Childhood encephalitis in Sweden: etiology, clinical presentation and outcome

Occurrence of Central Nervous System Complications of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

An increasing base of evidence suggests that respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections may be associated with neurological complications. In accord with the PRISMA statement, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis on the occurrence of encephalitis and encephalopathy associated with documented RSV infections. PubMed, Embase, and Scopus databases were searched for eligible observational studies published up to 10 April 2024. Raw data included the occurrence of RSV infections among cases of encephalitis and/or encephalopathy and cases of encephalitis and/or encephalopathy among series of RSV infections. Data were pooled in a random effects model. Case reports were also collected, and their data pooled as a cumulative series. Heterogeneity was assessed using the I2 measure, while reporting bias was assessed by means of funnel plots and regression analysis. A total of 15 studies for a total of 7719 RSV infections and 1631 cases of encephalitis were analyzed. Moreover, 27 case reports and case series were retrieved, for a total of 84 individual cases of encephalitis/encephalopathy occurring during a documented RSV infection. A pooled prevalence of 2.20 cases of encephalitis/encephalopathy per 100 RSV cases (I2 = 99%) was calculated, while a prevalence of RSV infections among cases of encephalitis/encephalopathy was estimated to 3.53 per 100 cases for studies on respiratory specimens (I2 = 48%) and 0.37 per cases on central nervous system (CNS) specimens (I2 = 0%). Detection of RSV within the CNS was relatively rare (17.86% of pooled case reports), being associated with male gender (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 5.021, 95% confidence interval [95%CI] 1.104 to 22.831) and recovery with long-term sequelae (aOR 5.699, 95%CI 1.152; 28.183). Case fatality ratio was estimated to be 0.43 per 100 cases on observational studies and 10.71% in case reports, a difference likely due to publication bias. In summary, RSV represented a not frequent but notable cause of encephalitis/encephalopathy in adults and children. The paucity of available studies not only recommends a cautious appraisal of our results but stresses the clinical significance of future studies on incident cases of encephalitis and/or encephalopathy.

Clinical epidemiology, determinants, and outcomes of viral encephalitis in Ghana; a cross-sectional study

Viral encephalitis is a rare, yet severe neurological disorder. It poses a significant public health threat due to its high morbidity and mortality. Despite the disproportionate burden of the disease in impoverished African countries, the true extent of the problem remains elusive due to the scarcity of accurate diagnostic methods. The absence of timely and effective diagnostic tools, particularly Real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction, has led to misguided treatment, and an underestimation of the disease burden in Ghana. We conducted a prospective cross-sectional study to determine the viral aetiologies of encephalitis among patients presenting to a major referral hospital in Ghana from May 2019 and August 2022. The study aimed at providing a comprehensive information on the clinical epidemiology, and outcomes of viral encephalitis in Ghana. Clinical samples were collected from patients presenting with signs and symptoms of encephalitis and tested for viral agents using real-time polymerase chain reaction. We assessed the clinical epidemiology, risk factors and outcome of individuals using descriptive and logistic regression analysis. Seventy-seven (77) patients were enrolled unto the study. The participants frequently presented with fever (85.7%), seizures (80.5%), lethargy (64.9%) and headache (50.6%). Viruses were detected in 40.3% of the study participants in either cerebrospinal fluid, rectal or oral swab samples. The most frequently detected viruses were cytomegalovirus (48.4%), enteroviruses (38.7%) and HSV (29.0%). Twenty-one (27.3%) of the patients died while on hospital admission. Gender (OR = 5.70 (1.536-1.172), p = 0.01), and negative polymerase chain reaction test results were identified as significant factors associated with death. Antiviral treatment increased the chance of survival of viral encephalitis patients by 21.8%. Our results validate the crucial role of molecular tools as essential for the rapid diagnosis of viral encephalitis, enabling effective treatment and improved patient outcomes. This study contributes valuable epidemiological and clinical insight into viral encephalitis in Ghana.

Evaluation, Treatment, and Outcomes of Viral and Autoimmune Encephalitis in Children

Viral encephalitis and autoimmune encephalitis are currently the most common causes of encephalitis. Determining the causative agent is helpful in initiating medical treatment that may help reduce long-term sequelae. Cerebrospinal fluid, neuroimaging, serologic, and electroencephalogram in combination with clinical manifestations play a role in determining the cause of the encephalitis. Although motor dysfunction tends to improve, there is a significant risk of long-term neurologic and cognitive sequelae. These persistent deficits that occur in childhood indicate the importance for ongoing rehabilitative services to maximize functional skills, improve cognitive deficits, and assist with community integration.

Viral aetiology of acute central nervous system infections in children, Iran

Introduction. Viral infections are increasingly an important cause of central nervous system (CNS) complications.

Hypothesis/Gap Statement. There is no comprehensive insight about CNS infections due to viral agents among Iranian children.

Aim. This study aimed to investigate the viral aetiology, clinical and epidemiological profile of children with acute infections of the CNS.

Methodology. A prospective study was conducted on children at the referral hospital in Isfahan, Iran, from June 2019 to June 2020. A multiplex PCR assay was used to detect the viral causative agent in cerebrospinal fluid and throat/rectal swab samples.

Results. Among 103 patients with eligible criteria, a confirmed or probable viral aetiology was detected in 41 (39.8 %) patients, including enteroviruses – 56.1 %, herpes simplex virus 1/2 (HSV-1/2) – 31.7 %, Epstein-Barr virus – 17.1 %, varicella-zoster virus (VZV) – 9.7 %, influenza A virus (H1N1) –4.9 % and mumps – 2.4 %. There was a higher proportion of PCR-positive samples in infants than in other age groups. Encephalitis and meningoencephalitis were diagnosed in 68.3 % (28/41) and 22 % (9/41) PCR-positive cases, respectively.

Conclusion. The findings of this research provide insights into the clinical and viral aetiological patterns of acute CNS infections in Iran, and the importance of molecular methods to identify CNS viruses. HSV and VZV were identified as important causes of encephalitis in young children.

Study protocol: The clinical features, epidemiology, and causes of paediatric encephalitis in southern Vietnam

Encephalitis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The clinical syndrome of encephalitis consists of altered mental status, seizures, neurologic signs, and is often accompanied by fever, headache, nausea, and vomiting. The encephalitis in children has been known that more common than in adult, with the incidence rate of infants was 3.9 times higher than that of people 20-44 years of age. The reported incidence of hospitalization attributed to paediatric encephalitis ranged from 3 to 13 admissions per 100,000 children per year with the overall mortality ranging from 0 to 7%. There are however more than 100 pathogens that can cause encephalitis and accurate diagnosis is challenging. Over 50% of patients with encephalitis are left undiagnosed despite extensive laboratory investigations. Furthermore, recent studies in high-income settings have suggested autoimmune encephalitis has now surpassed infectious aetiologies, mainly due to increased awareness and diagnostic capacity, which further challenges routine diagnosis and clinical management, especially in developing countries. There are limited contemporary data on the causes of encephalitis in children in Vietnam. Improving our knowledge of the causative agents of encephalitis in this resource-constrained setting remains critical to informing case management, resource distribution and vaccination strategy. Therefore, we conduct a prospective observational study to characterise the clinical, microbiological, and epidemiological features of encephalitis in a major children's hospital in southern Vietnam. Admission clinical samples will be collected alongside meta clinical data and from each study participants. A combination of classical assays (serology and PCR) and metagenomic next-generation sequencing will used to identify the causative agents. Undiagnosed patients with clinical presentations compatible with autoimmune encephalitis will then be tested for common forms of the disease. Finally, using direct- and indirect costs, we will estimate the economic burden of hospitalization and seven days post hospital discharge of paediatric encephalitis in our setting.

Incidence of Childhood Meningoencephalitis in Children With a Suspected Meningoencephalitis in the Netherlands

Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text.

Childhood infections and autism spectrum disorders and/or intellectual disability: a register-based cohort study

Objective

To explore the associations between childhood infections and subsequent diagnoses of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), intellectual disability (ID), and their co-occurrence.

Methods

The association between specialized care for any infection, defined by ICD-codes, and later ASD or ID was investigated in a register-based cohort of 556,732 individuals born 1987–2010, resident in Stockholm County, followed from birth to their 18th birthday or December 31, 2016. We considered as potential confounders children’s characteristics, family socioeconomic factors, obstetric complications, and parental histories of treatment for infection and psychiatric disorders in survival analyses with extended Cox regression models. Residual confounding by shared familial factors was addressed in sibling analyses using within-strata estimation in Cox regression models. Sensitivity analyses with the exclusion of congenital causes of ASD/ID and documented risk for infections were also performed.

