Electrohydrodynamic methods for the development of pulmonary drug delivery systems

Nanocrystal Agglomerates of Curcumin Prepared by Electrospray Drying as an Excipient-Free Dry Powder for Inhalation

Curcumin has shown beneficial effects on pulmonary diseases with chronic inflammation or abnormal inflammatory responses, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, and pulmonary fibrosis. Clinical applications of curcumin are limited due to its chemical instability in solution, low water solubility, poor oral bioavailability, and intestinal and liver first-pass metabolism. Pulmonary delivery of curcumin can address these challenges and provide a high concentration in lung tissues. The purpose of the current work was to prepare a novel inhalable dry powder of curcumin nanocrystals without added excipients using electrospray drying (ED) with improved dissolution and aerosolization properties. ED of curcumin was performed at 2 and 4% w/v concentrations in acetone. Physicochemical properties of the formulated powders were evaluated by powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), density and powder flow measurements, and in vitro dissolution. The in vitro deposition studies were conducted using next-generation impactor (NGI) and aerosol performance and aerodynamic particle size parameters were calculated for prepared formulations. ED could produce agglomerates of nanocrystals with a size of about 500 nm at an acceptable yield of about 50%. PXRD and FTIR data revealed that prepared nanocrystals were in a stable crystalline state. The bulk and tapped density of prepared agglomerates were in the range appropriate for pulmonary delivery. Formed nanocrystals could significantly improve the dissolution rate of water-insoluble curcumin. The optimized formulation exhibited acceptable recovered dose percentage, high emitted dose percentage, optimum mean mass median aerodynamic diameter, small geometric standard deviation, and high fine-particle fraction that favors delivery of curcumin to the deep lung regions. The ED proved to be an efficient technique to prepare curcumin nanocrystals for pulmonary delivery in a single step, at a mild condition, and with no surfactant.

Cryomilled electrospun nanofiber mats containing d-mannitol exhibit suitable for aerosol delivery of proteins

Dry powder inhalers (DPIs) are the first choice for inhalation drug development. However, some conventional DPI formulation processes require heating, which may damage high molecular weight drugs such as proteins and nucleic acids. In this study, we propose a novel DPI preparation process that avoids the use of heat. Dry powders were prepared by cryomilling nanofiber mats composed of polyvinyl alcohol, D(-)-mannitol (Man), and α-chymotrypsin (α-Chy) as the model drug using the electrospinning method. The addition of Man conferred high dispersibility and excellent in vitro aerosol performance to the nanofiber mat powder in a very short milling time (less than 0.5 min) as assessed using the Andersen cascade impactor. Powders were classified according to the degree of friability, and among these, nanofiber mats containing 15 % Man and milled for 0.25 min exhibited the highest aerosol performance. Nanofiber mats containing Man milled for less than 0.5 min also exhibited greater α-Chy enzymatic activity than a nebulized α-Chy solution. Furthermore, single inhalation induced no significant lung tissue damage as evidenced by lactate dehydrogenase activity assays of mouse bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. This novel DPI formulation process may facilitate the safe and efficient inhalational delivery of therapeutic proteins.

Engineering Inhalable Therapeutic Particles: Conventional and Emerging Approaches

Respirable particles are integral to effective inhalable therapeutic ingredient delivery, demanding precise engineering for optimal lung deposition and therapeutic efficacy. This review describes different physicochemical properties and their role in determining the aerodynamic performance and therapeutic efficacy of dry powder formulations. Furthermore, advances in top-down and bottom-up techniques in particle preparation, highlighting their roles in tailoring particle properties and optimizing therapeutic outcomes, are also presented. Practices adopted for particle engineering during the past 100 years indicate a significant transition in research and commercial interest in the strategies used, with several innovative concepts coming into play in the past decade. Accordingly, this article highlights futuristic particle engineering approaches such as electrospraying, inkjet printing, thin film freeze drying, and supercritical processes, including their prospects and associated challenges. With such technologies, it is possible to reshape inhaled therapeutic ingredient delivery, optimizing therapeutic benefits and improving the quality of life for patients with respiratory diseases and beyond.

