1
|
Rubino A, Queirós R. Electrochemical determination of heavy metal ions applying screen-printed electrodes based sensors. A review on water and environmental samples analysis. TALANTA OPEN 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talo.2023.100203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
|
2
|
Screen-printed electrochemical sensors for environmental monitoring of heavy metal ion detection. REV CHEM ENG 2022. [DOI: 10.1515/revce-2022-0002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Heavy metal ions (HMIs) are known to cause severe damages to the human body and ecological environment. And considering the current alarming situation, it is crucial to develop a rapid, sensitive, robust, economical and convenient method for their detection. Screen printed electrochemical technology contributes greatly to this task, and has achieved global attention. It enabled the mass transmission rate and demonstrated ability to control the chemical nature of the measure media. Besides, the technique offers advantages like linear output, quick response, high selectivity, sensitivity and stability along with low power requirement and high signal-to-noise ratio. Recently, the performance of SPEs has been improved employing the most effective and promising method of the incorporation of different nanomaterials into SPEs. Especially, in electrochemical sensors, the incorporation of nanomaterials has gained extensive attention for HMIs detection as it exhibits outstanding features like broad electrochemical window, large surface area, high conductivity, selectivity and stability. The present review focuses on the recent progress in the field of screen-printed electrochemical sensors for HMIs detection using nanomaterials. Different fabrication methods of SPEs and their utilization for real sample analysis of HMIs using various nanomaterials have been extensively discussed. Additionally, advancement made in this field is also discussed taking help of the recent literature.
Collapse
|
3
|
Antimony nanomaterials modified screen-printed electrodes for the voltammetric determination of metal ions. Electrochim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2022.140690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
4
|
Simultaneous electro-determination of trace copper, lead, and cadmium in tap water by using silver nanoparticles and graphene nanoplates as nanocomposite modified graphite electrode. Microchem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2021.107137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
5
|
Lazanas AC, Prodromidis MI. Electrochemical performance of passivated antimonene nanosheets and of in-situ prepared antimonene oxide-PEDOT:PSS modified screen-printed graphite electrodes. Electrochim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2022.140033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
6
|
Ahamed A, Ge L, Zhao K, Veksha A, Bobacka J, Lisak G. Environmental footprint of voltammetric sensors based on screen-printed electrodes: An assessment towards "green" sensor manufacturing. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 278:130462. [PMID: 33845436 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 03/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Voltammetric sensors based on screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) await diverse applications in environmental monitoring, food, agricultural and biomedical analysis. However, due to the single-use and disposable characteristics of SPEs and the scale of measurements performed, their environmental impacts should be considered. A life cycle assessment was conducted to evaluate the environmental footprint of SPEs manufactured using various substrate materials (SMs: cotton textile, HDPE plastic, Kraft paper, graphic paper, glass, and ceramic) and electrode materials (EMs: platinum, gold, silver, copper, carbon black, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs)). The greatest environmental impact was observed when cotton textile was used as SM. HDPE plastic demonstrated the least impact (13 out of 19 categories), followed by ceramic, glass and paper. However, considering the end-of-life scenarios and release of microplastics into the environment, ceramic, glass or paper could be the most suitable options for SMs. Amongst the EMs, the replacement of metals, especially noble metals, by carbon-based EMs greatly reduces the environmental footprint of SPEs. Compared with other materials, carbon black was the least impactful on the environment. On the other hand, copper and waste-derived CNTs (WCNTs) showed low impacts except for terrestrial ecotoxicity and human toxicity (non-cancer) potentials. In comparison to commercial CNTs (CCNTs), WCNTs demonstrated lower environmental footprint and comparable voltammetric performance in heavy metal detections, justifying the substitution of CCNTs with WCNTs in commercial applications. In conclusion, a combination of carbon black or WCNTs EMs with ceramic, glass or paper SMs represents the most environmentally friendly SPE configurations for voltammetric sensor arrangement.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ashiq Ahamed
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore, 637141, Singapore; Laboratory of Molecular Science and Engineering, Johan Gadolin Process Chemistry Centre, Åbo Akademi University, FI-20500, Turku/Åbo, Finland
| | - Liya Ge
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore, 637141, Singapore
| | - Ke Zhao
