Multi-pathway human exposure assessment of phthalate esters and DINCH

Phthalate alternatives and their monoesters in indoor dust from several regions, China and implications for human exposure

Household products, in response to regulations, increasingly incorporate phthalate (PAE) alternatives instead of traditional PAEs. However, limited information exists regarding the fate and exposure risk of these PAE alternatives and their monoesters in indoor environments. The contamination levels of PAE alternatives and their monoesters in indoor dust might vary across regions due to climate, population density, industrial activities, and interior decoration practices. By analyzing indoor dust samples from six geographical regions across China, this study aims to shed light on concentrations, profiles, and human exposure to 12 PAE alternatives and 9 their monoesters. Bis(2-ethylhexyl) benzene-1,4-dicarboxylate (DEHTP), tributyl 2-acetyloxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylate (ATBC), and tris(2-ethylhexyl) benzene-1,2,4-tricarboxylate (TOTM) were the main PAE alternatives in dust across all regions. The total concentrations of 12 PAE alternatives ranged from 0.125 to 4160 μg/g in indoor dust. High molecular weight PAE alternatives had significantly correlated concentrations (p < 0.05) based on Spearman analysis, suggesting their co-use in heat-resistant plastic products. A collective of nine monoesters were identified in most samples, with total concentrations ranging from 0.048 to 29.6 μg/g. The median concentrations of PAE alternatives were highest in North China (66.8 μg/g), while those of monoesters were highest in Southwest China (6.93 μg/g). A significant correlation (p < 0.05) between the concentrations of DEHTP and its monoester suggested that degradation could be a potential source of monoesters. Although hazard quotients (HQs) have been calculated to suggest that the current exposure is unlikely to pose a significant health risk, the lack of toxicity threshold data and the existence of additional exposure pathways necessitate a further confirmation.

Human skin absorption of three phthalates

Population studies reveal widespread exposure to phthalates. Understanding their absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion is vital to reduce exposure. However, data on skin absorption remain limited. We thus aim to characterize the skin permeation of three phthalates in a mixture, neat or in emulsion; di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (d4-DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (d4-DBP), and diethyl phthalate (d4-DEP), by comparing in vitro human skin (800 µm) permeation (24 hours) results using flow-through diffusion cells with urine results obtained from volunteers exposed to the same mixture applied to a forearm (40 cm2). Metabolites were analyzed in receptor fluids and urine. Phthalates crossed the skin barrier and metabolized into monoesters before elimination. Increased permeation was observed for phthalates in emulsion compared to neat substances, with polyethylene glycol (PEG) in the receptor fluid enhancing emulsion permeation, but not affecting neat substances. In vitro results mirrored in vivo findings: DEP showed rapid permeation (J: ∼2 ug/cm2/h) and urinary excretion peaking at six hours post-application, whereas DBP exhibited slower kinetics (J: ∼0.1 ug/cm2/h), with a urinary peak at 15-17 hours post-application. DEHP had minimal permeation (J: ∼0.0002 ug/cm2/h) with no observable urinary peak. These findings underscore the importance of comprehending phthalate skin absorption for effective exposure mitigation strategies.

Personal environmental exposure to plasticizers and organophosphate flame retardants using silicone wristbands and urine: Patterns, comparisons, and correlations

Plasticizers (PLs) and organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) are ubiquitous in the environment due to their widespread use and potential for leaching from consumer products. Environmental exposure is a critical aspect of the human exposome, revealing complex interactions between environmental contaminants and potential health effects. Silicone wristbands (SWBs) have emerged as a novel and non-invasive sampling device for assessing personal external exposure. In this study, SWBs were used as a proxy to estimate personal dermal adsorption (EDdermal) to PLs and OPFRs in Belgian participants for one week; four morning urine samples were also collected and analyzed for estimated daily intake (EDI). The results of the SWBs samples showed that all the participants were exposed to these chemicals, and the exposure was found to be highest for the legacy and alternative plasticizers (LP and AP), followed by the legacy and emerging OPFRs (LOPFR and EOPFR). In urine samples, the highest levels were observed for metabolites of diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-isobutyl phthalate (DiBP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) among LPs and di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT) for APs. Outliers among the participants indicated that there were other sources of exposure that were not identified. Results showed a significant correlation between EDdermal and EDI for DiBP, tris (2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP) and triphenyl phosphate (TPhP). These correlations indicated their suitability for predicting exposure via SWB monitoring for total chemical exposure. The results of this pilot study advance our understanding of SWB sampling and its relevance for predicting aggregate environmental chemical exposures, while highlighting the potential of SWBs as low-cost, non-invasive personal samplers for future research. This innovative approach has the potential to advance the assessment of environmental exposures and their impact on public health.

Highly sensitive and selective photoelectrochemical detection of bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate on broad-spectrum responsive and interfacial electronic interaction induced p-n BiOI/ZnO nanoarrays heterojunction

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), an endocrine disruptor, shows carcinogenic, teratogenic, mutagenic and estrogenic effects. It is easy to release from plastic materials and migrate to soil environment, causing serious pollution and posing a great threat to human health. In our work, a photoelectrochemical (PEC) sensing platform for DEHP detection was constructed using BiOI/ZnO nanoarrays (NRs) as the transducer species and the DEHP aptamers as the biological recognition elements. ZnO NRs with three-dimensional and large diameter area were prepared by hydrothermal method to increase the light absorption capacity. Coupling BiOI in a narrow band gap with ZnO NRs strengthened visible-light absorption, while promoting charge carrier separation and transportation. This was attributed to the generation of an internal electric field between BiOI and ZnO NRs, exhibiting obvious photocurrent response. The as-developed PEC sensing platform demonstrated great sensing performance for detection of DEHP. Furthermore, the photocurrent varied and the logarithm of DEHP concentration showed a linear relationship from 1.0 × 10-11 to 5.0 × 10-7 mol/L, and the limit of detection was estimated to be 3.8 × 10-12 mol/L. In the meantime, while evaluating its usage in real soil samples, satisfying outcomes were realized. Thus, the as-proposed PEC sensing platform provided a potential device to monitor DEHP in the environment.

Phthalate ester levels in agricultural soils of greenhouses, their potential sources, the role of plastic cover material, and dietary exposure calculated from modeled concentrations in tomato

Soil samples collected from 50 greenhouses (GHs) cultivated with tomatoes (plastic-covered:24, glass-covered:26), 5 open-area tomato growing farmlands, and 5 non-agricultural areas were analyzed in summer and winter seasons for 13 PAEs. The total concentrations (Σ13PAEs) in the GHs ranged from 212 to 2484 ng/g, wheeas the concentrations in open-area farm soils were between 240 and 1248 ng/g. Σ13PAE in non-agricultural areas was lower (35.0 - 585 ng/g). PAE exposure through the ingestion of tomatoes cultivated in GH soils and associated risks were estimated with Monte Carlo simulations after calculating the PAE concentrations in tomatoes using a partition-limited model. DEHP was estimated to have the highest concentrations in the tomatoes grown in both types of GHs. The mean carcinogenic risk caused by DEHP for tomato grown in plastic-covered GHs, glass-covered GHs, and open-area soils were 2.4 × 10-5, 1.7 × 10-5 and 1.1 × 10-5, respectively. Based on Positive Matrix Factorization results, plastic material usage in GHs (including plastic cover material source for plastic-GHs) was found to be the highest contributing source in both types of GHs. Microplastic analysis indicated that the ropes and irrigation pipes inside the GHs are important sources of PAE pollution. Pesticide application is the second highest contributing source.

