes after admission to the postanesthesia care unit.

RESULTS

Incidences of PONV (2.9% vs. 2.9%, P > .99) and emergence delirium (11.4% vs. 5.7%, P = .23) were not significantly different between the two groups. Time to regular breathing (mean difference = 2.3 minutes; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.9 to 3.7 minutes) and time to emergence (median difference = 6.5 minutes; 95% CI, 2.5 to 10.5 minutes) were significantly longer in group 1 than in group 2.

CONCLUSIONS

Although there was no beneficial effect on PONV, recovery of regular breathing and consciousness was quicker with earlier fentanyl administration. Emergence delirium was well-controlled, similar to that with fentanyl administration at the end of surgery.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

1b Laryngoscope, 2020.