Beneficial effects of lycopene against haloperidol induced orofacial dyskinesia in rats: Possible neurotransmitters and neuroinflammation modulation

Glycyrrhizic Acid Mitigates Haloperidol-Induced Neurotoxicity in SHSY-5Y Cells and Rats Via Activation of PI3k/Akt/Nrf2 Pathways

Antipsychotic medications are used to treat a psychological condition called 'Schizophrenia'. However, its long-term administration causes irregular involuntary motor movements, targeting the orofacial regions. Glycyrrhizic acid (GA) is a naturally occurring triterpene saponin glycoside obtained from the roots of the Glycyrrhiza glabra (liquorice) plant and well known for its antioxidant, antiapoptotic and neuroprotective abilities. The present study investigated the neuroprotective potential of GA against haloperidol (Halo) induced neurotoxicity in SHSY-5Y cells and Wistar rats. Schrodinger software was utilized to estimate the target binding affinity of GA with various targets. To assess cell viability, SHSY-5Y cells were pretreated with GA (25, 50, and 100 µM) 1 h before halo (100 µM) treatment. In an in-vivo study, Wistar rats were divided into five groups: control (saline), halo (1 mg/kg), GA (25 mg/kg), and GA (50 mg/kg). The GA was injected for 21 days, 1 h before halo. All behavior changes were recorded on the 14th and 21st days. Results indicate that pretreatment with GA improves cell viability and reduces ROS formation in halo-treated SHSY-5Y cells, showing its antioxidant ability. Furthermore, GA administration reduced vacuous chewing movements, tongue protrusion, facial jerking, and locomotor abnormalities in halo-treated rats. Moreover, GA treatment improves antioxidant levels, including GSH, and SOD, in halo-injected rats. Additionally, GA treatment upregulates the striatal expression of p-PI3k, p-Akt, and Nrf2 in rats injected with halo. Findings indicate that GA can be a therapeutic agent for tardive dyskinesia and other neurological disorders.

Cannabigerol Mitigates Haloperidol-Induced Vacuous Chewing Movements in Mice

Chronic use of typical antipsychotics can lead to varying motor effects depending on the timing of analysis. Acute treatment typically induces hypokinesia, resembling parkinsonism, while repeated use can result in tardive dyskinesia, a hyperkinetic syndrome marked by involuntary orofacial movements, such as vacuous chewing movements in mice. Tardive dyskinesia is particularly concerning due to its potential irreversibility and associated motor discomfort. One prevailing theory suggests that tardive dyskinesia arises from hypersensitivity of D2-type dopaminergic receptors caused by continuous blockade from typical antipsychotics like haloperidol. Additionally, increased inflammation, oxidative stress, and elevated FosB protein expression in the dorsolateral striatum are implicated in its pathophysiology. Current treatments for tardive dyskinesia often lack clear efficacy and may lead to significant side effects. Cannabigerol, a non-psychotomimetic cannabinoid with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, has been investigated for its potential antidyskinetic effects. In this study, mice were treated with cannabigerol at doses of 3 and 10 mg/kg to evaluate its ability to prevent, ameliorate, or reverse haloperidol-induced vacuous chewing movements. Cannabigerol successfully reduced vacuous chewing movements without affecting normal motor activity, exacerbating haloperidol-induced hypokinesia, or inducing dyskinetic effects on its own. However, no significant reversal of the haloperidol-induced motor effects was observed under the current protocol. Furthermore, cannabigerol did not alter FosB expression or microglia morphology. These findings underscore the need for further research to explore cannabigerol's therapeutic potential and contribute to our understanding of its possible clinical applications in managing tardive dyskinesia.

Molecular and Behavioral Neuroprotective Effects of Clavulanic Acid and Crocin in Haloperidol-Induced Tardive Dyskinesia in Rats

Clavulanic acid (ClvA), a beta-lactamase inhibitor, is being explored for its significant neuroprotective potential. The effects of ClvA were assessed both individually and in combination with crocin (Cr), an antioxidant derived from saffron, in the context of tardive dyskinesia (TD). In rat haloperidol (Hp)-induced-TD (1 mg/kg, i.p. 21 days), the effects of ClvA (50, 100, 150 mg/kg) and Cr (10, 20, 40 mg/kg) were assessed via vacuous chewing movements (VCM) and tongue protrusion (TP). Striatal malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) were measured spectrophotometrically. Based on the results, ClvA (100 mg/kg) and Cr (10 mg/kg) were determined with sub-effective doses. Glutamate transporter-subtype1 (GLT1), dopamine active transporter (DAT), vesicular monoamine transporter-type2 (VMAT2), Bax/Bcl2, cleaved Caspase3, phosphorylated AKT/AKT, IL1β, and TNFα levels were quantified using western blotting in sub-effective doses and their combination. The behavioral results of catalepsy and orofacial dyskinesia demonstrated model establishment. Hp decreased GLT1 (p < 0.05), DAT (p < 0.01), VMAT2 (p < 0.001), GSH and pAKT/AKT (p < 0.0001); increased TNFα (p < 0.05), IL1β, cleaved Caspase3 (p < 0.001); MDA and Bax/Bcl2 (p < 0.0001). ClvA 100 mg/kg reversed the decreased GLT1 and VMAT2 (p < 0.01), alongside the increased MDA (p < 0.0001) and VCM (p < 0.05). It also increased AKT phosphorylation (p < 0.05). No effects were noted on DAT, GSH, Bax/Bcl2, or inflammatory factors. However, the combination with Cr at 10 mg/kg influenced ClvA on DAT (p < 0.01) and resulted in a significant increase in GSH (p < 0.0001). Additionally, there was a marked decrease in TNFα (p < 0.0001) and IL1β (p < 0.001), enhancing its effects on reducing MDA and increasing pAKT/AKT (p < 0.0001). The combination adversely affected GLT1. ClvA protects against TD via GLT1 and VMAT2; combined with Cr, it enhances antioxidant effects, improves DAT, and requires dose optimization for GLT1 disruption.