Chronic di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate exposure at environmental-relevant doses induces osteoporosis by disturbing the differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a widely used plastic additive with persistent characteristics in the environment. This study was designed to investigate the detrimental effects of chronic DEHP exposure at environmental-relevant doses on bone metabolism and the underlying mechanisms. It was found that exposure to 25 μg/kg bw and 50 μg/kg bw DEHP for 29 weeks led to a reduction of whole-body bone mineral density (BMD), femur microstructure damage, decreased femur new bone formation, and increased femur bone marrow adipogenesis in C57BL/6 female mice, which was not observed in mice exposed to 5000 μg/kg bw DEHP. Further in vitro study showed that DEHP treatment robustly promoted adipogenic differentiation and suppressed osteogenic differentiation of the bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs). Mechanistically, DEHP exposure resulted in elevated expressions of DYRK1B, CDK5, PPARγ, and p-PPARγSer273 in both bone tissue and BMSCs. Interestingly, co-IP analysis showed potential interactions among DYRK1B, PPARγ, and CDK5. Lastly, antagonists of DYRK1B and CDK5 effectively alleviated the BMSCs differentiation disturbance induced by DEHP. These results suggest that DEHP may disturb the BMSCs differentiation by upregulating the PPARγ signaling which may be associated with the activation of DYRK1B and CDK5.

Toxic Ingredients in Personal Care Products: A Dermatological Perspective

Environmental dermatology is the study of how environmental factors affect the integumentary system. The environment includes natural and built habitats, encompassing ambient exposure, occupational exposures, and lifestyle exposures secondary to dietary and personal care choices. This review explores common toxins found in personal care products and packaging, such as bisphenols, parabens, phthalates, per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances, p-phenylenediamine, and formaldehyde. Exposure to these toxins has been associated with carcinogenic, obesogenic, or proinflammatory effects that can potentiate disease. In addition, these compounds have been implicated as endocrine-disrupting chemicals that can worsen dermatological conditions such as acne vulgaris, or dermatitis. Certain pollutants found in personal care products are not biodegradable and have the potential to bioaccumulate in humans. Therefore, even short-term exposure can cause long-lasting issues for communities. The skin is often the first point of contact for environmental exposures and serves as the conduit between environmental toxins and the human body. Therefore, it is important for dermatologists to understand common pollutants and their acute, subacute, and chronic impact on dermatological conditions to better diagnose and manage disease.

Multi-source exposure and health risks of phthalates among university students in Northeastern China

The endocrine disruptor phthalates (PAEs) are widely used as important chemical additives in a variety of areas around the globe. PAEs are toxic to reproduction and development and may adversely affect the health of adolescents. Risk assessments of exposure to PAEs from different sources are more reflective of actual exposure than single-source assessments. We used personal exposure parameters to estimate the dose of PAEs to 107 university students from six media (including dormitory dust, dormitory air, clothing, food, disposable food containers, and personal care products (PCPs)) and three exposure routes (including ingestion, inhalation, and dermal absorption). Individual factors and lifestyles may affect PAE exposure to varying degrees. Based on a positive matrix factorization (PMF) model, the results indicated that the main sources of PAEs in dust were indoor building materials and plastics, while PCPs and adhesives were the major sources of airborne PAEs. The relative contribution of each source to PAE exposure showed that food and air were the primary sources of dimethyl phthalate (DMP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP). Air source contributed the most to diethyl phthalate (DEP) exposure, followed by PCPs. Food was the most significant source of diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) exposure. Additionally, the exposure of DEHP to dust was not negligible. The ingestion pathway was the most dominant among the three exposure pathways, followed by dermal absorption. The non-carcinogenic risk of PAEs from the six sources was within acceptable limits. DEHP exhibits a low carcinogenic risk. We suggest university students maintain good hygienic and living habits to minimize exposure to PAEs.

Comparing the removal efficiency of diisobutyl phthalate by Bacillariophyta, Cyanophyta and Chlorophyta

The utilization of microalgae for both removing phthalate esters (PAEs) from wastewater and producing bioenergy has become a popular research topic. However, there is a lack of studies comparing the effectiveness of different types of microalgae in removing these harmful compounds. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate and compare the efficiency of various processes, such as hydrolysis, photolysis, adsorption, and biodegradation, in removing diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP) using six different species of microalgae. The study indicated that the average removal efficiency of DiBP (initial concentrations of 5, 0.5, and 0.05 mg L-1) by all six microalgae (initial cell density of 1 × 106 cells mL-1) was in the order of Scenedesmus obliquus (95.39 %) > Chlorella vulgaris (94.78 %) > Chroococcus sp. (91.16 %) > Cyclotella sp. (89.32 %) > Nitzschia sp. (88.38 %) > Nostoc sp. (84.33 %). The results of both hydrolysis and photolysis experiments revealed that the removal of DiBP had minimal impact, with respective removal efficiencies of only 0.89 % and 1.82 %. The adsorption efficiency of all six microalgae decreased significantly with increasing initial DiBP concentrations, while the biodegradation efficiency was elevated. Chlorella vulgaris and Chroococcus sp. demonstrated the highest adsorption and biodegradation efficiencies among the microalgae tested. Scenedesmus obliquus was chosen for the analysis of the degradation products of DiBP due to its exceptional ability to remove DiBP. The analysis yielded valuable results, identifying monoisobutyl phthalate (MiBP), phthalic acid (PA), and salicylic acid (SA) as the possible degradation products of DiBP. The possible degradation pathways mainly included dealkylation, the addition of hydroxyl groups, and decarboxylation. This study lays a theoretical foundation for the elimination of PAEs in the aquatic environment.

A comprehensive assessment of external exposure to persistent halogenated organic pollutants for residents in an e-waste recycling site, South China

Human skin wipes from 30 participants, air, dust, and food items were collected from a former electronic waste site in South China to provide a comprehensive understanding of residents' exposure to halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). The total concentration of halogenated organic pollutants (HOPs) in the dust, air, food and skin wipes ranged 240-25000 ng/g, 130-2500 pg/m3, 0.08-590 ng/g wet weight, and 69-28000 ng/m2, respectively. Wild fish, vegetables, and air were dominated by PCBs, whereas dust, livestock, and poultry were dominated by HFRs. The HOP concentrations were several orders of magnitude higher in local foodstuffs than in market foodstuffs. The chemical composition on the forehead was remarkably different from that on the hand. The importance of different exposure routes depends on the residents' food choices, except decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE). For residents who consumed a 100-foot diet (mainly egg) and local wild fish, diet ingestion overwhelmed other exposure routes, and PCBs were mainly contributed by fish and HFRs by egg. For residents who consumed market food, the dermal absorption of most PCB congeners and dust ingestion of highly brominated flame retardants were relatively prominent. Inhalation was found to be a crucial route for pentabromoethylbenzene (PBEB).

Legacy and Emerging Plasticizers and Stabilizers in PVC Floorings and Implications for Recycling

Hazardous chemicals in building and construction plastics can lead to health risks due to indoor exposure and may contaminate recycled materials. We systematically sampled new polyvinyl chloride floorings on the Swiss market (n = 151). We performed elemental analysis by X-ray fluorescence, targeted and suspect gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of ortho-phthalates and alternative plasticizers, and bioassay tests for cytotoxicity and oxidative stress, and endocrine, mutagenic, and genotoxic activities (for selected samples). Surprisingly, 16% of the samples contained regulated chemicals above 0.1 wt %, mainly lead and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). Their presence is likely related to the use of recycled PVC in new flooring, highlighting that uncontrolled recycling can delay the phase-out of hazardous chemicals. Besides DEHP, 29% of the samples contained other ortho-phthalates (mainly diisononyl and diisodecyl phthalates, DiNP and DiDP) above 0.1 wt %, and 17% of the samples indicated a potential to cause biological effects. Considering some overlap between these groups, they together make up an additional 35% of the samples of potential concern. Moreover, both suspect screening and bioassay results indicate the presence of additional potentially hazardous substances. Overall, our study highlights the urgent need to accelerate the phase-out of hazardous substances, increase the transparency of chemical compositions in plastics to protect human and ecosystem health, and enable the transition to a safe and sustainable circular economy.