Results

Crude estimates indicated that infections during childhood were associated with later ASD and ID with the largest risks observed for diagnoses involving ID. Inclusion of covariates, exclusion of congenital causes of ASD/ID from the population, and sibling comparisons highlighted the potential for confounding by both heritable and non-heritable factors, though risks remained in all adjusted models. In adjusted sibling comparisons, excluding congenital causes, infections were associated with later “ASD without ID” (HR 1.24, 95%CI 1.15–1.33), “ASD with ID” (1.57, 1.35–1.82), and “ID without ASD” (2.01, 1.76–2.28). Risks associated with infections varied by age at exposure and by age at diagnosis of ASD/ID.

Conclusions

Infections during childhood may contribute to a later diagnosis of ID and ASD.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s11689-022-09422-4.

Etiological and Clinical Profile of Acute Nonbacterial Encephalitis in Children: A Single-Center Prospective Study

Encephalitis is a serious neurological syndrome caused by inflammation of the brain. The diagnosis can be challenging and etiology remains unidentified in about half of the pediatric cases. We aimed to investigate demographic, clinical, laboratory, electroencephalographic and neuroimaging findings, and outcome of acute encephalitis of nonbacterial etiology. This prospective study included children hospitalized with the diagnosis of acute encephalitis between 2017 and 2019. Microbiological investigations of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were recorded. All CSF specimens were tested for anti-N methyl D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antibodies. In total, 31 children aged 10 months to 17 years (median = 6 years) were included. Pathogens were confirmed in CSF in three patients (9.7%): varicella zoster virus, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), and both HSV-1 and NMDAR antibodies. Presenting features included encephalopathy (100%), fever (80.6%), seizure (45.2%), focal neurological signs (29%), and ataxia (19.4%). On clinical follow-up of median 9 (6-24) months, six patients showed neurological deficits: together with two patients who died in hospital, total eight (25.8%) patients were considered to have unfavorable outcome. Need for intubation, receiving immunomodulatory treatment, prolonged hospitalization, and high erythrocyte sedimentation rate at admission were associated with unfavorable outcome. The etiology of encephalitis remains unexplained in the majority of children. HSV-1 is the most frequently detected virus, consistent with the literature. The fact that anti-NMDAR encephalitis was detected in one child suggests autoimmune encephalitis not being rare in our center. The outcome is favorable in the majority while about one-fifth of cases suffer from sequelae.

Respiratory Syncytial Virus-Associated Neurologic Complications in Children: A Systematic Review and Aggregated Case Series

OBJECTIVES

To describe the features and frequency of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)-associated severe acute neurologic disease in children.

STUDY DESIGN

We performed a systematic review of the literature to identify reports of severe acute neurologic complications associated with acute RSV infection in children aged <15 years (PROSPERO Registration CRD42019125722). Main outcomes included neurologic, clinical, and demographic features of cases and the frequency of disease. We aggregated available case data from the published literature and from the Australian Acute Childhood Encephalitis (ACE) study.

RESULTS

We identified 87 unique studies from 26 countries describing a spectrum of RSV-associated severe acute neurologic syndromes including proven encephalitis, acute encephalopathy, complex seizures, hyponatremic seizures, and immune-mediated disorders. The frequency of RSV infection in acute childhood encephalitis/encephalopathy was 1.2%-6.5%. We aggregated data from 155 individual cases with RSV-associated severe acute neurologic complications; median age was 11.0 months (IQR 2.0-21.5), most were previously healthy (71/104, 68%). Seizure was the most frequently reported neurologic feature (127/150, 85%). RSV was detected in the central nervous system of 12 cases. Most children recovered (81/122, 66%); however, some reports described partial recovery (33/122, 27%) and death (8/122, 7%).

CONCLUSIONS

RSV-associated neurologic complications have been widely reported, but there is substantial heterogeneity in the design and quality of existing studies. The findings from our study have implications for the investigation, management, and prevention of RSV-associated neurologic complications. Further, this systematic review can inform the design of future studies aiming to quantify the burden of childhood RSV-associated neurologic disease.

Lower cognitive scores among toddlers in birth cohorts with acute respiratory illnesses, fevers, and laboratory-confirmed influenza

BACKGROUND

We established cohorts to assess associations between viral influenza and cognitive development to inform the value proposition of vaccination.

METHODS

From 2014 through 2017, we called women seeking care at four prenatal clinics in Panama and El Salvador to identify acute respiratory illnesses (ARIs). Within 2 weeks of childbirth, mothers were asked to enroll their neonates in the cognitive development study. Staff obtained nasopharyngeal swabs from children with febrile ARIs for real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rtPCR) detection of viral RNA. Toddlers were administered Bayley developmental tests at ages 12 and 18-24 months. We used multilevel linear regression to explore associations between Bayley scores, ARIs, fever, and laboratory-confirmed influenza, controlling for maternal respiratory or Zika illnesses, infant influenza vaccination, birth during influenza epidemics, and the number of children in households.

RESULTS

We enrolled 1567 neonates of which 68% (n = 1062) underwent developmental testing once and 40% (n = 623) twice. Children with previous ARIs scored an average of 3 points lower on their cognitive scores than children without ARIs (p = 0.001). Children with previous fevers scored an average of 2.1 points lower on their cognitive scores than afebrile children (p = 0.02). In the second year, children with previous laboratory-confirmed influenza scored 4 points lower on their cognitive scores than children without influenza (p = 0.04, after controlling for first Bayley cognitive scores).

CONCLUSIONS

ARIs and fever during infancy were associated with lower Bayley scores at 12 months, and laboratory-confirmed influenza was associated with lower cognitive scores at 24 months suggesting the potential value of vaccination to prevent non-respiratory complications of influenza.

Study protocol: The clinical features, epidemiology, and causes of paediatric encephalitis in southern Vietnam

Encephalitis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The clinical syndrome of encephalitis consists of altered mental status, seizures, neurologic signs, and is often accompanied by fever, headache, nausea, and vomiting. The encephalitis in children has been known that more common than in adult, with the incidence rate of infants was 3.9 times higher than that of people 20-44 years of age. The reported incidence of hospitalization attributed to paediatric encephalitis ranged from 3 to 13 admissions per 100,000 children per year with the overall mortality ranging from 0 to 7%. There are however more than 100 pathogens that can cause encephalitis and accurate diagnosis is challenging. Over 50% of patients with encephalitis are left undiagnosed despite extensive laboratory investigations. Furthermore, recent studies in high-income settings have suggested autoimmune encephalitis has now surpassed infectious aetiologies, mainly due to increased awareness and diagnostic capacity, which further challenges routine diagnosis and clinical management, especially in developing countries. There are limited contemporary data on the causes of encephalitis in children in Vietnam. Improving our knowledge of the causative agents of encephalitis in this resource-constrained setting remains critical to informing case management, resource distribution and vaccination strategy. Therefore, we conduct a prospective observational study to characterise the clinical, microbiological, and epidemiological features of encephalitis in a major children's hospital in southern Vietnam. Admission clinical samples will be collected alongside meta clinical data and from each study participants. A combination of classical assays (serology and PCR) and metagenomic next-generation sequencing will used to identify the causative agents. Undiagnosed patients with clinical presentations compatible with autoimmune encephalitis will then be tested for common forms of the disease. Finally, using direct- and indirect costs, we will estimate the economic burden of hospitalization and seven days post hospital discharge of paediatric encephalitis in our setting.

Diagnosis and Therapy of Infectious Encephalitis in Children: A Ten-Years Retrospective Study

BACKGROUND

Infectious encephalitis represents a rare but potentially severe clinical condition. However, limited international data are available in pediatric age.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study to review (a) the clinical presentation; (b) laboratory, radiology, and neurophysiology findings; (c) the correlations between these exams and outcome; and (d) the therapy performed.

RESULTS

Fifty-six patients were enrolled [22 female (39.6%), mean age 4.7 years, IQR 0.7-8.7 years], 19.6% presented neurologic sequelae. HSV was the single most frequently isolated pathogen (19.6%), although in most cases, the etiology remained undefined. 41.1% children presented prodromal before the development of neurologic signs. Fever was the most frequent constitutional symptom (83.9% of cases). Cerebrospinal fluid was normal in 48.5% of cases and electroencephalograpy in 24.5% cases. Brain computed tomography scans was normal in 33 (91.7%) cases, while cerebral magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed pathologic findings in 62.5% of cases. MRI was the only parameter associated with neurologic sequalae [P = 0.01; OR, 8.1 (95% CI: 1.52-42.84)].

CONCLUSIONS

Pediatric encephalitis is a heterogeneous entity with nonspecific clinical and laboratory findings, with undefined etiologies in most times. MRI can play a primary role, both on a diagnostic and prognostic point-of-view, and its role should be implemented and made more accessible. Further studies are needed to define the exact role and timing of steroids.