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin Vaccine Attenuates Haloperidol-Induced TD-like Behavioral and Neurochemical Alteration in Experimental Rats

Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a hyperkinetic movement disorder that displays unusual involuntary movement along with orofacial dysfunction. It is predominantly associated with the long-term use of antipsychotic medications, particularly typical or first-generation antipsychotic drugs such as haloperidol. Oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, neuroinflammation, and apoptosis are major pathophysiological mechanisms of TD. The BCG vaccine has been reported to suppress inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis and exert neuroprotection via several mechanisms. Our study aimed to confirm the neuroprotective effect of the BCG vaccine against haloperidol-induced TD-like symptoms in rats. The rats were given haloperidol (1 mg/kg, i.p.) for 21 days after 1 h single administration of the BCG vaccine (2 × 107 cfu). Various behavioral parameters for orofacial dyskinesia and locomotor activity were assessed on the 14th and 21st days after haloperidol injection. On the 22nd day, all rats were euthanized, and the striatum was isolated to estimate the biochemical, apoptotic, inflammatory, and neurotransmitter levels. The administration of the BCG vaccine reversed orofacial dyskinesia and improved motor function in regard to haloperidol-induced TD-like symptoms in rats. The BCG vaccine also enhanced the levels of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, GSH) and reduced prooxidants (MDA, nitrite) and pro-apoptotic markers (Cas-3, Cas-6, Cas-9) in rat brains. Besides this, BCG treatment also restored the neurotransmitter (DA, NE, 5-HT) levels and decreased the levels of HVA in the striatum. The study findings suggest that the BCG vaccine has antioxidant, antiapoptotic, and neuromodulatory properties that could be relevant in the management of TD.

Putative role of immune reactions in the mechanism of tardive dyskinesia

The term extrapyramidal disorders is most often used for conditions such as Parkinson's disease or Huntington's disease, but also refers to a group of extrapyramidal side effects of antipsychotics (EPS), such as tardive dyskinesia (TD). After a brief description of some clinical features of TD, this article summarizes the relatively scarce results of research on a possible link between mainly cytokine levels and TD. This data was found by systematically searching Pubmed and Embase. The limitations of these types of studies are a major obstacle to interpretation. After describing relevant aspects of the neuroinflammatory response and the neuroanatomical backgrounds of EPS, a new hypothesis for the origin of TD is presented with emphasis on dysfunctions in the striosomal compartment of the striatum and the dorsal diencephalic connection system (DDCS). It is postulated that (partly immunologically-induced) increase in oxidative stress and the dopamine-dependent immune response in classic TD proceed primarily via the DDCS, which itself is activated from evolutionarily older parts of the forebrain. Neuroinflammatory responses in the choroid plexus of the third ventricle may contribute due to its proximity to the habenula. It is concluded that direct evidence for a possible role of inflammatory processes in the mechanism of TD is still lacking because research on this is still too much of a niche, but there are indications that warrant further investigation.

Enhancement of biochemical and genomic pathways through lycopene-loaded nano-liposomes: Alleviating insulin resistance, hepatic steatosis, and autophagy in obese rats with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: Involvement of SMO, GLI-1, and PTCH-1 genes

Non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL) is a prevalent hepatic disorder of global significance that can give rise to severe complications. This research endeavor delves into the potential of nano-liposomal formulated Lycopene (Lip-Lyco) in averting the development of obesity and insulin resistance, both of which are major underlying factors contributing to NAFL. The investigation further scrutinizes the impact of Lip-Lyco on intricate cellular pathways within the liver tissue of rats induced with NAFL, specifically focusing on the progression of steatosis and fibrosis. To establish an obesity-NAFL model, twenty rats were subjected to a high-fat diet (HFD) for a duration of twelve weeks, after which they received an oral treatment of Lip-Lyco (10mg/kg) for an additional eight weeks. Another group of sixteen non-obese rats were subjected to treatment with or without Lip-Lyco, serving as a control for comparison. Results: The rats on a hypercaloric diet had high body mass index (BMI) and insulin resistance, reflected in disturbed serum adipokines and lipid profiles. Oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis were evident in hepatic tissue, and the autophagic process in hepatocytes was inhibited. Additionally, the hedgehog pathway was activated in the liver tissue of NAFL group. Lip-Lyco was found to counteract all these aspects of NAFL pathogenesis. Lip-Lyco exhibited antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, antiapoptotic, autophagy-inducing, and Hedgehog signaling inhibitory effects. This study concludes that Lip-Lyco, a natural compound, has promising therapeutic potential in combating NAFLdisease. However, more experimental and clinical studies are required to confirm the effectiveness of lycopene in treating NAFLdisease.