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore, 637141, Singapore
| | - Andrei Veksha
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore, 637141, Singapore
| | - Johan Bobacka
- Laboratory of Molecular Science and Engineering, Johan Gadolin Process Chemistry Centre, Åbo Akademi University, FI-20500, Turku/Åbo, Finland
| | - Grzegorz Lisak
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore, 637141, Singapore; School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Baile P, Vidal L, Canals A. Magnetic dispersive solid-phase extraction using ZSM-5 zeolite/Fe 2O 3 composite coupled with screen-printed electrodes based electrochemical detector for determination of cadmium in urine samples. Talanta 2020; 220:121394. [PMID: 32928414 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
A novel, simple, fast, sensitive and environmentally friendly approach is presented to determine cadmium in urine samples, combining magnetic dispersive solid-phase extraction (MDSPE) for sample preparation and screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs) for square-wave anodic stripping voltammetry. This association involves the miniaturization of sample preparation and measurement process. Firstly, cadmium was extracted directly from urine samples employing a ZSM-5/Fe2O3, then, the composite enriched with cadmium was deposited onto the SPCE and finally covered with a suitable electrolyte for electrochemical detection. Thereby, the elution and detection of cadmium were carried out in a single step. To optimize experimental parameters affecting MDSPE, a two-step multivariate strategy has been employed. The method has been evaluated under optimized extraction/elution conditions (i.e., type of sorbent, ZSM-5/Fe2O3; amount of sorbent, 10 mg; sample pH, 6.8; extraction time, 5.5 min; and HCl concentration, 0.5 M) using standard addition calibration. Standard addition calibration curves gave a good linearity in the range from 0 to 30 μg L-1 with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.997 to 0.998 (N = 7). The limit of detection, evaluated empirically and statistically, ranged from 0.5 to 1.0 μg L-1 and from 0.4 to 0.8 μg L-1, respectively, which are lower than the threshold level established by the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (Spain) and World Health Organization for normal cadmium content in urine (i.e., 3.4 and 4.0 μg L-1, respectively). The repeatability of the proposed method was evaluated at 5 and 20 μg L-1 spiking levels obtaining coefficients of variation ranged between 12 and 15% (n = 6). A certified reference material (REC-8848/Level II) was analyzed to assess method accuracy finding 92% and 1.3 μg L-1 as the recovery (trueness) and standard deviation values, respectively. Finally, the method was applied to spiked urine samples, obtaining good agreement between spiked and found concentrations (recovery ranged from 89 to 98% and CV values ranged from 7% to 14%). Therefore, this is a new and successful contribution to the portable total analytical systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paola Baile
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología e Instituto Universitario de Materiales, Universidad de Alicante, P.O. Box 99, E-03080, Alicante, Spain
| | - Lorena Vidal
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología e Instituto Universitario de Materiales, Universidad de Alicante, P.O. Box 99, E-03080, Alicante, Spain.
| | - Antonio Canals
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología e Instituto Universitario de Materiales, Universidad de Alicante, P.O. Box 99, E-03080, Alicante, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Coupling Square Wave Anodic Stripping Voltammetry with Support Vector Regression to Detect the Concentration of Lead in Soil under the Interference of Copper Accurately. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20236792. [PMID: 33261107 PMCID: PMC7731166 DOI: 10.3390/s20236792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
In this study, an effective method for accurately detecting Pb(II) concentration was developed by coupling square wave anodic stripping voltammetry (SWASV) with support vector regression (SVR) based on a bismuth-film modified electrode. The interference of different Cu2+ contents on the SWASV signals of Pb2+ was investigated, and a nonlinear relationship between Pb2+ concentration and the peak currents of Pb2+ and Cu2+ was determined. Thus, an SVR model with two inputs (i.e., peak currents of Pb2+ and Cu2+) and one output (i.e., Pb2+ concentration) was trained to quantify the above nonlinear relationship. The SWASV measurement conditions and the SVR parameters were optimized. In addition, the SVR mode, multiple linear regression model, and direct calibration mode were compared to verify the detection performance by using the determination coefficient (R2) and root-mean-square error (RMSE). Results showed that the SVR model with R2 and RMSE of the test dataset of 0.9942 and 1.1204 μg/L, respectively, had better detection accuracy than other models. Lastly, real soil samples were applied to validate the practicality and accuracy of the developed method for the detection of Pb2+ with approximately equal detection results to the atomic absorption spectroscopy method and a satisfactory average recovery rate of 98.70%. This paper provided a new method for accurately detecting the concentration of heavy metals (HMs) under the interference of non-target HMs for environmental monitoring.