Facile fabrication of carbon nanotube hollow microspheres as a fiber coating for ultrasensitive solid-phase microextraction of phthalic acid esters in tea beverages

The efficient extraction of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) is challenging due to their extremely low concentration, complicated matrices and hydrophilicity. Herein, hollow microspheres, as an ideal coating, possess significant potential for solid-phase microextraction (SPME) due to their fascinating properties. In this study, multiwalled carbon nanotube hollow microspheres (MWCNT-HMs) were utilized as a fiber coating for the SPME of PAEs from tea beverages. MWCNT-HMs were obtained by dissolving the polystyrene (PS) cores with organic solvents. Interestingly, MWCNT-HMs well maintain the morphology of the MWCNTs@PS precursors. The layer-by-layer (LBL) assembly of MWCNTs on PS microsphere templates was achieved through electrostatic interactions. Six PAEs, di-ethyl phthalate (DEP), di-iso-butyl phthalate (DIBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-octyl phthalate (DOP), were selected as target analytes for assessing the efficiency of the coating for SPME. The stirring rate, sample solution pH and extraction time were optimized by using the Box-Behnken design. Under optimal working conditions, the proposed MWCNT-HMs/SPME was coupled with gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) to achieve high enrichment factors (118-2137), wide linearity (0.0004-10 μg L-1), low limits of detection (0.00011-0.0026 μg L-1) and acceptable recovery (80.2-108.5%) for the detection of PAEs. Therefore, the MWCNT-HM coated fibers are promising alternatives in the SPME method for the sensitive detection of PAEs at trace levels in tea beverages.

The role of estrogen receptors (ERs)-Notch pathway in thyroid toxicity induced by Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) exposure: Population data and in vitro studies

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to assess the exposure level and risk of Di-2-ethylhexyl Phthalate (DEHP) among adults in Jilin Province, China, clarify the impact of DEHP on human thyroid function, and to explore the role of estrogen receptors (ERs)-Notch signaling pathway in the effect of DEHP metabolites on thyroid hormones based on population data and in vitro experiments.

METHODS

312 adults participated in this study. Urinary DEHP metabolites were determined by high performance liquid chromatography coupled to a tandem mass spectrometer (HPLC-MS/MS). Two pharmacokinetic models were used to evaluate the estimated daily intake (EDI) and hazard quotient (HQ) of the adults. Multiple linear regression and mediating effect models were used to evaluate the target associations. In cell experiments, thyroid follicular epithelial (Nthy-ori3-1) cells were exposed to mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) for testing. The inhibitions of ERα and Notch pathway were conducted by siRNA and Notch pathway inhibitor DAPT.

RESULTS

The detection rate of five DEHP metabolites was 97.1∼100.0%. The HQ value of 0.3% of adults was higher than 1. The levels of urinary DEHP metabolites were significantly correlated with thyrotropin (TSH), thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), total triiodothyronine (TT3), total thyroxine (TT4), free triiodothyronine (FT3) and free thyroxine (FT4) and gene (estrogen receptor α (ERα), Notch1, Dll4) levels. The ERα-Notch pathway played a mediating role in the association between DEHP metabolite levels and FT4. The cell results showed, the levels of FT3 and FT4 in cell supernatant decreased after MEHP exposure, and the downward trend was reversed after ERα and notch pathways were inhibited, notch pathway genes also decreased after ERα inhibition.

CONCLUSION

Adults in the Jilin Province of China were widely exposed to DEHP. ERs-Notch pathway played an important role in the effect of DEHP metabolites on thyroid hormones.

Evaluating the risk of phthalate and non-phthalate plasticizers in dust samples from 100 Japanese houses

Phthalates are widely used as plasticizer and associated with various health issues. Recently, non-phthalate plasticizers are replacing phthalates; however, the exposure to these substances and the risk in Japan is unclear. In this study, we assessed the concentrations of phthalates, non-phthalate plasticizers, and phthalate degradation products in house dust and determined their respective exposure risks via oral and dermal routes. Twelve phthalates, seven non-phthalate plasticizers, and two degradation products were determined in the house dust obtained from 100 Japanese homes. The median concentration of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), accounting for 85 % of the total concentration of phthalates and non-phthalate plasticizers detected in this study, was 2.1 × 103 μg/g of dust. Apart from DEHP, diisononyl phthalate (DINP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT) were the most abundant in the house dust, accounting for 6.2 % (median: 1.7 × 102 μg/g of dust) and 6.1 % (median: 1.7 × 102 μg/g of dust) of the total concentrations, respectively. DEHP and DEHT concentrations in house dust were higher in apartment and small houses (floor area: ≤30 m2 or 31-60 m2 for DEHP and 31-60 m2 for DEHT) than in detached and large houses (floor area: ≥121 m2). Conversely, di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) concentrations were significantly higher in detached and large houses (floor area: ≥121 m2) than in apartment and small houses (floor area: ≤30 m2). The total hazard quotient (HQ), using the maximum concentration in house dust, revealed that oral and dermal exposure to house dust was 1.3 × 10-6-0.11 for adults (all substances) and 1.6 × 10-5-2.2 × 10-2 for preschool children (except for DnBP and DEHP), suggesting no risk. The HQs for DnBP and DEHP exposure via house dust for preschool children using the maximum values were 0.46 and 1.2, and 6.0 × 10-3 and 0.18 using the median values, indicating that risk of DEHP exposure should be exhaustively determined by considering other exposure routes that were not evaluated in this study, such as diet.

Relationship between the use of plastics in refrigerator food storage and urine phthalate metabolites: the Korean National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS) cycle 3

Background

Plastics are high-molecular-weight materials composed of long carbon chains. They are prevalent in daily life, present in various items such as food containers and microwavable packaging. Phthalates, an additive used to enhance their flexibility, are endocrine-disrupting chemicals. We utilized the data from the Korean National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS) cycle 3, representing the general South Korean population, to investigate the relationship between the use of plastics in refrigerator food storage and phthalate exposure.

Methods

We assessed 3,333 adult participants (aged ≥ 19 years) including 1,526 men and 1,807 women, using data from KoNEHS cycle 3. Using the 75th percentile concentration, urine phthalate metabolites were categorized into high and low-concentration groups. χ2 test was conducted to analyze variations in the distribution of each variable, considering sociodemographic factors, health-related factors, food intake, the use of plastics, and the concentration of urine phthalate metabolites as the variables. To calculate odds ratios (ORs) for the high-concentration group of urine phthalate metabolites based on the use of plastics in refrigerator food storage, logistic regression analysis was conducted.

Results

In men, the use of plastics in refrigerator food storage had significantly higher adjusted ORs compared to those using the others. The adjusted ORs were calculated as follows: mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP) had an OR of 1.35 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.05-1.72), mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP) had an OR of 1.48 (95% CI: 1.16-1.88), mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP) had an OR of 1.32 (95% CI: 1.04-1.66), ∑di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (∑DEHP) had an OR of 1.37 (95% CI: 1.08-1.74) and mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP) had an OR of 1.44 (95% CI: 1.13-1.84).

Conclusion

The concentrations of urine phthalate metabolites (MEHHP, MEOHP, MECPP, ∑DEHP, and MnBP) were significantly higher in men who used plastics in refrigerator food storage compared to those using the others.