Involvement of Antioxidant and Prevention of Mitochondrial Dysfunction, Anti-Neuroinflammatory Effect and Anti-Apoptotic Effect: Betaine Ameliorates Haloperidol-Induced Orofacial Dyskinesia in Rats

With its pathophysiological characteristics strongly similar to patients with tardive dyskinesia (TD), haloperidol (HP)-induced neurotoxicity and orofacial dyskinesia (OD) in animal models have long been used to study human TD. This study aimed to explore the potential protective effects of betaine (BT), a vital biochemical compound present in plants, microorganisms, animals, and various dietary sources. The study focused on investigating the impact of BT on haloperidol (HP)-induced orofacial dyskinesia (OD) in rats, as well as the underlying neuroprotective mechanisms. To induce the development of OD, which is characterized by increased vacuous chewing movement (VCM) and tongue protrusion (TP), rats were administered HP (1 mg/kg i.p.) for 21 consecutive days. BT was administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) at doses of 30 and 100 mg/kg, 60 min later, for 21 successive days. On the 21st day, after evaluating OD behavior, the rats were sacrificed, and various measurements were taken to assess the nitrosative and oxidative status, antioxidant capacity, mitochondrial function, neuroinflammation, and apoptotic markers in the striatum. The results demonstrated that (1) HP induced OD development, and (2) BT was found to prevent most of the HP-induced OD; decrease oxidative stress levels; increase anti-oxidation power; prevent mitochondrial dysfunction; and reduce the levels of neuroinflammatory and apoptotic markers in the striatum. Our results demonstrate that the neuroprotective effects of BT against HP-induced OD are credited to its antioxidant prevention of mitochondrial dysfunction, anti-neuroinflammatory effects, and anti-apoptotic effects, suggesting that BT may be a novel therapeutic candidate in delaying or treating human TD in clinical settings. However, further studies will be warranted to extrapolate preclinical findings into clinical studies for a better understanding of the role of BT.

Inhibition of Oxidative Stress and the NF-κB Pathway by a Vitamin E Derivative: Pharmacological Approach against Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder. In this study, PD was induced via (ip) injection of haloperidol (1 mg/kg/day). Animals were divided into seven groups (n = 70). Group I received the vehicle carboxymethylcellulose (CMC; 0.5%), group II was treated with designated 1 mg/kg haloperidol, and group III received the standard drug Sinemet (100 mg/kg), while groups IV-VII received a tocopherol derivative (Toco-D) at dose levels of 5, 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg, respectively, via the oral route. All groups received haloperidol for 23 consecutive days after their treatments except the control group. The improvement in locomotor activity and motor coordination was evaluated by using behavioral tests. Oxidative stress markers, neurotransmitters, and monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) as well as NF-κB levels in the whole brain were measured. mRNA expression analysis of α-synuclein was carried out using the PCR technique. Toco-D at 20 mg/kg showed the maximum improvement in locomotor activity. The levels of antioxidant enzymes and neurotransmitters were also increased by the treatment with Toco-D. Inflammatory cytokine levels and mRNA expression of α-synuclein were decreased by Toco-D in treated animals. This study concluded that Toco-D might be effective in the improvement of locomotor activity and motor coordination in haloperidol-induced PD.

Filgrastim, a Recombinant Form of Granulocyte Colony-stimulating Factor, Ameliorates 3-nitropropionic Acid and Haloperidol-induced Striatal Neurotoxicity in Rats

Striatal neurotoxicity is the pathological hallmark for a heterogeneous group of movement disorders like Tardive dyskinesia (TD) and Huntington's disease (HD). Both diseases are characterized by progressive impairment in motor function. TD and HD share common features at both cellular and subcellular levels. Filgrastim, a recombinant methionyl granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (GCSF), shows neuroprotective properties in in-vivo models of movement disorders. This study seeks to evaluate the neuroprotective effect of filgrastim in haloperidol and 3-NP-induced neurotoxicity in rats. The study was divided into two: in study one, rats were administered with haloperidol for 21 days, filgrastim at the dose of (20, 40, 60 µg/kg,s.c.) was administered once a day before haloperidol treatment and the following parameters (orofacial movements, rotarod, actophotometer) were performed to assess TD. Similarly, in the second study, rats were administered with 3-NP for 21 days, filgrastim at a dose of (20 and 40 µg/kg, s.c.) was administered, and the following parameters (rotarod, narrow beam walk, and open field test) were assessed for HD. On the 22nd day, animals were sacrificed and cortex and striatum isolated for oxidative stress (LPO, GSH, SOD, catalase, and nitrate) marker assessment. Results revealed that haloperidol and 3-NP treatment significantly impaired motor coordination, and oxidative defense inducing TD and HD-like symptoms. Treatment with filgrastim significantly averted haloperidol and 3-NP-induced behavioral and biochemical alterations. Conclusively, the neuroprotective effect of filgrastim is credited to its antioxidant properties. Hence, filgrastim might be a novel therapeutic candidate for the management of TD and HD.