Inhalation Dosage Forms: A Focus on Dry Powder Inhalers and Their Advancements

In this review, an extensive analysis of dry powder inhalers (DPIs) is offered, focusing on their characteristics, formulation, stability, and manufacturing. The advantages of pulmonary delivery were investigated, as well as the significance of the particle size in drug deposition. The preparation of DPI formulations was also comprehensively explored, including physico-chemical characterization of powders, powder processing techniques, and formulation considerations. In addition to manufacturing procedures, testing methods were also discussed, providing insights into the development and evaluation of DPI formulations. This review also explores the design basics and critical attributes specific to DPIs, highlighting the significance of their optimization to achieve an effective inhalation therapy. Additionally, the morphology and stability of 3 DPI capsules (Spiriva, Braltus, and Onbrez) were investigated, offering valuable insights into the properties of these formulations. Altogether, these findings contribute to a deeper understanding of DPIs and their development, performance, and optimization of inhalation dosage forms.

Dual-bioactive molecules loaded aligned core-shell microfibers for tendon tissue engineering

Development of a controlled delivery ultrafine fibrous system with two bioactive molecules is required to stimulate tendon healing in different phase. In this study, we used emulsion stable jet electrospinning to fabricate aligned poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) based ultrafine fibers with two small bioactive molecules of L-Arginine (Arg) and low molecular weight hyaluronic acid (HA). The results demonstrated that the aligned Arg/HA/PLLA microfibrous scaffold showed core-shell structure and allowed sequential release of Arg and HA due to their different electric charge. The scaffold also showed enhanced hydrophilicity, cell migration, spread and proliferation. Using an Achilles tendon repair model in rats, we demonstrated that this novel fibrous scaffold can prevent adhesion and promote tendon regeneration. Additionally, two p53 and ER-α-mediated signalling pathways were described as the probable main path of synergistic effects of the novel scaffold on tendon generation. Thus, this study may provide an important strategy for developing biofunctional and biomimetic tendon scaffolds.

Carrier-Free Inhalable Dry Microparticles of Celecoxib: Use of the Electrospraying Technique

Upregulation of cyclooxygenase (COX-2) plays an important role in lung cancer pathogenesis. Celecoxib (CLX), a selective COX-2 inhibitor, may have beneficial effects in COVID-19-induced inflammatory storms. The current study aimed to develop carrier-free inhalable CLX microparticles by electrospraying as a dry powder formulation for inhalation (DPI). CLX microparticles were prepared through an electrospraying method using a suitable solvent mixture at two different drug concentrations. The obtained powders were characterized in terms of their morphology, solid state, dissolution behavior, and aerosolization performance. Electrosprayed particles obtained from the ethanol-acetone solvent mixture with a drug concentration of 3 % w/v exhibited the best in vitro aerosolization properties. The value of the fine particle fraction obtained for the engineered drug particles was 12-fold higher than that of the untreated CLX. When the concentration of CLX was increased, a remarkable reduction in FPF was obtained. The smallest median mass aerodynamic diameter was obtained from the electrosprayed CLX at a 3% concentration (2.82 µm) compared to 5% (3.25 µm) and untreated CLX (4.18 µm). DSC and FTIR experiments showed no change in drug crystallinity or structure of the prepared powders during the electrospraying process. The findings of this study suggest that electrospraying has potential applications in the preparation of DPI formulations.

Charge-Reduced Particles via Self-Propelled Electrohydrodynamic Atomization for Drug Delivery Applications

Electrohydrodynamic atomization (EHDA) provides unparalleled control over the size and production rate of particles from solution. However, conventional methods produce highly charged particles that are not appropriate for inhalation drug delivery. We present a self-propelled EHDA system to address this challenge, a promising one-step platform for generating and delivering charge-reduced particles. Our approach uses a sharp electrode to produce ion wind, which reduces the cumulative charge in the particles and transports them to a target in front of the nozzle. We effectively controlled the morphologies of polymer products created from poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) at various concentrations. Our technique has also been proven safe for bioapplications, as evidenced by the delivery of PVDF particles onto breast cancer cells. The combination of simultaneous particle production and charge reduction, along with its direct delivery capability, makes the self-propelled EHDA a versatile technique for drug delivery applications.