Collapse
|
9
|
Majidian M, Raoof JB, Hosseini SR, Ojani R, Barek J, Fischer J. Novel Type of Carbon Nanotube Paste Electrode Modified by Sb
2
O
3
for Square Wave Anodic Stripping Voltammetric Determination of Cd
2+
and Pb
2+. ELECTROANAL 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.202060137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mahsa Majidian
- Electroanalytical Chemistry Research Laboratory Department of Analytical Chemistry Faculty of Chemistry University of Mazandaran 47416-95447 Babolsar Iran
| | - Jahan Bakhsh Raoof
- Electroanalytical Chemistry Research Laboratory Department of Analytical Chemistry Faculty of Chemistry University of Mazandaran 47416-95447 Babolsar Iran
| | - Sayed Reza Hosseini
- Nanochemistry Research Laboratory Faculty of Chemistry University of Mazandaran 47416-95447 Babolsar Iran
| | - Reza Ojani
- Electroanalytical Chemistry Research Laboratory Department of Analytical Chemistry Faculty of Chemistry University of Mazandaran 47416-95447 Babolsar Iran
| | - Jiri Barek
- Charles University Faculty of Science Department of Analytical Chemistry UNESCO Laboratory of Environmental Electrochemistry Albertov 6 128 43 Prague 2 Czech Republic
| | - Jan Fischer
- Charles University Faculty of Science Department of Analytical Chemistry UNESCO Laboratory of Environmental Electrochemistry Albertov 6 128 43 Prague 2 Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Finšgar M, Jezernik K. The Use of Factorial Design and Simplex Optimization to Improve Analytical Performance of In Situ Film Electrodes. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 20:E3921. [PMID: 32674513 PMCID: PMC7411898 DOI: 10.3390/s20143921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 07/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This work presents a systematic approach to determining the significance of the individual factors affecting the analytical performance of in-situ film electrode (FE) for the determination of Zn(II), Cd(II), and Pb(II). Analytical parameters were considered simultaneously, where the lowest limit of quantification, the widest linear concentration range, and the highest sensitivity, accuracy, and precision of the method evidenced a better analytical method. Significance was evaluated by means of a fractional factorial (experimental) design using five factors, i.e., the mass concentrations of Bi(III), Sn(II), and Sb(III), to design the in situ FE, the accumulation potential, and the accumulation time. Next, a simplex optimization procedure was employed to determine the optimum conditions for these factors. Such optimization of the in situ FE showed significant improvement in analytical performance compared to the in situ FEs in the initial experiments and compared to pure in situ FEs (bismuth-film, tin-film, and antimony-film electrodes). Moreover, using the optimized in situ FE electrode, a possible interference effect was checked for different species and the applicability of the electrode was demonstrated for a real tap water sample.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matjaž Finšgar
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia;
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Smart A, Crew A, Pemberton R, Hughes G, Doran O, Hart J. Screen-printed carbon based biosensors and their applications in agri-food safety. Trends Analyt Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2020.115898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
|
12
|
|
13
|
Copper-film electrodes for Pb(II) trace analysis and a detailed electrochemical impedance spectroscopy study. Microchem J 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2019.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
|
14
|
|
15
|
Holmes J, Pathirathna P, Hashemi P. Novel frontiers in voltammetric trace metal analysis: Towards real time, on-site, in situ measurements. Trends Analyt Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2018.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
|
16
|
Bobrowski A, Królicka A, Śliwa J, Zarębski J. Catalytic voltammetric determination of Mo(VI) ultratraces at the tellurium film electrode using the Mo(VI)-mandelic acid-chlorate system. Electrochim Acta 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2018.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
17
|
Finšgar M, Majer D, Maver U, Maver T. Reusability of SPE and Sb-modified SPE Sensors for Trace Pb(II) Determination. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2018; 18:E3976. [PMID: 30445794 PMCID: PMC6263962 DOI: 10.3390/s18113976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Revised: 11/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