Protective Effect of Fustin against Huntington's Disease in 3-Nitropropionic Treated Rats via Downregulation of Oxidative Stress and Alteration in Neurotransmitters and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Activity

Researchers have revealed that Rhus verniciflua heartwood, which contains fustin as an important component, possesses antioxidant-mediated, anti-mutagenic, and anti-rheumatoid arthritis characteristics. Additionally, out of the numerous plant-derived secondary metabolites, there are various research papers concentrating on flavonoids for potential advantages in neurological illnesses. The current study aims to assess the neuroprotective potential of fustin in rodents over 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NPA)-induced Huntington's disease (HD)-like consequences. The efficacy of fustin 50 and 100 mg/kg was studied with multiple-dose administrations of 3-NPA, which experimentally induced HD-like symptoms in rats for 22 days. At the end of the study, several behavioral tests were performed including a beam walk, rotarod, and grip strength tests. Similarly, some biochemical parameters were assessed to support oxidative stress (reduced glutathione-GSH, superoxide dismutase-SOD, catalase-CAT, and malondialdehyde-MDA), alteration in neurotransmitters (gamma-aminobutyric acid-GABA-and glutamate), alteration in brain-derived neurotrophic factor activity, and nitrite levels. Additionally, pro-inflammatory parameters were carried out to evaluate the neuroinflammatory responses associated with streptozotocin such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and COX in the perfused brain. The fustin-treated group exhibited a significant restoration of memory function via modulation in behavioral activities. Moreover, 3-NPA altered biochemical, neurotransmitters, brain protein levels, and neuroinflammatory measures, which fustin efficiently restored. This is the first report demonstrating the efficacy of novel phytoconstituent fustin as a potential future candidate for the treatment of HD via offering neuroprotection by subsiding the oxidative and enzymatic activity in the 3-NPA experimental animal paradigm.

Neuroprotective effect of silymarin against 3-Nitropropionic acid-induced neurotoxicity in rats

(HD) Huntington's disease is a severe hereditary catastrophic neurological disease with an autosomal dominant heritable changes manifested by cognitive, behavioural, and motor progression deficits, resulting in death. Several mechanisms are involved in the pathogenesis of this complex and rare disease, including excitotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, neurotransmitters imbalance, and oxidative stress. Silymarin was selected as an investigational drug, due to its numerous activities in current research, it possesses substantial antioxidant and neuroprotective functionalities. The present research attempts, i.p. injections of 3-NPA (10 ​mg/kg) were given for 21 days to trigger Huntington-like symptoms in rats. The percentage fluctuations in body weight, the footfall counts, and the time required to transverse the beam and motor functions were analyzed at multiple time points. Oxidative stress markers like MDA/LPO, GSH, protein, nitrite, catalase, and superoxide dismutase levels were examined in the striatum region. The current study results conclusively demonstrate that chronic 3-NPA administration significantly decreased the body weight and showed marked abnormalities in motor coordination, locomotion, and increased striatal generation of free radicals. Furthermore, treatment with silymarin (100 & 200 ​mg/kg/p.o.), mitigated 3-NPA triggered behavioural and biochemical alterations. Our study results could conclude that Silymarin may be advantageous and might develop an adjuvant treatment for the management of Huntington's disease.

Natural Products in Mitigation of Bisphenol A Toxicity: Future Therapeutic Use

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a ubiquitous environmental toxin with deleterious endocrine-disrupting effects. It is widely used in producing epoxy resins, polycarbonate plastics, and polyvinyl chloride plastics. Human beings are regularly exposed to BPA through inhalation, ingestion, and topical absorption routes. The prevalence of BPA exposure has considerably increased over the past decades. Previous research studies have found a plethora of evidence of BPA’s harmful effects. Interestingly, even at a lower concentration, this industrial product was found to be harmful at cellular and tissue levels, affecting various body functions. A noble and possible treatment could be made plausible by using natural products (NPs). In this review, we highlight existing experimental evidence of NPs against BPA exposure-induced adverse effects, which involve the body’s reproductive, neurological, hepatic, renal, cardiovascular, and endocrine systems. The review also focuses on the targeted signaling pathways of NPs involved in BPA-induced toxicity. Although potential molecular mechanisms underlying BPA-induced toxicity have been investigated, there is currently no specific targeted treatment for BPA-induced toxicity. Hence, natural products could be considered for future therapeutic use against adverse and harmful effects of BPA exposure.

Berberine Ameliorate Haloperidol and 3-Nitropropionic Acid-Induced Neurotoxicity in Rats

Berberine due to its antioxidant properties, has been used around the globe significantly to treat several brain disorders. Also, oxidative stress is a pathological hallmark in neurodegenerative diseases like Huntington's disease (HD) and Tardive dyskinesia (TD). Berberine an alkaloid from plants has been reported to have neuroprotective potential in several animal models of neurodegenerative diseases. Hence, this study aims to evaluate the neuroprotective effect of berberine in the animal model of 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP) induced HD and haloperidol induced tardive dyskinesia with special emphasis on its antioxidant property. The study protocol was divided into 2 phases, first phase involved the administration of 3-NP and berberine at the dose of (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg) intraperitoneally (i.p) and orally (p.o.) respectively for 21 days, and the following parameters (rotarod, narrow beam walk and photoactometer) as a measure of motor activity and striatal and cortical levels of (LPO, GSH, SOD, catalase, and nitrate) evaluated as a measure of oxidative stress were assessed for HD. Similarly in the second phase, TD was induced by using haloperidol, for 21 days and berberine at the dose of (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg) was administered, and both physical and biochemical parameters were assessed as mentioned for the HD study. The resultant data indicated that berberine attenuate 3-NP and haloperidol-induced behavioral changes and improved the antioxidant capcity in rodents. Hence berberine might be a novel therapeutic candidate to manage TD & HD.