Study protocol: The clinical features, epidemiology, and causes of paediatric encephalitis in southern Vietnam

Encephalitis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The clinical syndrome of encephalitis consists of altered mental status, seizures, neurologic signs, and is often accompanied by fever, headache, nausea, and vomiting. The encephalitis in children has been known that more common than in adult, with the incidence rate of infants was 3.9 times higher than that of people 20-44 years of age. The reported incidence of hospitalization attributed to paediatric encephalitis ranged from 3 to 13 admissions per 100,000 children per year with the overall mortality ranging from 0 to 7%. There are however more than 100 pathogens that can cause encephalitis and accurate diagnosis is challenging. Over 50% of patients with encephalitis are left undiagnosed despite extensive laboratory investigations. Furthermore, recent studies in high-income settings have suggested autoimmune encephalitis has now surpassed infectious aetiologies, mainly due to increased awareness and diagnostic capacity, which further challenges routine diagnosis and clinical management, especially in developing countries. There are limited contemporary data on the causes of encephalitis in children in Vietnam. Improving our knowledge of the causative agents of encephalitis in this resource-constrained setting remains critical to informing case management, resource distribution and vaccination strategy. Therefore, we conduct a prospective observational study to characterise the clinical, microbiological, and epidemiological features of encephalitis in a major children's hospital in southern Vietnam. Admission clinical samples will be collected alongside meta clinical data and from each study participants. A combination of classical assays (serology and PCR) and metagenomic next-generation sequencing will used to identify the causative agents. Undiagnosed patients with clinical presentations compatible with autoimmune encephalitis will then be tested for common forms of the disease. Finally, using direct- and indirect costs, we will estimate the economic burden of hospitalization and seven days post hospital discharge of paediatric encephalitis in our setting.

Multicenter prospective surveillance study of viral agents causing meningoencephalitis

The frequency of bacterial factors causing central nervous system infections has decreased as a result of the development of our national immunization program. In this study, it is aimed to obtain the data of our local surveillance by defining the viral etiology in cases diagnosed with meningoencephalitis for 1 year. Previously healhty 186 children, who applied with findings suggesting viral meningoencephalitis to 8 different tertiary health centers between August 2018 and August 2019, in Istanbul, were included. The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) sample was evaluated by polymerase chain reaction. The M:F ratio was 1.24 in the patient group, whose age ranged from 1 to 216 months (mean 40.2 ± 48.7). Viral factor was detected in 26.8%. Enterovirus was the most common agent (24%) and followed by Adenovirus (22%) and HHV type 6 (22%). In the rest of the samples revealed HHV type 7 (10%), EBV (6%), CMV (6%), HSV type 1 (6%), Parvovirus (4%) and VZV (2%). The most common symptoms were fever (79%) and convulsions (45.7%). Antibiotherapy and antiviral therapy was started 48.6% and 4% respectively. Mortality and sequela rate resulted 0.53% and 3.7%, respectively. This highlights the importance of monitoring trends in encephalitis in Turkey with aview to improving pathogen diagnosis for encephalitis and rapidly identifying novel emerging encephalitis-causing pathogens that demand public health action especially in national immunisation programme.

Epidemiology, Etiology and Clinical Aspects of Childhood Acute Encephalitis in a Tertiary Pediatric Hospital in Costa Rica

BACKGROUND

Limited data are available on childhood encephalitis in Latin America. Our study aimed to increase insight on clinical presentation, etiology and outcome of children with acute encephalitis in Costa Rica.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective, observational study during an 8-month period at the Hospital Nacional de Niños "Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera" in Costa Rica. Case definition was according to "International Encephalitis Consortium" in children <13 years. We analyzed demographic characteristics, clinical symptoms, neurologic imaging, etiology, treatment and mortality.

RESULTS

Forty patients were identified. Mean age was 5 years and 57.5% were male. Most frequently neurologic symptoms were altered mental status (100.0%), headache (57.5%) and seizures (52.5%). Etiology was determined in 52.5% of cases. Probable or confirmed viral etiology was identified in 6 cases (15.0%) and bacterial etiology in also 6 cases (15.0%). A possible etiology was identified in 7 cases (17.5%). Autoimmune encephalitis was diagnosed in 2 patients (5.0%). Enterovirus and Streptococcus pneumoniae were the most common confirmed agents. No cases of herpes simplex virus were found. Etiology of 19 cases (47.5%) remained unknown. Sequelae were reported in 45.0% of patients. Mortality rate was 15.0% (6 cases), 3 caused by virus (adenovirus, human herpesvirus 6, enterovirus), 2 by bacteria (S. pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae type b) and 1 of unknown etiology. Diffuse cerebral edema was the most important mortality predictor (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Acute encephalitis in our study was associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Early and aggressive antiviral, antibiotic and anticerebral edema treatment is necessary when acute encephalitis is suspected.

The Kynurenine Pathway is Differentially Activated in Children with Lyme Disease and Tick-Borne Encephalitis

In children, tick-borne encephalitis and neuroborreliosis are common infections affecting the central nervous system. As inflammatory pathways including cytokine expression are activated in these children and appear to be of importance for outcome, we hypothesized that induction of the kynurenine pathway may be part of the pathophysiological mechanism. Inflammatory biomarkers were analyzed in cerebrospinal fluid from 22 children with tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), 34 children with neuroborreliosis (NB) and 6 children with no central nervous system infection. Cerebrospinal fluid levels of kynurenine and kynurenic acid were increased in children with neuroborreliosis compared to the comparison group. A correlation was seen between expression of several cerebrospinal fluid cytokines and levels of kynurenine and kynurenic acid in children with neuroborreliosis but not in children with tick-borne encephalitis. These findings demonstrate a strong induction of the kynurenine pathway in children with neuroborreliosis which differs from that seen in children with tick-borne encephalitis. The importance of brain kynurenic acid (KYNA) in both immune modulation and neurotransmission raises the possibility that abnormal levels of the compound in neuroborreliosis might be of importance for the pathophysiology of the disease. Drugs targeting the enzymes of this pathway may open the venue for novel therapeutic interventions.

Causes and Clinical Features of Childhood Encephalitis: A Multicenter, Prospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

We aimed to determine the contemporary causes, clinical features, and short-term outcome of encephalitis in Australian children.

METHODS

We prospectively identified children (≤14 years of age) admitted with suspected encephalitis at 5 major pediatric hospitals nationally between May 2013 and December 2016 using the Paediatric Active Enhanced Disease Surveillance (PAEDS) Network. A multidisciplinary expert panel reviewed cases and categorized them using published definitions. Confirmed encephalitis cases were categorized into etiologic subgroups.

RESULTS

From 526 cases of suspected encephalitis, 287 children met criteria for confirmed encephalitis: 57% (95% confidence interval [CI], 52%-63%) had infectious causes, 10% enterovirus, 10% parechovirus, 8% bacterial meningoencephalitis, 6% influenza, 6% herpes simplex virus (HSV), and 6% Mycoplasma pneumoniae; 25% (95% CI, 20%-30%) had immune-mediated encephalitis, 18% acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, and 6% anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis; and 17% (95% CI, 13%-21%) had an unknown cause. Infectious encephalitis occurred in younger children (median age, 1.7 years [interquartile range {IQR}, 0.1-6.9]) compared with immune-mediated encephalitis (median age, 7.6 years [IQR, 4.6-12.4]). Varicella zoster virus encephalitis was infrequent following high vaccination coverage since 2007. Thirteen children (5%) died: 11 with infectious causes (2 influenza; 2 human herpesvirus 6; 2 group B Streptococcus; 2 Streptococcus pneumoniae; 1 HSV; 1 parechovirus; 1 enterovirus) and 2 with no cause identified. Twenty-seven percent (95% CI, 21%-31%) of children showed moderate to severe neurological sequelae at discharge.

CONCLUSIONS

Epidemic viral infections predominated as causes of childhood encephalitis in Australia. The leading causes include vaccine-preventable diseases. There were significant differences in age, clinical features, and outcome among leading causes. Mortality or short-term neurological morbidity occurred in one-third of cases.

Neurological and Cognitive Performance After Childhood Encephalitis

Background: Children with encephalitis have increased risk for long-term neurological sequelae. We investigated minor neurological dysfunction (MND) and cognitive performance as a measurement for long-term outcome of encephalitis in childhood. Materials and Methods: Children with encephalitis (n = 98) treated in Turku University Hospital during the years 1995-2016 were retrospectively identified. We included the patients without severe developmental delay before the encephalitis and without recorded neurological disability caused by encephalitis. MND was assessed using the Touwen examination. Age-appropriate Wechsler Intelligence Scale was used to determine the full-scale intelligence quotient (IQ). Residual symptoms in everyday life were evaluated using a questionnaire. Results: Forty-two subjects participated in the study and returned the questionnaire regarding residual symptoms. The median age was 4.3 years at the time of encephalitis, and 11.3 years at the time of the Touwen examination (n = 41) and the cognitive assessment (n = 38). The Touwen examination indicated MND in 29 of 41 participants (71%; simple MND in 16 and complex MND in 13 patients). The median full-scale IQ was lower in participants with MND compared with participants without MND (98 vs. 110, p = 0.02). Participants with IQ < 85 (n = 5) had lower median age at acute encephalitis compared to participants with IQ ≥ 85 (n = 33) (1.8 vs. 5.3 years, p = 0.03). Problems in daily performance were reported in participant with MND (p = 0.2) and low full-scale IQ (p = 0.008). Conclusions: The prevalence of MND was high and it was related to lower cognitive performance after childhood encephalitis. Younger age at acute encephalitis was a risk factor for lower cognitive performance.