Development of an Inhalation Dry Powder Preparation Method without Heat-drying Process

Biopharmaceuticals, including therapeutic genes and proteins, are characterized by highly-targeted, specific action and flexible pharmacological design and have a rapidly growing market share; however, because of high molecular weight and low stability, injection is the most common delivery route of biopharmaceuticals. Thus, pharmaceutical innovations are required to provide alternative delivery routes for biopharmaceuticals. Pulmonary drug delivery via inhalation is a promising approach, particularly for targeting local diseases of the lung, because it can exert therapeutic effects in small doses and can noninvasively and directly deliver drugs to airway surfaces. However, biopharmaceutical inhalers must ensure that the biopharmaceuticals maintain their integrity as they are subjected to several types of physicochemical stress, such as hydrolysis, ultrasound, and heating, at various stages during the process from manufacturing to administration. In this symposium, I present a novel dry powder inhaler (DPI) preparation method without heat-drying, with the goal of developing biopharmaceutical DPIs. Spray-freeze-drying is a nonthermal drying technique that produces a powder with porous shapes; this powder has suitable inhalation characteristics for DPI. A model drug, plasmid DNA (pDNA), was stably prepared as a DPI using the spray-freeze-drying process. Under dry conditions, the powders maintained high inhalation characteristics and maintained pDNA integrity for 12 months. The powder induced pDNA expression in mouse lungs that exceeded at higher levels than the solution did. This novel preparation method is suitable for DPI preparation for various drugs and may help expand the clinical application of DPIs.

Recent advances in electrospun protein fibers/nanofibers for the food and biomedical applications

Electrospinning (ES) is one of the most investigated processes for the convenient, adaptive, and scalable manufacturing of nano/micro/macro-fibers. With this technique, virgin and composite fibers may be made in different designs using a wide range of polymers (both natural and synthetic). Electrospun protein fibers (EPF) shave desirable capabilities such as biocompatibility, low toxicity, degradability, and solvolysis. However, issues with the proteins' processibility have limited their widespread utilization. This paper gives an overview of the features of protein-based biomaterials, which are already being employed and has the potential to be exploited for ES. State-of-the-art examples showcasing the usefulness of EPFs in the food and biomedical industries, including tissue engineering, wound dressings, and drug delivery, provided in the applications. The EPFs' future perspective and the challenge they pose are presented at the end. It is believed that protein and biopolymeric nanofibers will soon be manufactured on an industrial scale owing to the limitations of employing synthetic materials, as well as enormous potential of nanofibers in other fields, such as active food packaging, regenerative medicine, drug delivery, cosmetic, and filtration.

Dry Powder Inhalers for Proteins Using Cryo-Milled Electrospun Polyvinyl Alcohol Nanofiber Mats

To enable the efficient delivery of drugs to the lungs, the drug particle design for most dry powder inhalers (DPIs) involves reducing the aerodynamic particle size to a few microns using methods such as spray-drying or jet-milling. Stresses, including heat and the shear forces generated by the preparation processes, may result in the degradation and denaturation of drugs such as those based on peptides and proteins. Here, we showed that cryo-milled polyvinyl alcohol nanofiber mats loaded with α-chymotrypsin by electrospinning exhibited suitable inhalation properties for use in DPIs, while maintaining enzymatic activity. The cryo-milled nanofiber mats were porous to fine particles, and the particle size and drug stability depended on the freezing and milling times. The median diameter of the milled fiber mats was 12.6 μm, whereas the mass median aerodynamic diameter was 5.9 μm. The milled nanofiber mats were successfully prepared, while retaining the enzymatic activity of α-chymotrypsin; furthermore, the activity of milled fiber mats that had been stored for 6 months was comparable to the activity of those that were freshly prepared. This novel method may be suitable for the DPI preparation of various drugs because it avoids the heating step during the DPI preparation process.

Resveratrol-Loaded Levan Nanoparticles Produced by Electrohydrodynamic Atomization Technique