Parkinsonism Attenuation by Antihistamines via Downregulating the Oxidative Stress, Histamine, and Inflammation

Parkinson disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder of the motor activity of the brain, regulated by dopaminergic neurons of substantia nigra, resulting in an increased density of histaminergic fibers. This study was aimed to evaluate the effects of H1 antagonist's ebastine and levocetirizine in PD per se and in combination. Animals were divided into 9 groups (n = 10). Group 1 received carboxymethyl cellulose CMC (1 mL/kg). Group II was treated with haloperidol (1 mg/kg) (diseased group). Group III was treated with levodopa/carbidopa (levo 20 mg/kg). Groups IV and V were treated with ebastine at dose levels of 2 and 4 mg/kg, respectively. Groups VI and VII were treated with levocetirizine at dose levels of 0.5 and 1 mg/kg, respectively. Group VIII was treated with ebastine (4 mg/kg) + levo (20 mg/kg) in combination. Group IX was treated with levocetirizine (1 mg/kg) + levo (20 mg/kg). PD was induced with haloperidol (1 mg/kg iv, once daily for 23 days) for a duration of 30 min. Behavioral tests like rotarod, block and triple horizontal bars, actophotometer, and open field were performed. Biochemical markers of oxidative stress, i.e., SOD, CAT, GSH, MDA, dopamine, serotonin, and nor-adrenaline and nitrite, were determined. Histamine, mRNA expression of α-synuclein, and TNF-α level in the serum and brain of mice were analyzed. Endogenous biochemical markers were increased except mRNA expression of α-synuclein, which was reduced. In combination therapy with the standard drug, ebastine (4 mg/kg) significantly improved the cataleptic state and dopamine levels, but no significant difference in the renal and liver functioning tests was observed. This study concluded that ebastine (4 mg/kg) might work in the treatment of PD as it improves the cataleptic state in haloperidol-induced catalepsy.

Correlation of Blood Biochemical Markers with Tardive Dyskinesia in Schizophrenic Patients

OBJECTIVE

Oxidative stress factors and proinflammatory cytokines had been found to be involved in the pathogenesis of patients with tardive dyskinesia (TD). This study assumes that blood biochemical markers would have a link with TD in schizophrenia patients. To explore the correlation between blood biochemical markers and tardive dyskinesia in patients with schizophrenia (SCH).

METHODS

From January 2010 to August 2021, the inpatients who met the diagnostic criteria of schizophrenia in the Chinese Classification and Diagnosis Criteria of Mental Disorders (DSM-4) and the American Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-4) were followed up in the psychiatric outpatient department of Jinxia Street Community Health Service Center, Longhu District, Shantou City. The diagnostic criteria of Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS) used in the TD study of Schooler and Kane were used to screen the patients. Patients were divided into the schizophrenia (SCH group) and the schizophrenia with TD groups (TD group). Oxidative stress factors including Superoxide Dismutase1 (SOD1), Glutathione Peroxidase1 (GPX1), Malondialdehyde1 (MDA1), Catalase Activity1 (CAT1), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor 1 (BDNF1) and some inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-2 (IL-2), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8), serum tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), prolactin, estrogen, and cortisol were measured in 121 schizophrenic patients with tardive dyskinesia and 118 schizophrenic patients. The correlation analysis was conducted on the data.

RESULTS

Age and female were immutable risk factors for the development of TD, and there were significant differences in blood biochemical indices GPX1, MDA1, CAT1, and TNF-α in schizophrenic patients with and without TD.

CONCLUSION

This study supports that oxidative stress and immune disorders are associated with TD patients. Blood biochemical markers GPX1, MDA1, CAT1, and TNF-α may play an important role in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia combined with TD patients, and they may be useful in the diagnosis of schizophrenia with tardive dyskinesia.

Genetic Factors Associated With Tardive Dyskinesia: From Pre-clinical Models to Clinical Studies

Tardive dyskinesia is a severe motor adverse event of antipsychotic medication, characterized by involuntary athetoid movements of the trunk, limbs, and/or orofacial areas. It affects two to ten patients under long-term administration of antipsychotics that do not subside for years even after the drug is stopped. Dopamine, serotonin, cannabinoid receptors, oxidative stress, plasticity factors, signaling cascades, as well as CYP isoenzymes and transporters have been associated with tardive dyskinesia (TD) occurrence in terms of genetic variability and metabolic capacity. Besides the factors related to the drug and the dose and patients’ clinical characteristics, a very crucial variable of TD development is individual susceptibility and genetic predisposition. This review summarizes the studies in experimental animal models and clinical studies focusing on the impact of genetic variations on TD occurrence. We identified eight genes emerging from preclinical findings that also reached statistical significance in at least one clinical study. The results of clinical studies are often conflicting and non-conclusive enough to support implementation in clinical practice.

Ameliorative effect of ethoxylated chalcone-based MAO-B inhibitor on behavioural predictors of haloperidol-induced Parkinsonism in mice: evidence of its antioxidative role against Parkinson's diseases

Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects mostly elderly people above the age of 60. Previously, we have reported that the ethoxylated chalcone derivative (E)-1-(4-ethoxyphenyl)-3-(fluorophenyl)prop-2-en-1-one (E7) showed potent, reversible, and competitive MAO-B inhibition with an IC₅₀ value of 0.053 μm. The present study aims to investigate the anti-Parkinson activity of compound E7 in a haloperidol-induced animal model of mice. The disease was induced with haloperidol (1 mg/kg, intraperitoneal route) once daily for 21 days. E7 was given at dose levels of 10, 20, and 30 mg/kg/day for 21 days, consecutively. Behavioural tests were carried out during and at the end of the study. Biochemical analyses such as oxidative stress biomarkers and neurotransmitters were quantified on the brain homogenate at the end of the study. Behavioural results showed that there is a marked improvement in locomotor activity and motor coordination in the treatment group. Oxidative stress biomarkers such as SOD, CAT, and GSH levels were increased dose-dependently with a maximum at 30 mg/kg, whereas the dose-dependent decrease (30 mg/kg) in the MDA and nitrite levels were observed in the treatment groups. Levels of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, serotonin, and noradrenaline, were increased in the treatment groups while dopamine and noradrenaline levels were more than in the standard treated group. MAO-B level was also decreased dose dependently in the treatment group in comparison with the control group. Based on the findings, it was concluded that the E7 compound exhibited anti-Parkinson activity which was more evident at 30 mg/kg oral dose as evaluated by the haloperidol-induced animal model of mice.