Prospective Evaluation of Childhood Encephalitis: Predisposing Factors, Prevention and Outcome

BACKGROUND

Acute encephalitis in childhood is a serious condition. The severity varies between studies, partly reflecting differences in study design where only severe cases from referral centers often are reported. The aim of this study was to prospectively study the clinical picture and etiology of acute encephalitis in childhood at a primary and tertiary pediatric hospital in Sweden.

METHODS

All children with acute encephalitis were prospectively included from 2011 to 2016. Laboratory tests, investigations and follow-up were performed according to standardized study protocols.

RESULTS

Eighty-nine children were included (46 female and 43 male) with a median age of 53 months. An etiology was established in 61/89. Tick-borne encephalitis virus, enterovirus and rotavirus dominated and 34% were caused by a virus preventable by vaccination. Immune-mediated encephalitis was seen in 7 children. An abnormal electroencephalography picture was seen in 77/86, pathologic findings on neuroimaging in 13/49, and 38/89 children had seizures. Sequelae were reported by 49%. A high prevalence of previous contact with child and adolescent psychiatry was seen and, although not statistically significant, the need for extra support at school before encephalitis and the presence of central nervous system disease in the family seemed to predispose for a longer hospital stay.

CONCLUSION

Encephalitis is a condition with long-term consequences. Most children need admission to hospital, and many need surveillance in the intensive care unit. The etiology can be determined in a majority of cases, and 1/3 could have been prevented by vaccination. This study corroborates electroencephalography as a cornerstone in diagnosis.

Acute Childhood Viral Encephalitis in Southern Brazil

BACKGROUND

Viral meningoencephalitis is highly heterogeneous, varying by geographic location. The aim of this study was to characterize the etiology and reporting the clinical findings and outcome of viral encephalitis in children in southern Brazil.

METHODS

A cross-Sectional study was conducted at Hospital Pequeno Príncipe, Curitiba, Brazil, between January 2013 and December 2017. It included patients younger than 18 years, who fulfilled the criteria: altered mental status as a major criteria and 2 or more minor criteria (1) fever, (2) seizures, (3) focal neurologic findings, (4) central system fluid white cell count of ≥5 cells/mm, (5) abnormal brain imaging, and/or (6) electroencephalogram abnormalities.

RESULTS

Viral meningoencephalitis was diagnosed in 270 children, with median age of 2 years (interquartile range: 0-4), The etiology of viral meningoencephalitis was confirmed in 47% of patients. Enterovirus (18%) was the major cause of encephalitis in Southern Brazilian children, and a high prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus (6%) was demonstrated. Most patients presented with fever (81%), followed by vomiting (50%), focal neurologic findings (46%), seizures (31%) and headache (30%). Few abnormalities were detected on electroencephalograms and brain magnetic resonance images. On discharge from hospital, symptoms resolved completely in 87% of children. Sequelae were mainly observed in patients with focal neurologic symptoms (P<0.001), presence of seizures (P<0.001) and electroencephalogram abnormalities (P=0.024).

CONCLUSIONS

Enterovirus was the major cause of encephalitis. Etiologic agent of encephalitis seems to be influenced by the local virologic pattern. A poor outcome was identified in patients with seizures, focal neurologic findings and electroencephalogram abnormalities.

Factors associated with outcome of acute encephalitis in children: a retrospective study of three referral hospitals

BACKGROUND Encephalitis is more frequent in children and has a poor outcome. There was no data on encephalitis in children in Indonesia, so this study was aimed to evaluate clinical presentation and diagnostic examination of children with acute encephalitis, and factors related to outcome. METHODS This was a retrospective study of medical records between 2014 and 2018 in three referral hospitals in Jakarta and Tangerang. Clinical presentation at admission, cerebrospinal fluid analysis, neuroimaging, and electroencephalography (EEG) were documented. Outcome was determined at hospital discharge and classified as poor for severe neurological abnormalities at discharge or died. Logistic regression was used to evaluate associated factors with the outcome. RESULTS A total of 190 children were included and most were age >1 year (71%). Most subjects presented with fever (90%) and seizures (87%). Of those who had seizures, 80% experienced generalized seizures. Focal neurological deficit was seen in 90 patients (47%). EEG was positive in 90% subjects (n = 27/30). Probable cases were found in 51% of all subjects. The mortality was 23%. Focal seizures (odds ratio [OR] = 3.305, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.122–9.742) and age >1 year (OR = 3.076, 95% CI = 1.388–6.803) were risk factors for a poor outcome. CONCLUSIONS Acute encephalitis occurred most often in children aged >1 year. Fever and seizures were the most common symptoms. EEG was better than other examinations for confirming diagnosis of encephalitis. Focal seizures and age >1 year were associated with a three-fold increased risk for a poor outcome.

Epidemiology and Etiology of Severe Childhood Encephalitis in The Netherlands

BACKGROUND

Limited data are available on childhood encephalitis. Our study aimed to increase insight on clinical presentation, etiology, and clinical outcome of children with severe encephalitis in the Netherlands.

METHODS

We identified patients through the Dutch Pediatric Intensive Care Evaluation database and included children diagnosed with encephalitis <18 years of age admitted to 1 of the 8 pediatric intensive care units (PICU) in the Netherlands between January 2003 and December 2013. We analyzed demographic characteristics, clinical symptoms, neurologic imaging, etiology, treatment and mortality.

RESULTS

We included 121 children with a median age of 4.6 years (IQR 1.3-9.8). The most frequently described clinical features were headache (82.1%), decreased consciousness (79.8%) and seizures (69.8%). In 44.6% of the children, no causative agent was identified. Viral- and immune-mediated encephalitis were diagnosed in 33.1% and 10.7% of the patients. A herpes simplex virus infection (13.2%) was mainly seen in children <5 years of age, median age, 1.73 years (IQR 0.77-5.01), while immune-mediated encephalitis mostly affected older children, median age of 10.4 years (IQR, 3.72-14.18). An age of ≥ 5 years at initial presentation was associated with a lower mortality (OR 0.2 [CI 0.08-0.78]). The detection of a bacterial (OR 9.4 [CI 2.18-40.46]) or viral (OR 3.7 [CI 1.16-11.73]) pathogen was associated with a higher mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

In almost half of the Dutch children presenting with severe encephalitis, a causative pathogen could not be identified, underlining the need for enhancement of microbiologic diagnostics. The detection of a bacterial or viral pathogen was associated with a higher mortality.

The Cerebrospinal Fluid Interleukin-6/Interleukin-10 Ratio Differentiates Pediatric Tick-borne Infections

BACKGROUND

Borrelia burgdorferi and tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus are 2 types of tick-borne pathogens that can cause central nervous system infection. Routine diagnostics have so far included analysis of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cell numbers, CSF serology for Borrelia burgdorferi and serum serology for TBE virus. However, early diagnosis may be difficult based on antibody detection which takes time to analyze, and with the possibility of false negative results, thus delaying treatment. Cytokine analyses are becoming increasingly available in clinical routine care and may offer important information.

METHODS

Fifteen cytokines and chemokines were measured in the CSF from the diagnostic lumbar puncture of 37 children with TBE, 34 children with neuroborreliosis and 19 children without evidence of central nervous system infection, using Luminex technology.

RESULTS

Significantly higher levels of proinflammatory interleukin-6 were detected in the samples from TBE-infected children, when compared with neuroborreliosis or controls. In comparison, children with neuroborreliosis had significantly higher levels of interleukin-7, interleukin-8, interleukin-10, and interleukin-13 when compared with TBE infected or controls. Furthermore, the ratio between interleukin-6 and interleukin-10 was significantly different between the 2 types of tick-borne infections.

CONCLUSIONS

The interleukin-6/interleukin-10 ratio can be used as a rapid diagnostic cue upon suspected tick-borne infection, enabling fast and correct treatment. Also, in serology-negative results, such information may strengthen a clinical suspicion.

Acute encephalopathy associated with influenza infection: Case report and review of the literature

Influenza has been associated with neurological complications. We describe the case of a toddler who presented with symptoms and signs of acute encephalopathy and hydrocephalus. Neuroimaging demonstrated cerebral edema and multifocal diffusion restriction in the thalamus and splenium of the corpus callosum. Influenza A was detected from the nasopharyngeal aspirate. The final diagnosis was acute influenza-associated encephalopathy. Despite treatment with a neuraminidase inhibitor and intravenous immune globulin, the toddler developed neurological sequelae. This case highlights a rare but severe complication of influenza in young children and the importance of influenza vaccination.