Considering the significant advances in nanostructured systems in various biomedical applications and the escalating need for levan-based nanoparticles as delivery systems, this study aimed to fabricate levan nanoparticles by the electrohydrodynamic atomization (EHDA) technique. The hydrolyzed derivative of levan polysaccharide from Halomonas smyrnensis halophilic bacteria, hydrolyzed Halomonas levan (hHL), was used. Nanoparticles were obtained by optimizing the EHDA parameters and then they were characterized in terms of morphology, molecular interactions, drug release and cell culture studies. The optimized hHL and resveratrol (RS)-loaded hHL nanoparticles were monodisperse and had smooth surfaces. The particle diameter size of hHL nanoparticles was 82.06 ± 15.33 nm. Additionally, release of RS from the fabricated hHL nanoparticles at different pH conditions were found to follow the first-order release model and hHL with higher RS loading showed a more gradual release. In vitro biocompatibility assay with human dermal fibroblast cell lines was performed and cell behavior on coated surfaces was observed. Nanoparticles were found to be safe for healthy cells. Consequently, the fabricated hHL-based nanoparticle system may have potential use in drug delivery systems for wound healing and tissue engineering applications and surfaces could be coated with these electrosprayed particles to improve cellular interaction.

Pulmonary Delivery of Anticancer Drugs via Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for the Treatment of Lung Cancer: An Update

Lung cancer (LC) is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths, responsible for approximately 18.4% of all cancer mortalities in both sexes combined. The use of systemic therapeutics remains one of the primary treatments for LC. However, the therapeutic efficacy of these agents is limited due to their associated severe adverse effects, systemic toxicity and poor selectivity. In contrast, pulmonary delivery of anticancer drugs can provide many advantages over conventional routes. The inhalation route allows the direct delivery of chemotherapeutic agents to the target LC cells with high local concertation that may enhance the antitumor activity and lead to lower dosing and fewer systemic toxicities. Nevertheless, this route faces by many physiological barriers and technological challenges that may significantly affect the lung deposition, retention, and efficacy of anticancer drugs. The use of lipid-based nanocarriers could potentially overcome these problems owing to their unique characteristics, such as the ability to entrap drugs with various physicochemical properties, and their enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect for passive targeting. Besides, they can be functionalized with different targeting moieties for active targeting. This article highlights the physiological, physicochemical, and technological considerations for efficient inhalable anticancer delivery using lipid-based nanocarriers and their cutting-edge role in LC treatment.

Superparamagnetic electrospun microrods for magnetically-guided pulmonary drug delivery with magnetic heating

Controlled pulmonary drug delivery systems employing non-spherical particles as drug carriers attract considerable attention nowadays. Such anisotropic morphologies may travel deeper into the lung airways, thus enabling the efficient accumulation of therapeutic compounds at the point of interest and subsequently their sustained release. This study focuses on the fabrication of electrospun superparamagnetic polymer-based biodegradable microrods consisting of poly(l-lactide) (PLLA), polyethylene oxide (PEO) and oleic acid-coated magnetite nanoparticles (OA·Fe₃O₄). The production of magnetite-free (0% wt. OA·Fe₃O₄) and magnetite-loaded (50% and 70% wt. Fe₃O₄) microrods was realized upon subjecting the as-prepared electrospun fibers to UV irradiation, followed by sonication. Moreover, drug-loaded microrods were fabricated incorporating methyl 4-hydroxybenzoate (MHB) as a model pharmaceutical compound and the drug release profile from both, the drug-loaded membranes and the corresponding microrods was investigated in aqueous media. In addition, the magnetic properties of the produced materials were exploited for remote induction of hyperthermia under AC magnetic field, while the possibility to reduce transport losses and enhance the targeted delivery to lower airways by manipulation of the airborne microrods by DC magnetic field was also demonstrated.

In-air particle generation by on-chip electrohydrodynamics

Electrohydrodynamic atomization has been emerging as a powerful approach for respiratory treatment, including the generation and delivery of micro/nanoparticles as carriers for drugs and antigens. In this work, we present a new conceptual design in which two nozzles facilitate dual electrospray coexisting with ionic wind at chamfered tips by a direct current power source. Experimental results by a prototype have demonstrated the capability of simultaneously generating-and-delivering a stream of charged reduced particles. The concept can be beneficial to pulmonary nano-medicine delivery since the mist of nanoparticles is migrated without any restriction of either the collector or the assistance of external flow, but is pretty simple in designing and manufacturing devices.