Reserpine-induced altered neuro-behavioral, biochemical and histopathological assessments prevent by enhanced antioxidant defence system of thymoquinone in mice

Thymoquinone (Tq), an active compound of Nigella sativa, has been known for its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective characteristics. The present study is aimed to evaluate the effect of Tq on reserpine (Rsp)-induced behavioral (anxiety and/or depression) and, memory deficit; hippocampal inflammatory markers, oxidative markers, antioxidant enzymes, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and histopathology in male mice. Animals were injected with Rsp at a dose of 2 mg/ml/kg and doses of Tq (10 and 20 mg/ml/kg) for 28 days. After the treatment period, behavioral tests [Elevated plus maze (Epm); Light dark box test (Lda); Morris water maze (Mwm); Forced swim test (Fst); Tail suspension test (Tst)] were conducted. After analysis of behaviors, mice were decapitated and brain samples were collected, the hippocampus was removed from the whole-brain sample for biochemical analysis and histology. Administration of Tq at both doses prevent adverse effects of Rsp and increased time spent in open arm and lightbox in Lda and Epm respectively, decreased immobility period in Fst and Tst, decreased latency escape in Mwm, reduced lipid peroxidation (lpo) and inflammatory cytokines, increased defensive enzymes, reduced acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and corrected histological lines. It is concluded that Rsp-instigated behavioral and memory deficits were prevented by Tq possibly via its strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.

Pharmacogenetic-based management of depression: Role of traditional Persian medicine

Depression is one of the most common mental disorders worldwide. The genetic factors are linked to depression and anti-depressant outcomes. Traditional Persian medicine (TPM) manuscripts have provided various anti-depressant remedies, which may be useful in depression management. This review has studied the bioactive compounds, underlying mechanisms, and treatment outcomes of the medicinal plants traditionally mentioned effective for depression from "The storehouse of medicament" (a famous pharmacopeia of TPM) to merge those with the novel genetics science and serve new scope in depression prevention and management. This review paper has been conducted in two sections: (1) Collecting medicinal plants and their bioactive components from "The storehouse of medicament," "Physician's Desk Reference (PDR) for Herbal Medicines," and "Google scholar" database. (2) The critical key factors and genes in depression pathophysiology, prevention, and treatment were clarified. Subsequently, the association between bioactive components' underlying mechanism and depression treatment outcomes via considering polymorphisms in related genes was derived. Taken together, α-Mangostin, β-carotene, β-pinene, apigenin, caffeic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, citral, ellagic acid, esculetin, ferulic acid, gallic acid, gentiopicroside, hyperoside, kaempferol, limonene, linalool, lycopene, naringin, protocatechuic acid, quercetin, resveratrol, rosmarinic acid, and umbelliferone are suitable for future pharmacogenetics-based studies in the management of depression.

Appraisal of anti-Parkinson activity of rhinacanthin-C in haloperidol-induced parkinsonism in mice: A mechanistic approach

This study aimed to appraise the anti-Parkinson's potential of rhinacanthin-C (RC). RC (5, 10, and 20 mg/kg) was orally administered for 25 days in albino mice to treat haloperidol-induced parkinsonism (1 mg/kg). RC significantly (p < .05) improved the motor symptoms in block, bar, rotarod, and balance beam walking tests in treated mice. RC reduced the cataleptic effect dose-dependently. The RC therapy notably (p < .001) enhanced reduced glutathione, catalase, and superoxide dismutase levels while decreased malondialdehyde and nitrite levels in the tissue homogenates of the treated mice. The RC therapy significantly (p < .01-.001) restored the dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin levels in the brain tissue of treated mice as co-evidenced from brain histology. RC did not adversely affect complete blood count, and liver and kidney function tests. Taken together, these results have shown that RC is effective in treating motor and non-motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Rhinacanthus nasutus is a medicinally rich plant that has folklore use in several ailments. The plant possessed multiple pharmacological activities due to the presence of naphthoquinones. The major compound of this plant rhinacanthin-C was used in the present study to evaluate it's anti-Parkinson's activity. The results provide scientific evidence of the anti-Parkinson's potential of rhinacanthin-C that support the use of R. nasutus leaves in the prevention and treatment of Parkinson's disorder.