Reducing Transdermal Uptake of Semivolatile Plasticizers from Indoor Environments: A Clothing Intervention

Models and laboratory studies suggest that everyday clothing influences the transdermal uptake of semivolatile organic compounds, including phthalate plasticizers, from indoor environments. However, this effect has not been documented in environmental exposure settings. In this pilot study, we quantified daily excretion of 17 urinary metabolites (μg/day) for phthalates and phthalate alternatives in nine participants during 5 days. On Day 0, baseline daily excretion was determined in participants' urine. Starting on Day 1, participants refrained from eating phthalate-heavy foods and using personal care products. On Days 3 and 4, participants wore precleaned clothing as an exposure intervention. We observed a reduction in the daily excretion of phthalates during the intervention; mono-n-butyl phthalate, monoisobutyl phthalate (MiBP), and monobenzyl phthalate were significantly reduced by 35, 38, and 56%, respectively. Summed metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) were also reduced (27%; not statistically significant). A similar reduction among phthalate alternatives was not observed. The daily excretion of MiBP during the nonintervention period strongly correlated with indoor air concentrations of diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), suggesting that inhalation and transdermal uptake of DiBP from the air in homes are dominant exposure pathways. The results indicate that precleaned clothing can significantly reduce environmental exposure to phthalates and phthalate alternatives.

Quinoline Bridging Hyperconjugated Covalent Organic Framework as Solid-Phase Microextraction Coating for Ultrasensitive Determination of Phthalate Esters in Water Samples

Phthalate esters (PAEs) are widely distributed in the environment, and this has caused serious health and safety concerns. Development of rapid and ultrasensitive identification and analysis methods for phthalate esters is urgent and highly desirable. In this work, a novel nitrogen-rich covalent organic framework (N-TTI) derived quinoline bridging covalent organic framework (N-QTTI) was fabricated and used as a solid-phase microextraction (SPME) coating for the ultrasensitive determination of phthalate esters in water samples. The physical and chemical properties of N-QTTI were investigated sufficiently. The N-QTTI-coated fiber demonstrates a superior enrichment performance than either the N-TTI-coated fiber or commercial fibers under the optimized SPME conditions. For the first time, we propose a semi-immersion strategy for the extraction of PAEs from water samples based on N-QTTI-coated SPME fibers. Combined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), the developed method N-QTTI-SPME-GC-MS exhibits a wide linear range with a satisfactory linearity (R2 ≥ 0.995). The limits of detection (LOD, S/N = 3) and the limits of quantification (LOQs, S/N = 10) were 0.17-1.70 and 0.57-5.60 ng L-1, respectively. The repeatability of the new method was examined using relative standard deviations (RSDs) between intraday and interday data, which were 0.38-7.98% and 1.22-6.60%, respectively. The spiked recoveries at three levels of 10, 100, and 1000 ng L-1 were in the range of 90.0-106.2% with RSDs of less than 7.48%. The enrichment factors ranged from 291 to 17180. When compared to previously published works, the LODs of the newly established method were improved 5-5400 times, and the enrichment factors were increased by at least 8 times. The absorption mechanism was investigated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and noncovalent interaction force analysis. The technique was successfully employed for detecting PAEs in water samples.

Co-occurrence of phthalate and non-phthalate plasticizers in dust and hand wipes: A comparison of levels across various sources

E-waste dismantlers' occupational exposure to plasticizers, particularly non-phthalate (NPAE) plasticizers, is poorly understood. This study monitored 11 phthalates (PAEs) and 16 NPAEs in dust and hand wipe samples from Central China e-waste workplace and ordinary homes. Concentrations of plasticizers in dust from e-waste dismantling workshops (median: 217 μg/g) were significantly lower than that from ordinary homes (462 μg/g; p < 0.01), however, the trend was similar but not significant in hand wipes from these two scenarios (50.2 vs. 72.3 μg/m2; p = 0.139). PAEs were still the dominant plasticizers, which is, on average, 5.46 and 3.58-fold higher than NPAEs. In all samples, di-(2ethylhexyl) phthalate (65.4%) and tri-octyl trimellitate (44.9%) were the most common PAE and NPAE plasticizers. Increasing dust concentrations of di-iso-nonyl ester 1,2-cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid, citrates and sebacates were significantly associated with their levels in worker's hand wipe, by contrast, this trend was not found in general population. Dust ingestion was the main channel, followed by hand-to-mouth contact, all participants' daily plasticizer intakes (median: 154 ng/kg bw/day) are within safety limits. Our work highlights knowledge gaps about co-exposure to PAEs and NPAEs by multiple pathways in occupational e-waste workers, which could provide baseline data in the future.

Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate transfer from polyvinyl chloride sheet to several kinds of particles

Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) transfer from a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheet to 9 kinds of particles, namely, polyethylene particles (1-10, 45-53, 90-106 μm), soda lime glass particles (1-38, 45-53, 90-106 μm), black forest soil, carbon black, and cotton linter, for the particle weights of 0.3, 1, 3, and 12 mg/cm2, were determined for 1, 3, 7, and 14 days using a passive flux sampler (PFS), as well as standard dust. Transfer amounts to small polyethylene particles (1-10 μm), black forest soil, and carbon black were large (8.5, 16, and 48 μg/mg-particle, respectively, for 0.3 mg/cm2 for 14 days) and were similar to standard house dust (35 μg/mg-particle). On the other hand, transfer amount to large polyethylene particles (0.056-0.12 μg/mg-particle), soda lime glass (0.18-0.31 μg/mg-particle), and cotton linter (0.42-0.78 μg/mg-particle) were much lower. The DEHP transfer amount to the particles was proportional to the surface area of the particles, but not associated with the organic content. The DEHP transfer amount per surface area to small polyethylene particles was larger than that of other particles, suggesting the contribution of absorption into the polyethylene particle. However, for the larger polyethylene particles with different manufacturing process that may have different crystallinity, the contribution of absorption was small. The amount of DEHP transferred to soda lime glass did not differ from 1 to 14 days, suggesting that an adsorption equilibrium was reached after 1 day. The estimated value of particle/gas partition coefficients of DEHP, Kpg, of small polyethylene, black forest soil and carbon black were much higher (3.6, 7.1, and 18 m3/mg, respectively) than those of large polyethylene and soda lime glass particles (0.028-0.11 m3/mg).

Effects of Dibutylphthalate and Steroid Hormone Mixture on Human Prostate Cells

Phthalates are a family of aromatic chemical compounds mainly used as plasticizers. Among phthalates, di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) is a low-molecular-weight phthalate used as a component of many cosmetic products, such as nail polish, and other perfumed personal care products. DBP has toxic effects on reproductive health, inducing testicular damage and developmental malformations. Inside the male reproductive system, the prostate gland reacts to both male and female sex steroids. For this reason, it represents an important target of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), compounds that are able to affect the estrogen and androgen signaling pathways, thus interfering with prostate homeostasis and inducing several prostate pathologies. The aim of this project was to investigate the effects of DBP, alone and in combination with testosterone (T), 17β-estradiol (E2), and both, on the normal PNT1A human prostate cell-derived cell line, to mimic environmental contamination. We showed that DBP and all of the tested mixtures increase cell viability through activation of both estrogen receptor α (ERα) and androgen receptor (AR). DBP modulated steroid receptor levels in a nonmonotonic way, and differently to endogenous hormones. In addition, DBP translocated ERα to the nucleus over different durations and for a more prolonged time than E2, altering the normal responsiveness of prostate cells. However, DBP alone seemed not to influence AR localization, but AR was continuously and persistently activated when DBP was used in combination. Our results show that DBP alone, and in mixture, alters redox homeostasis in prostate cells, leading to a greater increase in cell oxidative susceptibility. In addition, we also demonstrate that DBP increases the migratory potential of PNT1A cells. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that DBP, alone and in mixtures with endogenous steroid hormones, acts as an EDC, resulting in an altered prostate cell physiology and making these cells more prone to cancer transformation.