In this work, unmodified screen-printed electrode (bare SPE) and Sb-film modified SPE (SbFSPE) sensors were employed for the analysis of trace amounts of Pb(II) in non-deaerated water solutions. The modified electrode was performed in situ in 0.5 mg/L Sb(III) and 0.01 M HCl. The methodology was validated for an accumulation potential of ⁻1.1 V vs. Ag/AgCl and an accumulation time of 60 s. A comparative analysis of bare SPE and SbFSPE showed that the detection and quantification limits decrease for the bare SPE. The method with the bare SPE showed a linear response in the 69.8⁻368.4 µg/L concentration range, whereas linearity for the SbFSPE was in the 24.0⁻319.1 µg/L concentration range. This work also reports the reason why the multiple standard addition method instead of a linear calibration curve for Pb(II) analysis should be employed. Furthermore, the analytical method employing SbFSPE was found to be more accurate and precise compared to the use of bare SPE when sensors were employed for the first time, however this performance changed significantly when these sensors were reused in the same manner. Furthermore, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was used for the first time to analyse the electrochemical response of sensors after being used for multiple successive analyses. Surface characterisation before and after multiple successive uses of bare SPE and SbFSPE sensors, with atomic force microscopy and field emission scanning electron microscopy, showed sensor degradation. The interference effect of Cd(II), Zn(II), As(III), Fe(II), Na(I), K(I), Ca(II), Mg(II), NO₃⁻, Bi(III), Cu(II), Sn(II), and Hg(II) on the Pb(II) stripping signal was also studied. Finally, the application of SbFSPE was tested on a real water sample (from a local river), which showed high precision (RSD = 8.1%, n = 5) and accurate results.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matjaž Finšgar
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia.
| | - David Majer
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia.
| | - Uroš Maver
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Maribor, Taborska ulica 8, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia.
| | - Tina Maver
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Finšgar M, Petovar B. Novel in situ
Bi−Sb-Film Electrodes for Trace Heavy Metal Analysis. ELECTROANAL 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201800545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matjaž Finšgar
- University of Maribor; Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Smetanova ulica 17 2000 Maribor Slovenia
| | - Barbara Petovar
- University of Maribor; Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Smetanova ulica 17 2000 Maribor Slovenia
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
García-Miranda Ferrari A, Foster CW, Kelly PJ, Brownson DAC, Banks CE. Determination of the Electrochemical Area of Screen-Printed Electrochemical Sensing Platforms. BIOSENSORS-BASEL 2018; 8:bios8020053. [PMID: 29890706 PMCID: PMC6023085 DOI: 10.3390/bios8020053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Revised: 06/03/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Screen-printed electrochemical sensing platforms, due to their scales of economy and high reproducibility, can provide a useful approach to translate laboratory-based electrochemistry into the field. An important factor when utilising screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) is the determination of their real electrochemical surface area, which allows for the benchmarking of these SPEs and is an important parameter in quality control. In this paper, we consider the use of cyclic voltammetry and chronocoulometry to allow for the determination of the real electrochemical area of screen-printed electrochemical sensing platforms, highlighting to experimentalists the various parameters that need to be diligently considered and controlled in order to obtain useful measurements of the real electroactive area.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro García-Miranda Ferrari
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
- Manchester Fuel Cell Innovation Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
| | - Christopher W Foster
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
- Manchester Fuel Cell Innovation Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
| | - Peter J Kelly
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
| | - Dale A C Brownson
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
- Manchester Fuel Cell Innovation Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
| | - Craig E Banks
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
- Manchester Fuel Cell Innovation Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Bobrowski A, Królicka A, Śliwa J, Zarębski J, Economou A, Kalcher K. Tellurium Film Electrodes Deposited on Carbon and Mesoporous Carbon Screen-printed Substrates for Anodic Stripping Voltammetric Determination of Copper. ELECTROANAL 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201800165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej Bobrowski
- Department of Building Materials Technology; Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics; AGH University of Science and Technology; Mickiewicza 30 30-059 Krakow Poland
| | - Agnieszka Królicka