Exploring the possible neuroprotective and antioxidant potency of lycopene against acrylamide-induced neurotoxicity in rats' brain

Acrylamide (Ac) is a carbonyl compound extracted from hydrated acrylonitrile with a significantly high chemical activity. It is widely existed and used in food processing, industrial manufacturing and laboratory personnel work. However, lycopene (Ly) is a most potent natural antioxidant among various common carotenoids extracted from red plants. Nevertheless, little is known about the relationship of Ac-induced neurotoxicity and the ameliorative role of Ly in the regulation of oxidative and antioxidant capacity during Ac exposure. Therefore, this work sought to investigate the neurotoxicity induced by Ac exposure and the potential modulatory role of Ly by reversing the brain dysfunctions during Ac exposure. For this purpose, forty male albino rats were assigned into four equal groups. Control group received distilled water, Ly group was given with a daily dose of 10 mg/kg bw, Ac group was given with a daily dose of 25 mg/kg bw, and Ac-Ly group was gavaged Ac plus Ly at the same doses as the former groups. All treatments were given orally for 21 consecutive days. The concentrations of antioxidants (reduced glutathione and glutathione peroxidase) and oxidative stress (malondialdehyde, nitric oxide and protein carbonyl) biomarkers, as well as neurotransmitters (serotonin and dopamine) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) were measured in the brain homogenates. An immunohistochemical staining was applied with anti-GFPA antibody to determine the severity of astrocytosis. The in vivo study with rat model demonstrated that Ac exposure significantly decline the hematological parameters, brain neurotransmitters concentrations and AChE activity, as well as levels of antioxidant biomarkers but markedly elevate the levels of oxidative stress biomarkers. Moreover, marked histological alterations and astrocytosis were observed through the increased number of GFAP immunopositively cells in cerebral, cerebellar and hippocampal tissues compared with the other groups. Interestingly, almost all of the previously mentioned parameters were retrieved in Ac-Ly group compared to Ac group. These findings conclusively indicate that Ly oral administration provides adequate protection against the neurotoxic effects of Ac on rat brain tissue function and structure through modulations of oxidative and antioxidant activities.

Naringin Ameliorates Haloperidol-Induced Neurotoxicity and Orofacial Dyskinesia in a Rat Model of Human Tardive Dyskinesia

Animal models of haloperidol (HAL)-induced neurotoxicity and orofacial dyskinesia (OD) have long been used to study human tardive dyskinesia (TD). Similar to patients with TD, these models show strong pathophysiological characteristics such as striatal oxidative stress and neural cytoarchitecture alteration. Naringin (NAR), a bioflavonoid commonly found in citrus fruits, has potent antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic, and neuroprotective properties. The present study evaluated the potential protective effects of NAR against HAL-induced OD in rats and the neuroprotective mechanisms underlying these effects. HAL treatment (1 mg/kg i.p. for 21 successive days) induced OD development, characterized by increased vacuous chewing movement (VCM) and tongue protrusion (TP), which were recorded on the 7th, 14th, and 21st day of drug treatment. NAR (30, 100, and 300 mg/kg) was administered orally 60 min before HAL injection for 21 successive days. On the 21st day, after behavioral testing, the rats were sacrificed, and the nitrosative and oxidative status, antioxidation power, neurotransmitter levels, neuroinflammation, and apoptotic markers in the striatum were measured. HAL induced OD development, with significant increases in the frequency of VCM and TP. NAR treatment (100 and 300 mg/kg) prevented HAL-induced OD significantly. Additionally, NAR treatment reduced the HAL-induced nitric oxide and lipid peroxide production, increased the antioxidation power and neurotransmitter levels in the striatum, and significantly reduced the levels of neuroinflammatory and apoptotic markers. Our results first demonstrate the neuroprotective effects of NAR against HAL-induced OD, suggesting that NAR may help in delaying or treating human TD in clinical settings.

Lycopene as a Natural Antioxidant Used to Prevent Human Health Disorders

Lycopene, belonging to the carotenoids, is a tetraterpene compound abundantly found in tomato and tomato-based products. It is fundamentally recognized as a potent antioxidant and a non-pro-vitamin A carotenoid. Lycopene has been found to be efficient in ameliorating cancer insurgences, diabetes mellitus, cardiac complications, oxidative stress-mediated malfunctions, inflammatory events, skin and bone diseases, hepatic, neural and reproductive disorders. This review summarizes information regarding its sources and uses amongst different societies, its biochemistry aspects, and the potential utilization of lycopene and possible mechanisms involved in alleviating the abovementioned disorders. Furthermore, future directions with the possible use of this nutraceutical against lifestyle-related disorders are emphasized. Its protective effects against recommended doses of toxic agents and toxicity and safety are also discussed.

Cannabidiol prevents haloperidol-induced vacuos chewing movements and inflammatory changes in mice via PPARγ receptors

The chronic use of drugs that reduce the dopaminergic neurotransmission can cause a hyperkinetic movement disorder called tardive dyskinesia (TD). The pathophysiology of this disorder is not entirely understood but could involve oxidative and neuroinflammatory mechanisms. Cannabidiol (CBD), the major non-psychotomimetic compound present in Cannabis sativa plant, could be a possible therapeutic alternative for TD. This phytocannabinoid shows antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antipsychotic properties and decreases the acute motor effects of classical antipsychotics. The present study investigated if CBD would attenuate orofacial dyskinesia, oxidative stress and inflammatory changes induced by chronic administration of haloperidol in mice. Furthermore, we verified in vivo and in vitro (in primary microglial culture) whether these effects would be mediated by PPARγ receptors. The results showed that the male Swiss mice treated daily for 21 days with haloperidol develop orofacial dyskinesia. Daily CBD administration before each haloperidol injection prevented this effect. Mice treated with haloperidol showed an increase in microglial activation and inflammatory mediators in the striatum. These changes were also reduced by CBD. On the other hand, the levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 increased in the striatum of animals that received CBD and haloperidol. Regarding oxidative stress, haloperidol induced lipid peroxidation and reduced catalase activity. This latter effect was attenuated by CBD. The combination of CBD and haloperidol also increased PGC-1α mRNA expression, a co-activator of PPARγ receptors. Pretreatment with the PPARγ antagonist, GW9662, blocked the behavioural effect of CBD in our TD model. CBD also prevented LPS-stimulated microglial activation, an effect that was also antagonized by GW9662. In conclusion, our results suggest that CBD could prevent haloperidol-induced orofacial dyskinesia by activating PPARγ receptors and attenuating neuroinflammatory changes in the striatum.