Avian influenza A H7N9 virus infects human astrocytes and neuronal cells and induces inflammatory immune responses

Seasonal, pandemic, and avian influenza virus infections may be associated with central nervous system pathology, albeit with varying frequency and different mechanisms. Here, we demonstrate that differentiated human astrocytic (T98G) and neuronal (SH-SY5Y) cells can be infected by avian H7N9 and pandemic H1N1 viruses. However, infectious progeny viruses can only be detected in H7N9 virus infected human neuronal cells. Neither of these viral strains can generate infectious progeny virus in human astrocytes despite replication of viral genome was observed. Furthermore, H7N9 virus triggered high pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, while pandemic H1N1 virus induced only low cytokine expression in either brain cell type. The experimental finding here is the first data to demonstrate that avian H7N9 virus can infect, transcribe, and replicate its viral genome; induce cytokine upregulation; and cause cytopathic effects in human brain cells, which may potentially lead to profound central nervous system injury. Observation for neurological problems due to H7N9 virus infection deserves further attention when managing these patients.

Epidemiological Profile of Acute Viral Encephalitis in a Sample of Egyptian Children

INTRODUCTION

Acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) is a considerable public health problem.

AIM

This study was designed to describe the aetiology, demographic features, clinical picture, short-term outcome and risk factors of mortality of children with viral encephalitis in Egyptian children.

METHODS

PCR detection of viruses in the CSF of pediatric patients admitted to the pediatric unit or ICU Cairo University Pediatric hospital presenting with encephalitis syndrome.

RESULTS

Of the 96 patients included in the study, viral etiological agents were detected in 20 cases (20.8%), while 76 patients (79.2%) had no definite viral aetiology. The most abundant virus detected was Enterovirus (EV) in fourteen (14.5%), two (2.1%) were positive for human herpes simplex virus 6 (HSV-6), one (1.0%), human herpes simplex virus1 (HSV-1), one (1.0%) Epstein Barr virus (EBV), one (1.0%), cytomegalovirus (CMV) and one (1.0%) with varicella-zoster virus (VZV). On the short term outcome, 22 (22.9) patients died, and 74 (77.1%) survived. Severity outcome among survival was vegetative in three cases (4%) severe in 9 (12.16%), moderate in 14 (18.9%), mild in 29 (39.2%) and full recovery in 19 (25.6%). Mortality risk factors for younger age, the presence of apnea, the need for mechanical ventilation and the presence of abnormal CT findings were all significantly associated with fatal outcome (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Enterovirus was the most common cause of encephalitis among Egyptian children. Mortality was correlated with younger age and disease severity at admission. Sequelae were high among infected children.

Influenza-associated Encephalitis/Encephalopathy Identified by the Australian Childhood Encephalitis Study 2013-2015

BACKGROUND

Influenza-associated encephalitis/encephalopathy (IAE) is an important cause of acute encephalitis syndrome in children. IAE includes a series of clinicoradiologic syndromes or acute encephalopathy syndromes that have been infrequently reported outside East Asia. We aimed to describe cases of IAE identified by the Australian Childhood Encephalitis study.

METHODS

Children ≤ 14 years of age with suspected encephalitis were prospectively identified in 5 hospitals in Australia. Demographic, clinical, laboratory, imaging, and outcome at discharge data were reviewed by an expert panel and cases were categorized by using predetermined case definitions. We extracted cases associated with laboratory identification of influenza virus for this analysis; among these cases, specific IAE syndromes were identified where clinical and radiologic features were consistent with descriptions in the published literature.

RESULTS

We identified 13 cases of IAE during 3 southern hemisphere influenza seasons at 5 tertiary children's hospitals in Australia; 8 children with specific acute encephalopathy syndromes including: acute necrotizing encephalopathy, acute encephalopathy with biphasic seizures and late diffusion restriction, mild encephalopathy with reversible splenial lesion, and hemiconvulsion-hemiplegia syndrome. Use of influenza-specific antiviral therapy and prior influenza vaccination were infrequent. In contrast, death or significant neurologic morbidity occurred in 7 of the 13 children (54%).

CONCLUSIONS

The conditions comprising IAE are heterogeneous with varied clinical features, magnetic resonance imaging changes, and outcomes. Overall, outcome of IAE is poor emphasizing the need for optimized prevention, early recognition, and empiric management.

Intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of childhood encephalitis

BACKGROUND

Encephalitis is a syndrome of neurological dysfunction due to inflammation of the brain parenchyma, caused by an infection or an exaggerated host immune response, or both. Attenuation of brain inflammation through modulation of the immune response could improve patient outcomes. Biological agents such as immunoglobulin that have both anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties may therefore be useful as adjunctive therapies for people with encephalitis.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the efficacy and safety of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) as add-on treatment for children with encephalitis.

SEARCH METHODS

The Cochrane Multiple Sclerosis and Rare Diseases of the CNS group's Information Specialist searched the following databases up to 30 September 2016: CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, ClinicalTrials.gov, and the WHO ICTRP Search Portal. In addition, two review authors searched Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-EXPANDED) & Conference Proceedings Citation Index - Science (CPCI-S) (Web of Science Core Collection, Thomson Reuters) (1945 to January 2016), Global Health Library (Virtual Health Library), and Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE).

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) comparing IVIG in addition to standard care versus standard care alone or placebo.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently selected articles for inclusion, extracted relevant data, and assessed quality of trials. We resolved disagreements by discussion among the review authors. Where possible, we contacted authors of included studies for additional information. We presented results as risk ratios (RR) or mean differences (MD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

MAIN RESULTS

The search identified three RCTs with 138 participants. All three trials included only children with viral encephalitis, one of these included only children with Japanese encephalitis, a specific form of viral encephalitis. Only the trial of Japanese encephalitis (22 children) contributed to the primary outcome of this review and follow-up in that study was for three to six months after hospital discharge. There was no follow-up of participants in the other two studies. We identified one ongoing trial.For the primary outcomes, the results showed no significant difference between IVIG and placebo when used in the treatment of children with Japanese encephalitis: significant disability (RR 0.75, 95% CI 0.22 to 2.60; P = 0.65) and serious adverse events (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.07 to 14.05; P = 1.00).For the secondary outcomes, the study of Japanese encephalitis showed no significant difference between IVIG and placebo when assessing significant disability at hospital discharge (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.60 to 1.67). There was no significant difference (P = 0.53) in Glasgow Coma Score at discharge between IVIG (median score 14; range 3 to 15) and placebo (median 14 score; range 7 to 15) in the Japanese encephalitis study. The median length of hospital stay in the Japanese encephalitis study was similar for IVIG-treated (median 13 days; range 9 to 21) and placebo-treated (median 12 days; range 6 to 18) children (P = 0.59).Pooled analysis of the results of the other two studies resulted in a significantly lower mean length of hospital stay (MD -4.54 days, 95% CI -7.47 to -1.61; P = 0.002), time to resolution of fever (MD -0.97 days, 95% CI -1.25 to -0.69; P < 0.00001), time to stop spasms (MD -1.49 days, 95% CI -1.97 to -1.01; P < 0.00001), time to regain consciousness (MD -1.10 days, 95% CI -1.48 to -0.72; P < 0.00001), and time to resolution of neuropathic symptoms (MD -3.20 days, 95% CI -3.34 to -3.06; P < 0.00001) in favour of IVIG when compared with standard care.None of the included studies reported other outcomes of interest in this review including need for invasive ventilation, duration of invasive ventilation, cognitive impairment, poor adaptive functioning, quality of life, number of seizures, and new diagnosis of epilepsy.The quality of evidence was very low for all outcomes of this review.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest a clinical benefit of adjunctive IVIG treatment for children with viral encephalitis for some clinical measures (i.e. mean length of hospital stay, time (days) to stop spasms, time to regain consciousness, and time to resolution of neuropathic symptoms and fever. For children with Japanese encephalitis, IVIG had a similar effect to placebo when assessing significant disability and serious adverse events.Despite these findings, the risk of bias in the included studies and quality of the evidence make it impossible to reach any firm conclusions on the efficacy and safety of IVIG as add-on treatment for children with encephalitis. Furthermore, the included studies involved only children with viral encephalitis, therefore findings of this review cannot be generalised to all forms of encephalitis. Future well-designed RCTs are needed to assess the efficacy and safety of IVIG in the management of children with all forms of encephalitis. There is a need for internationally agreed core outcome measures for clinical trials in childhood encephalitis.

Long-Term Outcomes and Risk Factors Associated With Acute Encephalitis in Children

BACKGROUND

Factors associated with poor outcomes of children with encephalitis are not well known. We sought to determine whether electroencephalography (EEG) findings, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) abnormalities, or the presence of seizures at presentation were associated with poor outcomes.