Associations between lifestyle factors and levels of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), phthalates and parabens in follicular fluid in women undergoing fertility treatment

BACKGROUND

Concerns have been raised whether exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can alter reproductive functions and play a role in the aetiology of infertility in women. With increasing evidence of adverse effects, information on factors associated with exposure is necessary to form firm recommendations aiming at reducing exposure.

OBJECTIVE

Our aim was to identify associations between lifestyle factors including the home environment, use of personal care products (PCP), and dietary habits and concentrations of EDCs in ovarian follicular fluid.

METHODS

April-June 2016, 185 women undergoing ovum pick-up for in vitro fertilisation in Sweden were recruited. Correlation analyses were performed between self-reported lifestyle factors and concentration of EDCs analysed in follicular fluid. Habits related to cleaning, PCPs, and diet were assessed together with concentration of six per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) [PFHxS, PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, PFDA and PFUnDA], methyl paraben and eight phthalate metabolites [MECPP, MEHPP, MEOHP, MEHP, cxMinCH, cxMiNP, ohMiNP, MEP, MOHiBP]. Spearman's partial correlations were adjusted for age, parity and BMI.

RESULTS

Significant associations were discovered between multiple lifestyle factors and concentrations of EDCs in ovarian follicular fluid. After correcting p values for multiple testing, frequent use of perfume was associated with MEP (correlation ρ = 0.41 (confidence interval 0.21-0.47), p < 0.001); hens' egg consumption was positively associated with PFOS (ρ = 0.30 (0.15-0.43), p = 0.007) and PFUnDA (ρ = 0.27 (0.12-0.40), p = 0.036). White fish consumption was positively associated with PFUnDA (ρ = 0.34 (0.20-0.47), p < 0.001) and PFDA (ρ = 0.27 (0.13-0.41), p = 0.028). More correlations were discovered when considering the raw uncorrected p values. Altogether, our results suggest that multiple lifestyle variables affect chemical contamination of follicular fluid.

IMPACT STATEMENT

This study shows how lifestyle factors correlate with the level of contamination in the ovary by both persistent and semi-persistent chemicals in women of reproductive age. Subsequently, these data can be used to form recommendations regarding lifestyle to mitigate possible negative health outcomes and fertility problems associated with chemical exposure, and to inform chemical policy decision making. Our study can also help form the basis for the design of larger observational and intervention studies to examine possible effects of lifestyle changes on exposure levels, and to unravel the complex interactions between biological factors, lifestyle and chemical exposures in more detail.

Exposure Trends to the Non-phthalate Plasticizers DEHTP, DINCH, and DEHA in Children from 2012 to 2017: The Hokkaido Study

Phthalates owing to their endocrine-disrupting effects are regulated in certain products, leading to their replacement with substitutions such as di-2-ethylhexyl terephthalate (DEHTP), 1,2-cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid di(isononyl) ester (DINCH), and di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA). However, information on human exposure to these substitutes, especially in susceptible subpopulations such as children, is limited. Thus, we examined the levels and exposure trends of DEHTP, DINCH, and DEHA metabolites in 7 year-old Japanese school children. In total, 180 urine samples collected from 2012 to 2017 were used to quantify 10 DEHTP, DINCH, and DEHA metabolites via isotope dilution liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. DEHTP and DINCH metabolites were detected in 95.6 and 92.2% of the children, respectively, and DEHA was not detected. This study, annually conducted between 2012 and 2017, revealed a significant (p < 0.05) 5-fold increase in DEHTP metabolites and a 2-fold increase in DINCH metabolites. However, the maximum estimated internal exposures were still below the health-based guidance and toxicological reference values. Exposure levels to DEHTP and DINCH have increased considerably in Japanese school children. DEHA is less relevant. Future studies are warranted to closely monitor the increasing trend in different aged and larger populations and identify the potential health effects and sources contributing to increasing exposure and intervene if necessary.

The Association between Maternal Urinary Phthalate Concentrations and Blood Pressure in Pregnancy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Phthalates are commonly found in a wide range of environments and have been linked to several negative health outcomes. While earlier research indicated a potential connection between phthalate exposure and blood pressure (BP) during pregnancy, the results of these studies remain inconclusive. The objective of this meta-analysis was to elucidate the relationship between phthalate exposure and BP in pregnancy. A comprehensive literature search was carried out with PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Science, and pertinent studies published up until 5 March 2023 were reviewed. Random-effects models were utilized to consolidate the findings of continuous outcomes, such as diastolic and systolic BP, as well as the binary outcomes of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP). The present study included a total of 10 studies. First-trimester MBP exposure exhibited a positive association with mean systolic and diastolic BP during both the second and third trimesters (β = 1.05, 95% CI: 0.27, 1.83, I² = 93%; β = 0.40, 95% CI: 0.05, 0.74, I² = 71%, respectively). Second-trimester monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP) exposure was positively associated with systolic and diastolic BP in the third trimester (β = 0.57, 95% CI: 0.01, 1.13, I² = 0; β = 0.70, 95% CI: 0.27, 1.13, I² = 0, respectively). Conversely, first-trimester mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) exposure demonstrated a negative association with mean systolic and diastolic BP during the second and third trimesters (β = -0.32, 95% CI: -0.60, -0.05, I² = 0; β = -0.32, 95% CI: -0.60, -0.05, I² = 0, respectively). Additionally, monoethyl phthalate (MEP) exposure was found to be associated with an increased risk of HDP (OR = 1.12, 95% CI: 1.02, 1.23, I² = 26%). Our study found that several phthalate metabolites were associated with increased systolic and diastolic BP, as well as the risk of HDP across pregnancies. Nevertheless, given the limited number of studies analyzed, additional research is essential to corroborate these findings and elucidate the molecular mechanisms linking phthalates to BP changes during pregnancy.

Incorporation of Fast-Elimination Chemicals in Hair Is Governed by Pharmacokinetics-Implications for Exposure Assessment

Mechanisms governing chemicals' incorporation in hair are incompletely understood, and gaps remain to link the concentration of chemicals in hair to level of exposure and internal dose present in the body. This study assesses the relevance of hair analysis for the biomonitoring of exposure to fast-elimination compounds and investigates the role of pharmacokinetics (PK) in their incorporation in hair. Rats were administered with pesticides, bisphenols, phthalates, and DINCH over 2 months. Hairs were analyzed for 28 chemicals/metabolites to investigate correlations between their concentration in hair and the dose administered to the animals. Urine collected over 24 h after gavage was used to determine chemicals' PK and to investigate their influence on incorporation into hair by means of linear mixed models (LMMs). Eighteen chemicals presented a significant correlation between concentration in hair and level of exposure. In models combining all chemicals, agreement between concentration in hair predicted by LMM and experimental values was moderate (R² = 0.19) but significantly increased when PK were included in the models (R² = 0.37), and even more when chemical families were considered separately (e.g., R² = 0.98 for pesticides). This study shows that pharmacokinetics mediate incorporation of chemicals in hair and suggests the relevance of hair for assessing exposure to fast-elimination chemicals.