Acetalated dextran based nano- and microparticles: synthesis, fabrication, and therapeutic applications

Acetalated dextran (Ac-DEX) is a pH-responsive dextran derivative polymer. Prepared by a simple acetalation reaction, Ac-DEX has tunable acid-triggered release profile. Despite its relatively short research history, Ac-DEX has shown great potential in various therapeutic applications. Furthermore, the recent functionalization of Ac-DEX makes versatile derivatives with additional properties. Herein, we summarize the cutting-edge development of Ac-DEX and related polymers. Specifically, we focus on the chemical synthesis, nano- and micro-particle fabrication techniques, the controlled-release mechanisms, and the rational design Ac-DEX-based of drug delivery systems in various biomedical applications. Finally, we briefly discuss the challenges and future perspectives in the field.

Mesopourous Fe3O4@SiO2-hydroxyapatite nanocomposite: Green sonochemical synthesis using strawberry fruit extract as a capping agent, characterization and their application in sulfasalazine delivery and cytotoxicity

The present study introduces a simple, biocompatible and effective drug delivery system by using mesoporous nanocomposite-based platform. To achieve this goal, mesopourous Fe₃O₄@SiO₂-hydroxyapatite nanocomposite (mFSH) was synthesized by sonochemical process in presence of strawberry fruit extract as capping agent (mFSH-SW). The impact of various factors such as sonication time (5, 15, 30 and 45 min), capping agent (cherry (CH), strawberry (SW), malus domestica (MD), andean blackberry (AB)), pH (10, 11 and 12) and sonication power (30, 60 and 80 W) were investigated to reach optimum condition. To reach high efficiency of drug loading, mFSH was grafted with 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane (APTES). Uniform, regular and spherical morphology of nanocomposite were specified by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX), dynamic light scattering (DLS), nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherm and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) techniques. The mean pore size, surface area, and pore volume of mFSH-SW were 63.2 m² g^-1, 14.1 nm and 0.24 cm³ g^-1, respectively. Sulfasalazine (SLN) loading and release were carried out by various products. The functionalized mFSH-SW showed high adsorption capacity (approximately 59.1 %) for SLN that possesses amino functional groups. The results showed that 100 % of SLN-loaded nanocomposite could be released after 36 h at intestinal conditions (pH = 6.8). In addition, in-vitro and in-vivo toxicity investigations of product were performed with apoptosis/necrosis, XTT and pathology assay, respectively. All in all, unique properties of the nanocomposite including low toxicity, high drug loading, slow release and biodegradable showed that it can be used in biomedical sciences.

Microneedles: Characteristics, Materials, Production Methods and Commercial Development

Although transdermal drug delivery systems (DDS) offer numerous benefits for patients, including the avoidance of both gastric irritation and first-pass metabolism effect, as well as improved patient compliance, only a limited number of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) can be delivered accordingly. Microneedles (MNs) represent one of the most promising concepts for effective transdermal drug delivery that penetrate the protective skin barrier in a minimally invasive and painless manner. The first MNs were produced in the 90s, and since then, this field has been continually evolving. Therefore, different manufacturing methods, not only for MNs but also MN molds, are introduced, which allows for the cost-effective production of MNs for drug and vaccine delivery and even diagnostic/monitoring purposes. The focus of this review is to give a brief overview of MN characteristics, material composition, as well as the production and commercial development of MN-based systems.

Biofabrication for neural tissue engineering applications

Unlike other tissue types, the nervous tissue extends to a wide and complex environment that provides a plurality of different biochemical and topological stimuli, which in turn defines the advanced functions of that tissue. As a consequence of such complexity, the traditional transplantation therapeutic methods are quite ineffective; therefore, the restoration of peripheral and central nervous system injuries has been a continuous scientific challenge. Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine in the nervous system have provided new alternative medical approaches. These methods use external biomaterial supports, known as scaffolds, to create platforms for the cells to migrate to the injury site and repair the tissue. The challenge in neural tissue engineering (NTE) remains the fabrication of scaffolds with precisely controlled, tunable topography, biochemical cues, and surface energy, capable of directing and controlling the function of neuronal cells toward the recovery from neurological disorders and injuries. At the same time, it has been shown that NTE provides the potential to model neurological diseases in vitro, mainly via lab-on-a-chip systems, especially in cases for which it is difficult to obtain suitable animal models. As a consequence of the intense research activity in the field, a variety of synthetic approaches and 3D fabrication methods have been developed for the fabrication of NTE scaffolds, including soft lithography and self-assembly, as well as subtractive (top-down) and additive (bottom-up) manufacturing. This article aims at reviewing the existing research effort in the rapidly growing field related to the development of biomaterial scaffolds and lab-on-a-chip systems for NTE applications. Besides presenting recent advances achieved by NTE strategies, this work also delineates existing limitations and highlights emerging possibilities and future prospects in this field.