METHODS

A retrospective review of patients aged 0 to 21 years who met criteria for a diagnosis of encephalitis admitted between 2000 and 2010 was conducted. Parents of eligible children were contacted and completed 2 questionnaires that assessed current physical and emotional quality of life and neurological deficits at least 1 year after discharge.

RESULTS

During the study period, we identified 142 patients with an International Classification of Diseases 9th Revision diagnosis of meningitis, meningoencephalitis, or encephalitis. Of these patients, 114 met criteria for a diagnosis of encephalitis, and 76 of these patients (representing 77 hospitalizations) had complete data available. Forty-nine (64%) patients were available for follow-up. Patients admitted to the intensive care unit were more likely to have abnormal EEG results (P = .001). The presence of seizures on admission was associated with ongoing seizure disorder at follow-up. One or more years after hospitalization, 78% of the patients had persistent symptoms, including 35% with seizures. Four (5%) of the patients died. Abnormal MRI findings and the number of abnormal findings on initial presentation were associated with lower quality-of-life scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Encephalitis leads to significant morbidity and death, and incomplete recovery is achieved in the majority of hospitalized patients. Abnormal EEG results were found more frequently in critically ill children, patients with abnormal MRI results had lower quality-of-life scores on follow-up, and the presence of seizures on admission was associated with ongoing seizure disorder and lower physical quality-of-life scores.

Ophthalmological findings in children with encephalitis

PURPOSE

To evaluate ophthalmological abnormalities in children with acute encephalitis.

METHODS

Thirty-six children included in a hospital-based prospectively and consecutively collected cohort of children with acute encephalitis were investigated for ophthalmological abnormalities. The investigation included clinical ophthalmological examination, fundus photography, neuro-ophthalmological examinations as well as visual and stereo acuity. Results on laboratory examinations, clinical findings, neuroimaging and electroencephalography registrations were recorded for all children.

RESULTS

The median age was 4.0 years (Interquartile Range 1.9-9.8). The aetiology was identified in 74% of cases. Three of 36 patients were found to have abnormal ophthalmological findings related to the encephalitis. Transient sixth nerve palsy was seen in a 15-year-old child and transient visual impairment was seen in a 3.5-year-old child. Bilateral miosis and ptosis, i.e. autonomic nerve system symptoms, were seen in an 11-month-old child, with herpes simplex 1 and N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antibody encephalitis. All three children recovered and improved their ophthalmological function with time.

CONCLUSION

Only 3 of 36 children were found to have ophthalmological abnormalities due to encephalitis and they all improved with time. Thus, ophthalmological consultation does not seem to fit in a screening programme for childhood encephalitis but should be considered in selected cases.

Cytokine and Chemokine Expression in CSF May Differentiate Viral and Autoimmune NMDAR Encephalitis in Children

Childhood encephalitis is a potentially devastating condition with significant morbidity and mortality. Researchers currently lack biomarkers for differentiating infectious encephalitis from those with autoimmune causes which may delay adequate treatment. The authors studied the possibility of using cerebrospinal fluid cytokine and chemokine levels for this purpose. Children admitted to hospital care fulfilling criteria for encephalitis were prospectively included. Children who underwent lumbar puncture but were not classified as central nervous system infections served as controls. Cytokine and chemokine levels in the cerebrospinal fluid obtained upon initial presentation were analyzed using Luminex technology. In children with infectious encephalitis (n = 13), the cerebrospinal fluid displayed markedly elevated mean levels of IL6, IL7, and IL13 as compared to N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis (n = 4) and controls (n = 13). The expression of IL6 appeared to precede that of IL13. Analysis of selected cerebrospinal fluid cytokines may thus allow differential diagnosis of infectious and NMDAR encephalitis already at the initial lumbar puncture and enable immediate therapy.

Biomarkers in Cerebrospinal Fluid of Children With Tick-borne Encephalitis: Association With Long-term Outcome

BACKGROUND

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a major cause of meningoencephalitis in children in endemic areas, and long-term residual problems are not uncommon. Currently, no predictive markers in the acute phase are available that identify children at risk of incomplete recovery. We measured cytokines, chemokines and markers of neuronal damage in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in children with TBE and central nervous system (CNS) involvement.

METHODS

CSF from 37 children with TBE with CNS involvement was analyzed. Concentrations of 16 cytokines, chemokines and 5 markers of neuronal damage were assessed in CSF, using a multiplex assay, and correlated with clinical findings in the acute phase (n = 37), and with long-term outcome (n=22).

RESULTS

Significantly higher levels of CSF interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-4, IL-6 and IL-8 were detected in the acute phase from children who later developed sequelae. Although most of the studied markers of neuronal damage displayed no significant differences between children with sequelae and those with good outcome, neuron-specific enolase correlated inversely. The grade of CSF pleocytosis correlated positively with the levels of IFN-γ, IL-4 and IL-6; however, pleocytosis alone did not predict sequelae. Increasing age correlated positively with IL-4, IL-6 and IL-8 values.

CONCLUSIONS

The mechanism underlying the CNS pathology causing sequelae in TBE appears related to the grade of inflammation in CNS, rather than to direct neuronal destruction. High concentration of IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-6 and IL-8 in CSF might indicate a risk for incomplete recovery in childhood TBE.

Uncovering cortico-striatal correlates of cognitive fatigue in pediatric acquired brain disorder: Evidence from traumatic brain injury

Cognitive fatigue is among the most profound and disabling sequelae of pediatric acquired brain disorders, however the neural correlates of these symptoms in children remains unexplored. One hypothesis suggests that cognitive fatigue may arise from dysfunction of cortico-striatal networks (CSNs) implicated in effort output and outcome valuation. Using pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) as a model, this study investigated (i) the sub-acute effect of brain injury on CSN volume; and (ii) potential relationships between cognitive fatigue and sub-acute volumetric abnormalities of the CSN. 3D T1 weighted magnetic resonance imaging sequences were acquired sub-acutely in 137 children (TBI: n = 103; typically developing - TD children: n = 34). 67 of the original 137 participants (49%) completed measures of cognitive fatigue and psychological functioning at 24-months post-injury. Results showed that compared to TD controls and children with milder injuries, children with severe TBI showed volumetric reductions in the overall CSN package, as well as regional gray matter volumetric change in cortical and subcortical regions of the CSN. Significantly greater cognitive fatigue in the TBI patients was associated with volumetric reductions in the CSN and its putative hub regions, even after adjusting for injury severity, socioeconomic status (SES) and depression. In the first study to evaluate prospective neuroanatomical correlates of cognitive fatigue in pediatric acquired brain disorder, these findings suggest that post-injury cognitive fatigue is related to structural abnormalities of cortico-striatal brain networks implicated in effort output and outcome valuation. Morphometric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may have potential to unlock early prognostic markers that may assist to identify children at elevated risk for cognitive fatigue post-TBI.

Hospitalized Children With Encephalitis in the United States: A Pediatric Health Information System Database Study

OBJECTIVES

Given the paucity of data on resource utilization among children with encephalitis, the objective of this study was to describe the epidemiology and evaluate resource utilization and discharge data of children with encephalitis admitted to US hospitals from 2004 to 2013.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study utilizing the Pediatric Health Information System database of children aged 0 to 18 years with the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision codes for encephalitis from 2004 to 2013. Only the initial admissions were included, and the age group analyzed was 0 to 18 years.

RESULTS

Among 7298 children with encephalitis, 2933 (40%) were admitted to a pediatric intensive care unit. The median age was nine years, the overall median length of stay was 16 days, and children requiring critical care had a median length of stay of 25 days. Children in the pediatric intensive care unit were more likely to have seizures (P <0.001) and head magnetic resonance imaging (P <0.001) than children on the floor. Similarly, children requiring critical care were more likely to have a broad diagnostic evaluation sent including cerebrospinal fluid cultures, blood bacterial and fungal cultures, western equine encephalitis antibody, St. Louis equine encephalitis antibody, varicella-zoster serology, human immunodeficiency virus 1 antibody, human immunodeficiency virus DNA polymerase chain reaction, acid-fast stain, and Lyme disease serology. Seventeen percent of children were treated with intravenous immunoglobulin, and 4% underwent plasmapheresis. There was a trend of increasing use of intravenous immunoglobulin and plasmapheresis in children with encephalitis over the study period. A total of 5944 (81%) children were discharged home, and the mortality in this cohort was 3% (230). The mean charges for hospitalization for a child with encephalitis was $64,604 and for those requiring critical care was $260,012.

CONCLUSIONS

Encephalitis is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in children. Children with encephalitis admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit are more likely to have seizures and to undergo a more extensive evaluation to determine the cause of encephalitis. Use of plasmapheresis and intravenous immunoglobulin is on the rise in hospitalized children. Prospective studies are necessary to better understand treatment and intervention strategies for children with encephalitis and their impact on outcomes.