Exposure to phthalates and DiNCH among preschool children in Sweden: Urinary metabolite concentrations and predictors of exposure

Several plasticizing chemicals induce endocrine disrupting effects in humans, and the indoor environment is suggested to be a source of exposure. As children are particularly vulnerable to the effects from exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), it is essential to monitor exposure to EDCs such as phthalates and non-phthalate plasticizers in indoor environments intended for use by children. The aim of this study was to assess everyday plasticizer exposure among preschool-aged children in Sweden by measuring urinary plasticizer metabolite concentrations. In addition, it was investigated whether the concentrations would be altered as a result of the children spending part of the day at preschool, in comparison with weekend exposure, when they may spend more time in home environments or engage in various weekend and leisure activities. For this purpose, fourteen metabolites from eight phthalates (di-ethylhexyl phthalate, DEHP; di-n-butyl phthalate, DnBP; di-isobutyl phthalate, DiBP; butyl-benzyl phthalate, BBzP; di-iso-nonyl phthalate, DiNP; di-propylheptyl phthalate, DPHP; di-iso-decyl phthalate, DiDP; and di-ethyl phthalate, DEP) and one non-phthalate plasticizer (di-isononyl cyclohexane 1,2-dicarboxylate, DiNCH) were measured in 206 urine samples collected at four occasions, i.e. twice during the winter and twice during the spring from 54 children (mean 5.1 years, SD 0.94) enrolled at eight preschools in Sweden. A detection frequency (DF) of 99.9% for the 14 metabolites indicates a widespread exposure to plasticizers among children in Sweden. Compared to previous Swedish and international studies performed during approximately the same time period, high urinary concentrations of monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP), a metabolite from the strictly regulated BBzP, were measured in this study (median 17 ng/mL). Overall, high urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations were observed in this study compared to the US CDC-NHANES from the same time period and similar age-group. Compared to European studies, however, similar concentrations were observed for most metabolites and the urinary concentrations from few participating children exceeded the human biomonitoring guidance values (HBM-GV) for children. After days with preschool attendance, lower urinary concentrations of metabolites originating from DEP and phthalates that are strictly regulated within the EU REACH legislation (DEHP, DnBP, and DiBP) and higher concentrations of metabolites originating from DiNP, DPHP, and DiDP, i.e. less or non-regulated phthalates were found compared the urinary concentrations of these metabolites in weekends. This may indicate that factors in the indoor environment itself are important for the extent of the plasticizer exposure. All the analyzed metabolites were measured in lower concentrations in urine collected from children attending preschools built or renovated after the year 2000, while no seasonal differences were observed in this study.

Secondary oxidized di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate metabolites may be associated with progression from isolated premature thelarche to central precocious or early puberty

Phthalate esters (PAEs) may act as estrogen receptor agonists, and their relationship with precocious puberty is a global health concern. However, their role in isolated premature thelarche (IPT) progression remains unclear. We conducted a cohort study investigating the relationship between IPT progression and urinary PAE metabolites. Girls with IPT aged 6-8 years were regularly followed up every three months for one year. Clinical data and urine PAE metabolite levels were collected. Participants who progressed to central precocious puberty (CPP) or early puberty (EP) had significantly higher ovarian volume, breast Tanner stage, and levels of the creatinine-adjusted urinary secondary oxidized di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) metabolites (Σ₄DEHP). Breast Tanner stage (odds ratio [OR] = 7.041, p = 0.010), ovarian volume (OR = 3.603, p = 0.019), and Σ₄DEHP (OR = 1.020, p = 0.005) were independent risk factors for IPT progression. For each 10 µg/g/Cr increase in the urine level of Σ₄DEHP, the risk of progression from IPT to CPP/EP within one year increased by 20%. This study demonstrated that the breast Tanner stage, ovarian volume, and Σ₄DEHP in urine were independent risk factors for IPT progression, and Σ₄DEHP may be associated with the progression of IPT to CPP or EP.

Seasonal variations of airborne phthalates and novel non-phthalate plasticizers in a test residence in cold regions: Effects of temperature, humidity, total suspended particulate matter, and sources

As a class of plasticizers widely used in consumer products, some phthalate esters (PAEs) have been restricted due to their adverse health effects and ubiquitous presence, leading to the introduction of alternative non-phthalates plasticizers (NPPs) to the market. However, few studies focus on the influence of environmental parameters on the presence of these plasticizers and the potential human health risks for people living in poorly ventilated indoor spaces in cold regions. We investigated the trends of PAEs and NPPs in air in a typical indoor residence in northern China for over one year. The air concentrations of PAEs were significantly higher than those of NPPs (p < 0.05), indicating that PAEs are still the dominant plasticizers currently being used in the studied residence. PAEs showed seasonal fluctuation patterns of the highest levels found in summer and autumn. The temperature and relative humidity dependence for most PAEs and NPPs decreased with decreasing vapor pressure. Concentrations of the high molecular weight NPPs and PAEs positively correlated with total suspended particles (TSP). It is worth noting that the peak concentrations of PAEs and NPPs were found when the haze occurred in autumn. Principal component analysis (PCA) suggested the diverse applications of PAEs and NPPs in the indoor environment. The hazard index (HI) values observed in this study were all below international guidelines (<1); however, the average carcinogenic risk (CR) values for some compounds exceeded acceptable levels (One in a million), which raised concerns about the possibility of carcinogenicity for people living indoors for long periods of time in cold regions.

Nonphthalate Plasticizers in House Dust from Multiple Countries: An Increasing Threat to Humans

Along with the restrictions of phthalate esters (PAEs), a variety of nonphthalate plasticizers (NPPs) have been increasingly used for industrial needs. Knowledge remains limited on the environmental occurrences, fate, and human exposure risks of many emerging NPPs. In this study, we investigated a suite of 45 NPPs along with the major PAEs in house dust from five regions in the Asia-Pacific region and the United States. The findings clearly demonstrated ubiquitous occurrences of many NPPs in the home environment, particularly acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC), tricapryl trimellitate (TCTM), trioctyl trimellitate (TOTM), glycerol monooleate (GMO), methyl oleate (MO), and diisobutyl adipate (DiBA). The median total concentrations of NPPs ranged from 17.8 to 252 μg/g in the study regions, while the mean ratios of ΣNPPs to ΣPAEs ranged from 0.19 (Hanoi) to 0.72 (Adelaide). Spatial differences were observed not only for the chemical abundances but also for the composition profiles and the hazard quotient (HQ) prioritization of individual chemicals. Although the current exposure may unlikely cause significant health risks according to the HQ estimation, potential exposure risks cannot be overlooked, due to the lack of appropriate toxic threshold data, the existence of additional exposure pathways, and possible cocktail effects from coexisting NPPs and PAEs.

A new insight into the emission source of DDT in indoor environment from rural area of South China and comprehensive human health exposure assessment

Human exposure to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) and the subsequent risk to human health remain an important concern due to the "new" input of DDTs in the environment, especially since exposure to DDTs in indoor microenvironments is often ignored. In this study, we identified a new source of DDT emission in indoor environments and evaluated the health risk from the exposure to DDTs by investigating DDTs in indoor and outdoor dust, air, and coatings of household items in rural areas of Qingyuan, South China. The concentrations of DDTs in house dust and air were < MQL (method quantification limit)-3450 ng/g (median 42.4 ng/g) and 22.7-965 pg/m³ (median 49.5 pg/m³), respectively, which were significantly higher than the outdoor DDT values. Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) was the main isomer in air samples, while DDT was the dominant isomer in indoor dust. Significant correlations between different DDT isomers were observed in indoor samples but not in outdoor samples. Furniture coating was identified as a source of DDTs in the indoor dust. The total daily exposure dose of DDTs (1.75 × 10^-2 ng/kg bw/day for adults and 1.28 × 10^-1 ng/kg bw/day for toddlers) through inhalation, dust ingestion, and dermal contact was found unlikely to pose a health risk. Our findings provide new insights into the emission sources and health risks caused by DDT indoors, highlighting the need to further investigate the toxicity mechanisms of parent DDT compound.

Time-trends in human urinary concentrations of phthalates and substitutes DEHT and DINCH in Asian and North American countries (2009-2019)

BACKGROUND

Many phthalates are environmental pollutants and toxic to humans. Following phthalate regulations, human exposure to phthalates has globally decreased with time in European countries, the US and Korea. Conversely, exposure to their substitutes DEHT and/or DINCH has increased. In other countries, including China, little is known on the time-trends in human exposure to these plasticizers.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to estimate time-trends in the urinary concentrations of phthalates, DEHT, and DINCH metabolites, in general population from non-European countries, in the last decade.