- Department of Building Materials Technology; Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics; AGH University of Science and Technology; Mickiewicza 30 30-059 Krakow Poland
| | - Julia Śliwa
- Department of Building Materials Technology; Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics; AGH University of Science and Technology; Mickiewicza 30 30-059 Krakow Poland
| | - Jerzy Zarębski
- Department of Building Materials Technology; Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics; AGH University of Science and Technology; Mickiewicza 30 30-059 Krakow Poland
| | - Anastasios Economou
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry; Department of Chemistry; University of Athens; Athens 157 71 Greece
| | - Kurt Kalcher
- Institute of Chemistry; Analytical Chemistry; Karl-Franzens-University; Universitätsplatz 1 8010 Graz Austria
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Screen-Printed Electrodes Modified with "Green" Metals for Electrochemical Stripping Analysis of Toxic Elements. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18041032. [PMID: 29596391 PMCID: PMC5948781 DOI: 10.3390/s18041032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
This work reviews the field of screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) modified with “green” metals for electrochemical stripping analysis of toxic elements. Electrochemical stripping analysis has been established as a useful trace analysis technique offering many advantages compared to competing optical techniques. Although mercury has been the preferred electrode material for stripping analysis, the toxicity of mercury and the associated legal requirements in its use and disposal have prompted research towards the development of “green” metals as alternative electrode materials. When combined with the screen-printing technology, such environment-friendly metals can lead to disposable sensors for trace metal analysis with excellent operational characteristics. This review focuses on SPEs modified with Au, Bi, Sb, and Sn for stripping analysis of toxic elements. Different modification approaches (electroplating, bulk modification, use of metal precursors, microengineering techniques) are considered and representative applications are described. A developing related field, namely biosensing based on stripping analysis of metallic nanoprobe labels, is also briefly mentioned.
Collapse
|
22
|
Hernandez-Vargas G, Sosa-Hernández JE, Saldarriaga-Hernandez S, Villalba-Rodríguez AM, Parra-Saldivar R, Iqbal HMN. Electrochemical Biosensors: A Solution to Pollution Detection with Reference to Environmental Contaminants. BIOSENSORS 2018; 8:E29. [PMID: 29587374 PMCID: PMC6023016 DOI: 10.3390/bios8020029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2018] [Revised: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The increasing environmental pollution with particular reference to emerging contaminants, toxic heavy elements, and other hazardous agents is a serious concern worldwide. Considering this global issue, there is an urgent need to design and develop strategic measuring techniques with higher efficacy and precision to detect a broader spectrum of numerous contaminants. The development of precise instruments can further help in real-time and in-process monitoring of the generation and release of environmental pollutants from different industrial sectors. Moreover, real-time monitoring can also reduce the excessive consumption of several harsh chemicals and reagents with an added advantage of on-site determination of contaminant composition prior to discharge into the environment. With key scientific advances, electrochemical biosensors have gained considerable attention to solve this problem. Electrochemical biosensors can be an excellent fit as an analytical tool for monitoring programs to implement legislation. Herein, we reviewed the current trends in the use of electrochemical biosensors as novel tools to detect various contaminant types including toxic heavy elements. A particular emphasis was given to screen-printed electrodes, nanowire sensors, and paper-based biosensors and their role in the pollution detection processes. Towards the end, the work is wrapped up with concluding remarks and future perspectives. In summary, electrochemical biosensors and related areas such as bioelectronics, and (bio)-nanotechnology seem to be growing areas that will have a marked influence on the development of new bio-sensing strategies in future studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Hernandez-Vargas
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Campus Monterrey, Ave. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, CP 64849, Monterrey, N.L., Mexico.
| | - Juan Eduardo Sosa-Hernández
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Campus Monterrey, Ave. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, CP 64849, Monterrey, N.L., Mexico.
| | - Sara Saldarriaga-Hernandez
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Campus Monterrey, Ave. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, CP 64849, Monterrey, N.L., Mexico.