Acute Childhood Encephalitis at 2 Tertiary Care Children's Hospitals in Israel: Etiology and Clinical Characteristics

OBJECTIVES

The clinical characteristics, pathogens, and outcome were analyzed to investigate the etiology of acute pediatric encephalitis in 2 tertiary pediatric medical centers in Israel.

METHODS

A retrospective study among children aged 1 month to 18 years hospitalized with the diagnosis of acute encephalitis between January 1999 and December 2009. Data on presenting symptoms, clinical findings, microbiological, virologic, electroencephalographic and neuroimaging studies, laboratory results, and hospital course were retrieved from the medical records and the computerized microbiology database.

RESULTS

Forty-four children were included. An etiologic agent was identified in 11 (25%): Mycoplasma pneumoniae (n = 2), enterovirus (n = 3), herpes simplex virus (HSV) (n = 1), Epstein-Barr virus (n = 2), human herpes virus 6 (n = 1), influenza virus type A (n = 1), and varicella zoster virus (n = 1). Presenting features included fever (90% of patients), seizures (39%), focal neurological signs (18%), and decreased consciousness (67%). Diagnostic findings included pleocytosis in the cerebrospinal fluid (76% of patients), electroencephalographic abnormalities (78%), and neuroimaging abnormalities (34%). All patients were treated with acyclovir until negative result for HSV polymerase chain reaction was received from cerebrospinal fluid, the child with HSV encephalitis was treated with intravenous acyclovir for 3 weeks. The outcomes at the time of discharge were: normal (66%), motor difficulties (14%), global neurological deficits (7%), visual defects (2%), and hearing impairment (2%) and no deaths.

CONCLUSIONS

The etiology of acute encephalitis remains unknown in the majority of cases. There was no correlation between adverse outcome and a specific etiologic agent. The high morbidity rate may suggest that current therapeutic modalities may not be sufficient.

Encephalitis in Australian children: contemporary trends in hospitalisation

OBJECTIVE

The clinical epidemiology of childhood encephalitis in Australia is inadequately understood. We aimed to describe recent trends in childhood encephalitis-related hospitalisation.

STUDY DESIGN

We identified encephalitis-related hospital admissions (2000-2012) in national datasets among children ≤14 years using ICD encephalitis codes. We calculated hospitalisation rates and analysed trends by year, age, gender, location, indigenous status and aetiology.

RESULTS

Rates of childhood encephalitis hospitalisations significantly declined over an 11-year period (2000-2012; average hospitalisation rate 3.2/100 000). Varicella encephalitis hospitalisations decreased significantly, associated with high levels of varicella vaccine coverage since 2006. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) was the most common 'specified' cause of encephalitis hospitalisation (15%-17%), and its rate has significantly increased. The highest hospitalisation rates occurred in the <1 year age group (5.8/100 000) and varied by location (highest in Northern Territory). The majority (58.9%) of hospitalised encephalitis had no cause identified; this proportion was highest in the <1 year age group (77%). The most common specified infectious causes included: herpes simplex virus, enterovirus, bacterial meningoencephalitis and varicella. When aggregated, the proportion of childhood encephalitis coded as viral was 21.2%.

CONCLUSION

Hospitalisation of childhood encephalitis has slightly decreased in Australia. High rates of childhood immunisation have been associated with a reduction of varicella-associated encephalitis in Australian children. ADEM, an immune-mediated encephalitis, is the most common recognised cause of encephalitis in children. Young children (<1 year) have the highest admission rates. The high proportion of 'unspecified' encephalitis deaths and hospitalisations is an ongoing challenge.

An outbreak of encephalitis associated with echovirus 19 in Uttar Pradesh, India, in 2011

A sequence-independent single-primer amplification method and a modified enterovirus VP1 gene typing primer were used for identification of echovirus 19 and enterovirus 101, which remained undiagnosed by standard enterovirus molecular typing methods. Six different serotypes were identified during this study, with the predominance of ECV 19 (n = 20) followed by echovirus 21 (n = 3), EV 69 and EV 101 (n = 2 each), coxsackievirus B5 and ECV 27 (n = 1 each). To our knowledge, this is the first report of enteroviruses 69 and 101 in encephalitis cases in India.

Neurological Outcomes After Presumed Childhood Encephalitis

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate factors during acute presumed childhood encephalitis that are associated with development of long-term neurological sequelae.

METHODS

A total of 217 patients from Rady Children's Hospital San Diego with suspected encephalitis who met criteria for the California Encephalitis Project were identified. A cohort of 99 patients (40 females, 59 males, age 2 months-17 years) without preexisting neurological conditions, including prior seizures or abnormal brain magnetic resonance imaging scans was studied. Mean duration of follow-up was 29 months. Factors that had a relationship with the development of neurological sequelae (defined as developmental delay, learning difficulties, behavioral problems, or focal neurological findings) after acute encephalitis were identified.

RESULTS

Neurological sequelae at follow-up was associated with younger age (6.56 versus 9.22 years) at presentation (P = 0.04) as well as an initial presenting sign of seizure (P = 0.03). Duration of hospital stay (median of 7 versus 15.5 days; P = 0.02) was associated with neurological sequelae. Of the patients with neurological sequelae, a longer hospital stay was associated with patients of an older age (P = 0.04). Abnormalities on neuroimaging (P = 1.00) or spinal fluid analysis (P = 1.00) were not uniquely associated with neurological sequelae. Children who were readmitted after their acute illness (P = 0.04) were more likely to develop neurological sequelae. There was a strong relationship between the patients who later developed epilepsy and those who developed neurological sequelae (P = 0.02).

SIGNIFICANCE

Limited data are available on the long-term neurological outcomes of childhood encephalitis. Almost half of our patients were found to have neurological sequelae at follow-up, indicating the importance of earlier therapies to improve neurological outcome.

Enteroviral encephalitis in children: clinical features, pathophysiology, and treatment advances

Enteroviruses (EVs) have emerged as one of the important etiological agents as a causative organism for encephalitis, especially in children and adults. After the first report of EV encephalitis cases in 1950s, there have been increasing reports of regular outbreaks of EV encephalitis worldwide. Enteroviruses are RNA viruses of the family Picornaviridae that consists of more than 100 serotypes, which are characterized by a single positive-strand genomic RNA. The clinical features are pleomorphic and can be accompanied by mucocutaneous manifestations or isolated encephalitis only. The incidence of encephalitis in EV infection is reported to be about 3% and is associated with high mortality and morbidity. A number of newer therapeutic agents have been used in EV encephalitis with variable results. This review will focus on clinical features, pathophysiology, and newer treatment modality in EV encephalitis.

Infectious and autoantibody-associated encephalitis: clinical features and long-term outcome

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Pediatric encephalitis has a wide range of etiologies, clinical presentations, and outcomes. This study seeks to classify and characterize infectious, immune-mediated/autoantibody-associated and unknown forms of encephalitis, including relative frequencies, clinical and radiologic phenotypes, and long-term outcome.

METHODS

By using consensus definitions and a retrospective single-center cohort of 164 Australian children, we performed clinical and radiologic phenotyping blinded to etiology and outcomes, and we tested archived acute sera for autoantibodies to N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor, voltage-gated potassium channel complex, and other neuronal antigens. Through telephone interviews, we defined outcomes by using the Liverpool Outcome Score (for encephalitis).

RESULTS

An infectious encephalitis occurred in 30%, infection-associated encephalopathy in 8%, immune-mediated/autoantibody-associated encephalitis in 34%, and unknown encephalitis in 28%. In descending order of frequency, the larger subgroups were acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (21%), enterovirus (12%), Mycoplasma pneumoniae (7%), N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibody (6%), herpes simplex virus (5%), and voltage-gated potassium channel complex antibody (4%). Movement disorders, psychiatric symptoms, agitation, speech dysfunction, cerebrospinal fluid oligoclonal bands, MRI limbic encephalitis, and clinical relapse were more common in patients with autoantibodies. An abnormal outcome occurred in 49% of patients after a median follow-up of 5.8 years. Herpes simplex virus and unknown forms had the worst outcomes. According to our multivariate analysis, an abnormal outcome was more common in patients with status epilepticus, magnetic resonance diffusion restriction, and ICU admission.

CONCLUSIONS

We have defined clinical and radiologic phenotypes of infectious and immune-mediated/autoantibody-associated encephalitis. In this resource-rich cohort, immune-mediated/autoantibody-associated etiologies are common, and the recognition and treatment of these entities should be a clinical priority.

Acute encephalitis in children: Progress and priorities from an Australasian perspective

Encephalitis is a complex neurological syndrome caused by inflammation of the brain that occurs with highest incidence in children. It is challenging to diagnose and manage due to the variety of aetiologies and non-specific clinical presentations. We discuss the recent progress in clinical case definitions; review recent, large, prospective epidemiological studies; and describe aetiologies. We emphasise infectious causes relevant to children in Australasia but also consider emerging immune-mediated syndromes responsive to immune therapies. We identify priorities for future research in children, given the potential for climate change and international travel to influence the emergence of infectious agents in our region.