Intraperitoneal aerosolized drug delivery: Technology, recent developments, and future outlook

Current therapies for patients with peritoneal metastases (PM) are only moderately effective. Recently, a novel locoregional treatment method for PM was introduced, consisting of a combination of laparoscopy with intraperitoneal (IP) delivery of anticancer agents as an aerosol. This 'pressurized intraperitoneal aerosol chemotherapy' (PIPAC) may enhance tissue drug penetration by the elevated IP pressure during CO₂ capnoperitoneum. Also, repeated PIPAC cycles allow to accurately stage peritoneal disease and verify histological response to treatment. This review provides an overview of the rationale, indications, and currently used technology for therapeutic IP nebulization, and discusses the basic mechanisms governing aerosol particle transport and peritoneal deposition. We discuss early clinical results in patients with advanced, irresectable PM and highlight the potential of electrostatic aerosol precipitation. Finally, we discuss promising novel approaches, including nebulization of nanoparticles and prolonged release formulations.

Electrospray for generation of drug delivery and vaccine particles applied in vitro and in vivo

Also known as electrospray, electrohydrodynamic atomization has been used extensively in the last 15 years to develop polymer-based particles for drug delivery in cell and animal models. More recently, novel core-shell, multi-axial, and other electrospray particles have been developed from an array of polymers for a variety of biomedical applications. This review focuses on electrospray as a novel method of particle fabrication for drug delivery, specifically highlighting the applications of these particle systems in cell culture and animal models while also discussing polymers used for particle fabrication. Applications of electrospray particles to treat glioma, ovarian cancer, and breast cancer are reviewed. Additionally, delivery of antibiotics, gene therapy, and bacterial cells formulated in electrospray particles is discussed. Finally, vaccines as well as drug eluting particles for differentiation of stem cells and tissue engineering are highlighted. The article concludes with a discussion of where the future of electrospray technology can go to strengthen its foothold in the biomedical field.

Fast dissolving drug delivery membrane based on the ultra-thin shell of electrospun core-shell nanofibers

Structural nanocomposites that provide fast dissolving drug release profiles are highly in demand in pharmaceutics. In this study, a poorly water-soluble drug such as quercetin or tamoxifen citrate (TC) was selected as a model active pharmaceutical ingredient. Core-shell nanofibers with ultra-thin shells were designed and prepared using modified coaxial electrospinning. Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) K90 or Polycaprolactone (PCL) was selected as core. The drugs and PVP K10 were selected as shell. All types of solutions can be used as the shell fluids in modified coaxial process regardless of their electrospinnability, which means the increasing functional ingredients and unspinnable matrix can be processed. Evaluations via SEM and TEM demonstrated that the core-shell nanofibers had linear morphology with a shell thickness smaller than 100 nm. XRD and FTIR results showed that the model drug was distributed in the polymeric matrix amorphously and that PVP K10 had good compatibility with quercetin or TC. In vitro dissolution tests suggested that the core-shell nanofibers with ultra-thin shells released the loaded cargoes in the dissolution media within 1 min. The present investigation paved a new way for implementing the modified coaxial processes, which can be utilized to fabricate structural nanocomposites with ultra-thin shells for enhancing the fast dissolution of poorly water-soluble drugs.

Imagine the Superiority of Dry Powder Inhalers from Carrier Engineering

Inhalation therapy has strong history of more than 4000 years and it is well recognized around the globe within every culture. In early days, inhalation therapy was designed for treatment of local disorders such as asthma and other pulmonary diseases. Almost all inhalation products composed a simple formulation of a carrier, usually α-lactose monohydrate orderly mixed with micronized therapeutic agent. Most of these formulations lacked satisfactory pulmonary deposition and dispersion. Thus, various alternative carrier's molecules and powder processing techniques are increasingly investigated to achieve suitable aerodynamic performance. In view of this fact, more suitable and economic alternative carrier's molecules with advanced formulation strategies are discussed in the present review. Furthermore, major advances, challenges, and the future perspective are discussed.