- Exact and Natural Sciences, Institute of Biology, University of Antioquia, St. 67 No. 53-108, Medellín 050021, Colombia.
| | - Angel M Villalba-Rodríguez
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Campus Monterrey, Ave. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, CP 64849, Monterrey, N.L., Mexico.
| | - Roberto Parra-Saldivar
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Campus Monterrey, Ave. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, CP 64849, Monterrey, N.L., Mexico.
- Microsystems Technologies Laboratories, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
- Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, MIT, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| | - Hafiz M N Iqbal
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Campus Monterrey, Ave. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, CP 64849, Monterrey, N.L., Mexico.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Bobrowski A, Maczuga M, Królicka A, Konstanteli E, Sakellaropoulou C, Economou A. Determination of Copper(II) Through Anodic Stripping Voltammetry in Tartrate Buffer Using an Antimony Film Screen-printed Carbon Electrode. ANAL LETT 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2017.1319850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej Bobrowski
- Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, Department of Building Materials Technology, AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków, Poland
| | - Mariola Maczuga
- Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, Department of Building Materials Technology, AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Królicka
- Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, Department of Building Materials Technology, AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków, Poland
| | - Evangelia Konstanteli
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Anastasios Economou
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Zhao G, Wang H, Liu G. Direct Quantification of Cd 2+ in the Presence of Cu 2+ by a Combination of Anodic Stripping Voltammetry Using a Bi-Film-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode and an Artificial Neural Network. SENSORS 2017; 17:s17071558. [PMID: 28671628 PMCID: PMC5539607 DOI: 10.3390/s17071558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Revised: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Abstract: In this study, a novel method based on a Bi/glassy carbon electrode (Bi/GCE) for quantitatively and directly detecting Cd2+ in the presence of Cu2+ without further electrode modifications by combining square-wave anodic stripping voltammetry (SWASV) and a back-propagation artificial neural network (BP-ANN) has been proposed. The influence of the Cu2+ concentration on the stripping response to Cd2+ was studied. In addition, the effect of the ferrocyanide concentration on the SWASV detection of Cd2+ in the presence of Cu2+ was investigated. A BP-ANN with two inputs and one output was used to establish the nonlinear relationship between the concentration of Cd2+ and the stripping peak currents of Cu2+ and Cd2+. The factors affecting the SWASV detection of Cd2+ and the key parameters of the BP-ANN were optimized. Moreover, the direct calibration model (i.e., adding 0.1 mM ferrocyanide before detection), the BP-ANN model and other prediction models were compared to verify the prediction performance of these models in terms of their mean absolute errors (MAEs), root mean square errors (RMSEs) and correlation coefficients. The BP-ANN model exhibited higher prediction accuracy than the direct calibration model and the other prediction models. Finally, the proposed method was used to detect Cd2+ in soil samples with satisfactory results.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guo Zhao
- Key Lab of Modern Precision Agriculture System Integration Research, Ministry of Education of China, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China.
- Key Lab of Agricultural Information Acquisition Technology, Ministry of Agricultural of China, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Hui Wang
- Key Lab of Modern Precision Agriculture System Integration Research, Ministry of Education of China, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China.
- Key Lab of Agricultural Information Acquisition Technology, Ministry of Agricultural of China, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Gang Liu
- Key Lab of Modern Precision Agriculture System Integration Research, Ministry of Education of China, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China.
- Key Lab of Agricultural Information Acquisition Technology, Ministry of Agricultural of China, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Multi-element determination of metals and metalloids in waters and wastewaters, at trace concentration level, using electroanalytical stripping methods with environmentally friendly mercury free-electrodes: A review. Talanta 2017; 175:53-68. [PMID: 28842029 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2017.06.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2017] [Revised: 06/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, water is no longer regarded as an inexhaustible resource and the excessive release and proliferation of toxic metal(loid)s into aquatic environments has become a critical issue. Therefore, fast, accurate, simple, selective, sensitive and portable methodologies to detect multiple elements in natural waters is of paramount importance. Electrochemical stripping analysis is an efficient tool for trace metal(loid)s determinations and bring new prospects for answering the current environmental concerns. This review presents a survey of the advancements made between 2003 and 2016 on the development and application of non-toxic mercury free electrodes on the simultaneous analysis of metals and metalloids in waters and wastewaters by means of electroanalytical stripping techniques. The advantages, limitations, improvements and real applications of these "green" sensors are discussed from a critical point of view.