METHODS

We compiled human biomonitoring (HBM) data from 123 studies worldwide in a database termed "PhthaLit". We analyzed time-trends in the urinary concentrations of the excreted metabolites of various phthalates as well as DEHT and DINCH per metabolite, age group, and country/region, in 2009-2019. Additionally, we compared urinary metabolites levels between continents.

RESULTS

We found solid time-trends in adults and/or children from the US, Canada, China and Taiwan. DEHP metabolites decreased in the US and Canada. Conversely in Asia, 5oxo- and 5OH-MEHP (DEHP metabolites) increased in Chinese children. For low-weight phthalates, the trends showed a mixed picture between metabolites and countries. Notably, MnBP (a DnBP metabolite) increased in China. The phthalate substitutes DEHT and DINCH markedly increased in the US.

SIGNIFICANCE

We addressed the major question of time-trends in human exposure to phthalates and their substitutes and compared the results in different countries worldwide.

IMPACT

Phthalates account for more than 50% of the plasticizer world market. Because of their toxicity, some phthalates have been regulated. In turn, the consumption of non-phthalate substitutes, such as DEHT and DINCH, is growing. Currently, phthalates and their substitutes show high detection percentages in human urine. Concerning time-trends, several studies, mainly in Europe, show a global decrease in phthalate exposure, and an increase in the exposure to phthalate substitutes in the last decade. In this study, we address the important question of time-trends in human exposure to phthalates and their substitutes and compare the results in different countries worldwide.

Is e-waste a source of phthalate and novel non-phthalate plasticizers? A comparison study on indoor dust

Nine traditional phthalate plasticizers and 33 novel non-phthalate plasticizers were determined in indoor dust from a typical e-waste recycling area. The median concentrations ranged from <LOQ to 22,700 ng/g for phthalates and from <LOQ to 1250 ng/g for non-phthalates. Bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-isononyl phthalate (DINP) were the two major phthalates in dust, while glycerol monooleate (GMO) and methyl oleate (MO) were the predominant non-phthalates. Different pollutant patterns among different sites implied multiple sources of the plasticizers. Using the ratio of DINP/DEHP as an indicator, we evaluated the impact of e-waste source emission on the sampling sites, resulting in an impact rank of Matou > Dakeng > Baihetang > Shiding > Jieyang, which was consistent with the local e-waste dismantling activities and supported by polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) levels. The correlations between chemical levels and the indicators indicated that most phthalates and non-phthalate plasticizers in the dust, might not be primarily influenced by e-waste emission sources. Additionally, the estimated median human exposures of phthalates and non-phthalates via dust ingestion were 30.6 and 1.82 ng/kg/day for adults, and 299 and 17.8 ng/kg/day for toddlers respectively, indicating negligible health risks.

Human exposure to phthalate esters in soils embodied in interregional food trade in China

The ubiquitous occurrence of phthalate esters (PAEs) in agricultural soil results in their inevitable accumulation in crops, potentially increasing the risk of human exposure to PAEs via daily food intake. Dietary health risk of PAEs not only depends on locally produced food but also the imported food from other regions. However, the impact of interregional food trade on human dietary exposure to PAEs has been seldom assessed. Herein, we investigated the impact of interregional food trade on the dietary exposure to PAEs that contributed from soil contamination in China. The average daily dietary intake of PAEs for the Chinese general population was 24.3 μg/kg/day when assuming the total consumption of crops from local market only, while the average daily dietary intake of PAEs for the Chinese general population was decreased by 2.9% when the effects of interregional food trade were involved into the calculation. Additionally, the interregional food trade remarkably increased the daily dietary intake of PAEs in the regions of Beijing-Tianjin region (47.8%), North (21.4%) and Central (4.26%). As a result, the hazard quotient value of PAEs in the regions of Beijing-Tianjin region, North and Central increased by 29.4%, 11.0% and 5.0%, respectively, owing to the consumption of imported crops from the highly PAEs contaminated regions. In contrast, the daily intake and hazard quotient value of PAEs in the regions of Central Coast, Northwest, Northeast and South Coast decreased due to the interregional trade. These results indicated that the interregional food trade promoted the transfer of PAEs between regions and thus altered the potential risk to the local population. Overall, this study highlights the importance of taking the interregional food trade into account to provide a more accurate risk assessment of dietary exposure to pollutants.

Multi-omics signatures of the human early life exposome

Environmental exposures during early life play a critical role in life-course health, yet the molecular phenotypes underlying environmental effects on health are poorly understood. In the Human Early Life Exposome (HELIX) project, a multi-centre cohort of 1301 mother-child pairs, we associate individual exposomes consisting of >100 chemical, outdoor, social and lifestyle exposures assessed in pregnancy and childhood, with multi-omics profiles (methylome, transcriptome, proteins and metabolites) in childhood. We identify 1170 associations, 249 in pregnancy and 921 in childhood, which reveal potential biological responses and sources of exposure. Pregnancy exposures, including maternal smoking, cadmium and molybdenum, are predominantly associated with child DNA methylation changes. In contrast, childhood exposures are associated with features across all omics layers, most frequently the serum metabolome, revealing signatures for diet, toxic chemical compounds, essential trace elements, and weather conditions, among others. Our comprehensive and unique resource of all associations ( https://helixomics.isglobal.org/ ) will serve to guide future investigation into the biological imprints of the early life exposome.

Determinants of urinary phthalate biomarker concentrations in pre- and perimenopausal women with consideration of race

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Phthalates are endocrine disruptors in consumer plastics and personal care products. Our objectives were to identify determinants of phthalate biomarkers in women during the hormonally-sensitive midlife period, and to consider differences between non-Hispanic White and Black women.

METHODS

We used information from the Midlife Women's Health Study of pre- and peri-menopausal women from Baltimore, Maryland (enrolled 2006-2015). We collected sociodemographic/health information via baseline questionnaires or during clinic visits and measured nine phthalate metabolites in pools of 2-4 urines collected across one menstrual cycle. We calculated molar sums of metabolites to estimate exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (ΣDEHP), personal care product phthalates (ΣPCPs), and phthalates in plastics (ΣPlastics). Accounting for meaningful predictors from bivariable analyses, our multivariable linear regression models evaluated determinants of phthalate biomarkers in all women (n = 689), non-Hispanic White women only (n = 467), or non-Hispanic Black women only (n = 195).

RESULTS

In multivariable analyses of all women, those who were perimenopausal, widowed/divorced, non-Hispanic Black, with higher family income, with lower BMI, or who reported more frequent nausea had higher monoethyl phthalate (MEP) and ΣPCP. Non-Hispanic White women who were perimenopausal had lower mono-(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate (MCPP) and monobutyl phthalate (MBP), those who consume alcohol had higher mono-isobutyl phthalate (MiBP), and those with higher BMI had lower MEP and higher MCPP. Alternatively, widowed/divorced Black women had higher ΣDEHP, monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP), and ΣPlastics, whereas Black women with higher income had higher MEP and ΣPCP. Black women who described themselves as having "as much" physical activity as others or who reported a skin condition had lower MBzP and MCPP, respectively.

CONCLUSION

We identified important determinants of phthalate biomarkers in midlife women and observed some differences by race. Future studies could consider reasons for these differences when developing interventions to reduce phthalate disparities and related health effects.