Outcome of children with acute encephalitis and refractory status epilepticus

Acute encephalitis in children is a life-threatening neurological emergency. However, little is reported about the outcome of this devastating illness in the United States. The authors retrospectively reviewed the charts of patients admitted to a regional pediatric intensive care unit with the diagnosis of acute encephalitis between 2006 and 2011. In 41 cases that met the inclusion criteria, the most common presenting symptoms were fever (65.9%), altered mental status (61%), and seizures (58.5%). Eight patients (19.5%) who presented with refractory status epilepticus had a longer median length of stay in the pediatric intensive care unit (46 vs. 4 days; P < .0001) and a significant worsening of Pediatric Cerebral Performance Category score on discharge by 2 or more points (odds ratio 20.38; 95% confidence interval, 2.89-143.52). All children survived to hospital discharge. In conclusion, children with acute encephalitis who present with refractory status epilepticus have a worse neurological outcome and a longer stay in the pediatric intensive care unit.

Long-term motor and cognitive outcome of acute encephalitis

OBJECTIVES

To examine the long-term motor and neurocognitive outcome of children with acute encephalitis and to look at possible prognostic factors.

METHODS

Children who were treated for acute encephalitis in 2000-2010 were reevaluated. All children and their parents were interviewed by using structured questionnaires, and the children underwent full neurologic examinations, along with comprehensive neurocognitive, attention, and behavioral assessments.

RESULTS

Of the 47 children enrolled, 1 died and 29 had neurologic sequelae, including motor impairment, mental retardation, epilepsy, and attention and learning disorders. Children with encephalitis had a significantly higher prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (50%) and learning disabilities (20%) compared with the reported rate (5%-10%) in the general population of Israel (P < .05) and lower IQ scores. Lower intelligence scores and significantly impaired attention and learning were found even in children who were considered fully recovered at the time of discharge. Risk factors for long-term severe neurologic sequelae were focal signs in the neurologic examination and abnormal neuroimaging on admission, confirmed infectious cause, and long hospital stay.

CONCLUSIONS

Encephalitis in children may be associated with significant long-term neurologic sequelae. Significant cognitive impairment, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and learning disabilities are common, and even children who were considered fully recovered at discharge may be significantly affected. Neuropsychological testing should be recommended for survivors of childhood encephalitis.

Childhood rubella encephalitis: diagnosis, management, and outcome

We to report clinical biological and radiologic features of rubella encephalitis in childhood and assess its prognostic impact. Our retrospective study was conducted in an intensive care unit of a university hospital in Sfax, Tunisia. Twenty-one children (age range, 1-15 years) were included. Median age was 9 years (lower and upper quartiles, 7-11 years). On admission, generalized maculopapular eruption was found in 17 cases (81%). Median Glasgow Coma Scale score was 7 (lower and upper quartiles, 7-8). Twenty patients (95.2%) experienced at least 1 episode of seizures. Sixteen patients (76.2%) developed a status epilepticus. The result for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay detecting anti-rubella immunoglobulin (M) was positive in the serum and in the cerebrospinal fluid samples for all our patients. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain was performed on admission for 3 patients (14.3%) and within a median of 4 days (lower and upper quartiles, 2-6 days) for 8 patients. The test was normal in 6 cases. Two deaths were recorded (9.5%). Survivors had no neurological sequelae 6 months after intensive care unit discharge.

Autoimmune causes of encephalitis syndrome in Thailand: prospective study of 103 patients

Background

Data on encephalitis in Thailand have not been completely described. Etiologies remain largely unknown. We prospectively analyzed 103 Thai patients from 27 provinces for the causes of encephalitis using clinical, microbiological and neuroimaging indices; caseswithout a diagnosis were evaluated for autoimmune causes of encephalitis.

Methods

Patients with encephalitis and/or myelitis were prospectively studied between October 2010 and August 2012. Cases associated with bacterial, rickettsial and mycobacterial diseases were excluded. Herpes viruses 1-6 and enteroviruses infection was diagnosed using PCR evaluation of CSF; dengue and JE viruses infection, by serology. The serum of test-negative patients was evaluated for the presence of autoantibodies.

Results

103 patients were recruited. Fifty-three patients (52%) had no etiologies identified. Twenty-five patients (24%) were associated with infections. Immune encephalitis was found in 25 (24%); neuropsychiatric lupus erythematosus (4), demyelinating diseases (3), Behcet’s disease (1) and the remaining had antibodies to NMDAR (5), ANNA-2 (6), Yo (2), AMPA (1), GABA (1), VGKC (1) and NMDA coexisting with ANNA-2 (1). Presenting symptoms in the autoimmune group included behavioral changes in 6/25 (versus 12/25 in infectious and 13/53 in unknown group) and as psychosis in 6/25 (versus 0/25 infectious and 2/53 unknown). Seizures were found in 6/25 autoimmune, 4/25 infectious and 19/53 unknown group. Two patients with anti-ANNA-2 and one anti-Yo had temporal lobe involvement by magnetic resonance imaging. Two immune encephalitis patients with antibodies to NMDAR and ANNA-2 had ovarian tumors.

Conclusions

Autoantibody-associated encephalitis should be considered in the differential diagnosis and management algorithm regardless of clinical and neuroimaging features.

Epidemiology, outcomes and predictors of recovery in childhood encephalitis: a hospital-based study

BACKGROUND

Pediatric encephalitis is a devastating diagnosis with little guidance regarding prognostic indicators early in the hospitalization.

METHODS

This is a retrospective cohort study of patients with encephalitis referred to the California Encephalitis Project from Children's Hospital & Research Center Oakland from 1998 to 2010. Demographic, clinical, laboratory and neuroimaging data were collected by California Encephalitis Project and chart review. Outcomes were classified into "recovery" or "incomplete recovery" and evaluated at discharge and other times (7-10 days postadmission, 3 and 12 months postdischarge). Using logistic regression, predictors associated with recovery were identified.

RESULTS

Of 190 patients with outcomes available at discharge, 128 patients (67.4%) recovered, whereas 62 (32.6%) had an incomplete recovery, including 13 deaths (6.8%). Variables predictive of outcomes at discharge in the bivariate and multivariable analyses included Asian/Pacific Islander race, neuroimaging results and Glasgow Coma Score. Asian/Pacific Islander patients were less likely to recover than patients of other races (adjusted odds ratio = 0.43, P = 0.046). Patients with normal neuroimaging studies were more likely to recover than patients with abnormal neuroimaging (adjusted odds ratio = 2.54, P = 0.008). Patients with Glasgow Coma Score ≥7 were more likely to recover than patients with Glasgow Coma Score <7 (adjusted odds ratio = 5.82, P < 0.001). In a multivariable analysis, similar statistically significant findings were noted at all other analyzed times. Results were similar using a different population for validation, however, due to the small number of Asian/Pacific Islander patients; this finding could not be validated.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is unique in identification of race/ethnicity as an independent predictor of pediatric encephalitis outcomes. Additional variables may be useful ancillary tools in determining prognosis.

VGKC complex antibodies in pediatric severe acute encephalitis: a study and literature review

BACKGROUND

Antibodies to surface proteins like voltage-gated potassium channel (VGKC) complexes are increasingly found in different neurologic diseases and encephalitis in adults and recently, in children. Detecting such antibodies can help identify forms of encephalitis that may respond to immuno-therapies. However, there are few reports on VGKC complex antibodies in pediatric severe acute encephalitis.

METHODS

This study retrospectively reviewed antibodies to VGKC, leucine-rich glioma-inactivated 1 (Lgi1), and contactin-associated protein-like 2 (Caspr2) in 46 children with severe acute encephalitis. Published cases of VGKC complex antibodies in pediatric encephalitis in the period of 2000-2012 were also reviewed.

RESULTS

Elevated VGKC complex antibodies (>100pM) were detected in one of the 46 children with severe acute encephalitis. The 4-year and 6-month-old girl presented with seizure and disturbed consciousness. Viral PCR/culture and serologic evidence of influenza A infection was noted. She also had complications of epilepsy, impaired cognition, and altered behavior and psychology. Antibodies to Lgi1 and Caspr2 were not detected. Ten previously published reports revealed that VGKC complex antibodies can occur in children with limbic encephalitis and acute or sub-acute encephalitis.

CONCLUSION

The incidence of VGKC complex antibodies in pediatric severe acute encephalitis is not high with only one (2.2%) of 46 children in this study. And, this is the first report on the association of VGKC complex antibodies and patients with influenza A-related severe acute encephalitis. The mechanism of VGKC complex antibodies in pediatric severe acute encephalitis warrants further study.