Collapse
|
26
|
Hughes G, Westmacott K, Honeychurch KC, Crew A, Pemberton RM, Hart JP. Recent Advances in the Fabrication and Application of Screen-Printed Electrochemical (Bio)Sensors Based on Carbon Materials for Biomedical, Agri-Food and Environmental Analyses. BIOSENSORS 2016; 6:E50. [PMID: 27690118 PMCID: PMC5192370 DOI: 10.3390/bios6040050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Revised: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
This review describes recent advances in the fabrication of electrochemical (bio)sensors based on screen-printing technology involving carbon materials and their application in biomedical, agri-food and environmental analyses. It will focus on the various strategies employed in the fabrication of screen-printed (bio)sensors, together with their performance characteristics; the application of these devices for the measurement of selected naturally occurring biomolecules, environmental pollutants and toxins will be discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gareth Hughes
- Centre for Research in Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, Bristol, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, UK.
| | - Kelly Westmacott
- Centre for Research in Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, Bristol, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, UK.
| | - Kevin C Honeychurch
- Centre for Research in Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, Bristol, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, UK.
| | - Adrian Crew
- Centre for Research in Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, Bristol, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, UK.
| | - Roy M Pemberton
- Centre for Research in Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, Bristol, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, UK.
| | - John P Hart
- Centre for Research in Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, Bristol, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
El-Mai H, Espada-Bellido E, Stitou M, García-Vargas M, Galindo-Riaño MD. Determination of ultra-trace amounts of silver in water by differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry using a new modified carbon paste electrode. Talanta 2016; 151:14-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2016.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2015] [Revised: 01/03/2016] [Accepted: 01/08/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
28
|
New approaches to antimony film screen-printed electrodes using carbon-based nanomaterials substrates. Anal Chim Acta 2016; 916:17-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2016.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2015] [Revised: 02/18/2016] [Accepted: 03/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
29
|
|
30
|
Bobrowski A, Królicka A, Maczuga M, Zarębski J. Highly Sensitive and Selective Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetric Method Employing a Lead Film Screen-printed Electrode for Determination of Cobalt as its Nioximate Complex. ELECTROANAL 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201500362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
|
31
|
Pérez-Ràfols C, Serrano N, Díaz-Cruz JM, Ariño C, Esteban M. Mercury Films on Commercial Carbon Screen-Printed Devices for the Analysis of Heavy Metal Ions: a Critical Evaluation. ELECTROANAL 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201500042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
|
32
|
Lin H, Li M, Mihailovič D. Simultaneous Determination of Copper, Lead, and Cadmium Ions at a Mo 6 S 9-x I x Nanowires Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode Using Differential Pulse Anodic Stripping Voltammetry. Electrochim Acta 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2014.12.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
|
33
|
Zhao Y, Xu L, Li S, Chen Q, Yang D, Chen L, Wang H. “One-drop-of-blood” electroanalysis of lead levels in blood using a foam-like mesoporous polymer of melamine–formaldehyde and disposable screen-printed electrodes. Analyst 2015; 140:1832-6. [DOI: 10.1039/c5an00039d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A foam-like mesoporous melamine–formaldehyde polymer was synthesized and deposited on disposable screen-printed electrodes for the electroanalysis of Pb2+ ions in blood.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yanfang Zhao
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Qufu Normal University
- Qufu City 273165
- China
- College of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Science
| | - Lubin Xu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Qufu Normal University
- Qufu City 273165
- China
- College of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Science
| | - Shuying Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Qufu Normal University
- Qufu City 273165
- China
| | - Qi Chen
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Qufu Normal University
- Qufu City 273165
- China
| | - Daoshan Yang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Qufu Normal University
- Qufu City 273165
- China
| | - Lingxin Chen
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation
- Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Yantai 264003
- China
| | - Hua Wang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Qufu Normal University
- Qufu City 273165
- China