Essential Dietary Bioactive Lipids in Neuroinflammatory Diseases

SIGNIFICANCE

Under physiological conditions, neurons and glia are in a healthy, redox-balanced environment; when injury perturbs this equilibrium, a neuroinflammatory state is established by activated microglia that triggers pro-inflammatory responses and alters the oxidant/antioxidant balance, thus leading to neuronal loss and neurodegeneration. In neurodegenerative diseases (such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyothrophic lateral sclerosis, and multiple sclerosis), the brain is in a constitutively self-sustaining cycle of inflammation and oxidative stress that prompts and amplifies brain damage. Recent Advances: Recently, an increasing amount of scientific data highlight the ability of specific nutrients to cross the blood-brain barrier, and to modulate inflammatory and oxidative pathways. Therefore, nutritional approaches may contribute to restore the lost equilibrium among factors accounting for neurodegeneration.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Herein, we critically examine how essential lipids (including fatty acids, liposoluble vitamins and phytosterols) might contribute to accelerate or prevent the onset and progression of such pathologies. In particular, we highlight that experimental and clinical findings, although promising, are still inadequate to draw definitive conclusions.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

More research is warranted in order to establish the real impact of lipid intake on brain health, especially when redox balance and inflammatory responses have been already compromised. In the future, it would be hoped to gain a detailed knowledge of chemical modifications and dynamic properties of such nutrients, before planning to exploit them as potential therapeutics. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 29, 37-60.

Antioxidant effects of rice bran oil mitigate repeated haloperidol-induced tardive dyskinesia in male rats

Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is associated with the use of antipsychotic drugs such as D2 antagonist haloperidol (HP). The chronic use of HP is involved in the causation of free radicals and/or oxidative stress. In view of the nootropic, anti-anxiety, anti-inflammatory-like effects of rice bran oil (RBO) in a variety of investigations, we assessed the protective properties of RBO on HP-induced TD and neurochemical alteration. Rats treated with HP orally at a dose of 0.2 mg/kg/day for a period of 5 weeks developed VCMs which increased progressively as the treatment continued for 5 weeks. Co-administration of RBO by oral tubes at a dose of 0.4 ml/day prevented the induction of HP-induced VCMs. Repeated administration of HP increases the turnover of dopamine metabolism in the striatum. Conversely animals treated with HP + RBO decrease the metabolism of DA than water + HP treated animals. Striatal, malondieldehyde (MDA), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) were also determined. It is suggested that beneficial role of RBO in attenuation of HP-induced TD. The results therefore recommended that supplementation of RBO may be useful in the HP-induced TD. The findings have also potential implication in the treatment of schizophrenia and motor disorders.

Hepatoprotective and antioxidant effects of lycopene on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in rat

AIM

To evaluate the hepatoprotective effect of lycopene (Ly) on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in rat.

METHODS

A rat model of NAFLD was first established by feeding a high-fat diet for 14 wk. Sixty-five rats were randomly divided into normal group, model group and Ly treatment groups. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC) in serum and low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C), free fatty acid (FFA), malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH) in liver tissue were evaluated, respectively. While the hepatoprotective effect was also confirmed by histopathological analysis, the expression levels of TNF-α and cytochrome P₄₅₀ (CYP) 2E1 in rat liver were determined by immunohistochemistry analysis.

RESULTS

A significant decrease was observed in the levels of serum AST (2.07-fold), ALT (2.95-fold), and the blood lipid TG (2.34-fold) and TC (1.66-fold) in the dose of 20 mg/kg Ly-treated rats (P < 0.01), compared to the model group. Pretreatment with 5, 10 and 20 mg/kg of Ly significantly raised the levels of antioxidant enzyme SOD in a dose-dependent manner, to 90.95 ± 9.56, 109.52 ± 11.34 and 121.25 ± 10.68 (P < 0.05, P < 0.01), as compared with the model group. Similarly, the levels of GSH were significantly increased (P < 0.05, P < 0.01) after the Ly treatment. Meanwhile, pretreatment with 5, 10 and 20 mg/kg of Ly significantly reduced MDA amount by 30.87, 45.51 and 54.49% in the liver homogenates, respectively (P < 0.01). The Ly treatment group showed significantly decreased levels of lipid products LDL-C (P < 0.05, P < 0.01), improved HDL-C level and significantly decreased content of FFA, compared to the model group (P < 0.05, P < 0.01). Furthermore, the Ly-treated group also exhibited a down-regulated TNF-α and CYP2E1 expression, decreased infiltration of liver fats and reversed histopathological changes, all in a dose-dependent manner (P < 0.05, P < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that Ly has a protective effect on NAFLD, down-regulates expression of TNF-α, and that CYP2E1 may be one of the action mechanisms for Ly.