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Sosa V, Barceló C, Serrano N, Ariño C, Díaz-Cruz JM, Esteban M. Antimony film screen-printed carbon electrode for stripping analysis of Cd(II), Pb(II), and Cu(II) in natural samples. Anal Chim Acta 2014; 855:34-40. [PMID: 25542087 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2014.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2014] [Revised: 12/04/2014] [Accepted: 12/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
An in-situ antimony film screen-printed carbon electrode (in-situ SbSPCE) was successfully used for the determination of Cu(II) simultaneously with Cd(II) and Pb(II) ions, by means of differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV), in a certified reference groundwater sample with a very high reproducibility and good trueness. This electrode is proposed as a valuable alternative to in-situ bismuth film electrodes, since no competition between the electrodeposited copper and antimony for surface sites was noticed. In-situ SbSPCE was microscopically characterized and experimental parameters such as deposition potential, accumulation time and pH were optimized. The best voltammetric response for the simultaneous determination of Cd(II), Pb(II) and Cu(II) ions was achieved when deposition potential was -1.2 V, accumulation time 120 s and pH 4.5. The detection and quantification limits at levels of μg L(-1) suggest that the in-situ SbSPCE could be fully suitable for the determination of Cd(II), Pb(II) and Cu(II) ions in natural samples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Velia Sosa
- Departament de Química Analítica, Facultat de Química, Universitat de Barcelona, Martí i Franquès 1-11, E-08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristian Barceló
- Departament de Química Analítica, Facultat de Química, Universitat de Barcelona, Martí i Franquès 1-11, E-08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Núria Serrano
- Departament de Química Analítica, Facultat de Química, Universitat de Barcelona, Martí i Franquès 1-11, E-08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina Ariño
- Departament de Química Analítica, Facultat de Química, Universitat de Barcelona, Martí i Franquès 1-11, E-08028, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - José Manuel Díaz-Cruz
- Departament de Química Analítica, Facultat de Química, Universitat de Barcelona, Martí i Franquès 1-11, E-08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miquel Esteban
- Departament de Química Analítica, Facultat de Química, Universitat de Barcelona, Martí i Franquès 1-11, E-08028, Barcelona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Hayat A, Marty JL. Disposable screen printed electrochemical sensors: tools for environmental monitoring. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2014; 14:10432-53. [PMID: 24932865 PMCID: PMC4118360 DOI: 10.3390/s140610432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2014] [Revised: 06/03/2014] [Accepted: 06/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Screen printing technology is a widely used technique for the fabrication of electrochemical sensors. This methodology is likely to underpin the progressive drive towards miniaturized, sensitive and portable devices, and has already established its route from "lab-to-market" for a plethora of sensors. The application of these sensors for analysis of environmental samples has been the major focus of research in this field. As a consequence, this work will focus on recent important advances in the design and fabrication of disposable screen printed sensors for the electrochemical detection of environmental contaminants. Special emphasis is given on sensor fabrication methodology, operating details and performance characteristics for environmental applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Akhtar Hayat
- Images, Universite´De Perpignan Via Domitia, 52 Avenue Paul Alduy, Perpignan Cedex 66860, France.
| | - Jean Louis Marty
- Images, Universite´De Perpignan Via Domitia, 52 Avenue Paul Alduy, Perpignan Cedex 66860, France.
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Mehrabani S, Maker AJ, Armani AM. Hybrid integrated label-free chemical and biological sensors. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2014; 14:5890-928. [PMID: 24675757 PMCID: PMC4029679 DOI: 10.3390/s140405890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2014] [Revised: 03/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Label-free sensors based on electrical, mechanical and optical transduction methods have potential applications in numerous areas of society, ranging from healthcare to environmental monitoring. Initial research in the field focused on the development and optimization of various sensor platforms fabricated from a single material system, such as fiber-based optical sensors and silicon nanowire-based electrical sensors. However, more recent research efforts have explored designing sensors fabricated from multiple materials. For example, synthetic materials and/or biomaterials can also be added to the sensor to improve its response toward analytes of interest. By leveraging the properties of the different material systems, these hybrid sensing devices can have significantly improved performance over their single-material counterparts (better sensitivity, specificity, signal to noise, and/or detection limits). This review will briefly discuss some of the methods for creating these multi-material sensor platforms and the advances enabled by this design approach.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simin Mehrabani
- Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA.
| | - Ashley J Maker
- Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA.
| | - Andrea M Armani
- Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA.
| |
Collapse
|