Occurrence and Risk Assessment of Personal PM2.5-Bound Phthalates Exposure for Adults in Hong Kong

We performed personal PM_2.5 monitoring involving 56 adult residents in Hong Kong. Additionally, paired personal and residential indoor fine particle (PM_2.5) samples were collected from 26 homes and from 3 fixed monitoring locations (i.e., outdoor samples). Six PM_2.5-bound phthalate esters (PAEs)-including dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP)-were measured using a thermal desorption-gas chromatography/mass spectrometer method. Average ∑₆PAEs (i.e., summation of six PAE congeners) concentrations in personal PM_2.5 exposure (699.4 ng/m³) were comparable with those in residential indoors (646.9 ng/m³), and both were slightly lower than the outdoor levels. DEHP was the most abundant PAE congener (80.3%-85.0%) and found at the highest levels in different exposure categories, followed by BBP, DnBP, and DnOP. Strong correlations were observed between DEHP with DnBP (r_s: 0.81-0.90; p < 0.01), BBP (r_s: 0.81-0.90; p < 0.01), and DnOP (r_s: 0.87-0.93; p < 0.01) in each exposure category. However, no apparent intercorrelations were shown for PAE congeners. Higher indoor concentrations and a stronger correlation between DMP and DEP were found compared with outdoor concentrations. Principal component analysis affirmed heterogeneous distribution and notable variations in PAE sources across different exposure categories. The average daily intakes of ∑₆PAEs and DEHP via inhalation were 0.14-0.17 and 0.12-0.16 μg/kg-day for adults in Hong Kong. A time-weighted model was used to estimate PAE exposures incorporating residential indoor and outdoor exposure and time activities. The inhalation cancer risks attributable to measured and estimated personal exposure to DEHP exceeded the U.S. EPA's benchmark (1 × 10^-6). The results provide critical information for mitigation strategies, suggesting that PAEs from both ambient and indoor sources should be considered when exploring the inhalation health risks of PAEs exposure.

Urinary metabolites and handwipe phthalate levels among adults and children in southern China: Implication for dermal exposure

Paired handwipe and urine samples were collected from adult (n = 130) and child (n = 82) residents of a typical urban community in southern China to examine relationships between external and internal exposure as well as the contribution of dermal absorption to the exposure of phthalates. The concentrations and composition profiles of phthalates were similar in handwipes from both adults and children, and contained mainly di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) and di-iso-butyl phthalate (DiBP), consistent with profiles of phthalates in air and dust. The major metabolites of these phthalates, i.e., mono-n-butyl phthalate (mnBP) from DnBP, mono-iso-butyl phthalate (miBP) from DiBP and three metabolites of DEHP (namely mEHP, mEHHP and mEOHP) were widely detected in paired urine samples. Positive correlations were found between contamination levels of DiBP and DnBP in handwipes and their corresponding urinary metabolites, whereas no significant correlation was observed for DEHP. This suggests that dermal absorption might be an important exposure pathway particularly for low molecular weight phthalates. Our study shows that dermal absorption is a non-negligible exposure pathway for phthalates, to which children are particularly sensitive since the contribution of dermal uptake to the internal exposure of phthalates was higher in children than adults.

Association of prenatal phthalate exposure with pubertal development in Spanish boys and girls

BACKGROUND

Phthalates are widespread, anti-androgenic chemicals known to alter early development, with possible impact on puberty timing.

AIM

To investigate the association of prenatal phthalate exposure with pubertal development in boys and girls.

METHODS

Urinary metabolites of six different phthalate diesters (DEP, DiBP, DnBP, BBzP, DEHP, and DiNP) and non-phthalate plasticizer DINCH® were quantified in two urine samples collected during pregnancy from mothers participating in the INMA Spanish cohort study. Pubertal assessment of their children at age 7-10 years (409 boys, 379 girls) was conducted using the parent-reported Pubertal Development Scale. Modified Poisson and Weighted Quantile Sum (WQS) regression was employed to examine associations between prenatal phthalates and risk of puberty onset, adrenarche, and gonadarche. Effect modification by child weight status was explored by stratified analysis.

RESULTS

Prenatal exposure to DEHP was associated with higher risk of puberty onset (relative risk [RR] = 1.32, 95% CI = 1.09-1.59 per each log-unit increase in concentrations) and gonadarche (RR = 1.23, 95% CI = 1.00-1.50) in boys and higher risk of adrenarche (RR = 1.25, 95% CI = 1.03-1.51) in girls at age 7-10 years. In boys, prenatal exposure to DEP, DnBP, and DEHP was also associated with higher risk of adrenarche or gonadarche (RRs = 1.49-1.80) in those with normal weight, and BBzP and DINCH® exposure with lower risk of adrenarche (RR = 0.49, 95% CI = 0.27-0.89 and RR = 0.47, 95% CI = 0.24-0.90, respectively) in those with overweight/obesity. In girls, DiBP, DnBP, and DINCH® were associated with slightly higher risk of gonadarche (RRs = 1.14-1.19) in those with overweight/obesity. In the WQS model, the phthalate mixture was not associated with puberty in boys or girls.

CONCLUSION

Prenatal exposure to certain phthalates was associated with pubertal development at age 7-10 years, especially earlier puberty in boys with normal weight and girls with overweight/obesity. However, there was no evidence of effect of the phthalate mixture on advancing or delaying puberty in boys or girls.

Personal care product use and lifestyle affect phthalate and DINCH metabolite levels in teenagers and young adults

Humans are widely exposed to phthalates and their novel substitutes, and considering the negative health effects associated with some phthalates, it is crucial to understand population levels and exposure determinants. This study is focused on 300 urine samples from teenagers (aged 12-17) and 300 from young adults (aged 18-37) living in Czechia collected in 2019 and 2020 to assess 17 plasticizer metabolites as biomarkers of exposure. We identified widespread phthalate exposure in the study population. The diethyl phthalate metabolite monoethyl phthalate (MEP) and three di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate metabolites were detected in the urine of >99% of study participants. The highest median concentrations were found for metabolites of low-molecular-weight (LMW) phthalates: mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP), monoisobutyl phthalate (MiBP) and MEP (60.7; 52.6 and 17.6 μg/L in young adults). 1,2-cyclohexanedicarboxylic acid diisononyl ester (DINCH) metabolites were present in 68.2% of the samples with a median of 1.24 μg/L for both cohorts. Concentrations of MnBP and MiBP were similar to other European populations, but 5-6 times higher than in populations in North America. We also observed large variability in phthalate exposures within the study population, with 2-3 orders of magnitude differences in urinary metabolites between high and low exposed individuals. The concentrations varied with season, gender, age, and lifestyle factors. A relationship was found between high levels of MEP and high overall use of personal care products (PCPs). Cluster analysis suggested that phthalate exposures depend on season and multiple lifestyle factors, like time spent indoors and use of PCPs, which combine to lead to the observed widespread presence of phthalate metabolites in both study populations. Participants who spent more time indoors, particularly noticeably during colder months, had higher levels of high-molecular weight phthalate metabolites, whereas participants with higher PCP use, particularly women, tended to have higher concentration of LMW phthalate metabolites.

Effects of a phthalate metabolite mixture on both normal and tumoral human prostate cells

Phthalates represent a group of substances used in industry that have antiandrogenic activity and are found in different concentrations in human urine and plasma. More than 8 million tons of phthalates are used each year, predominantly as plasticizers in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) products. Phthalates are widely used in everyday consumer products and improperly discarded into the environment. Furthermore, in vivo studies carried out in our laboratory showed that a mixture of phthalates, equivalent to the mixture used in this study, deregulated the expression of genes and miRNAs associated with prostatic carcinogenic pathways. Thus, this study was designed to establish an in vitro model to assess pathways related to cell survival, proliferation, apoptosis, and biosynthesis of miRNAs, using both normal and tumoral prostatic epithelial cells exposed to an environmentally relevant mixture of phthalate metabolites. Tumor (LNCaP) and normal (PNT-2) prostatic epithelial cell lines were exposed for 24 and 72 h to vehicle control or the phthalate mixture. The selected metabolite mixture (1000 μmol/L) consisted of 36.7% monoethyl phthalate (MEP), 19.4% mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), 15.3% monobutyl phthalate (MBP), 10.2% monoisobutyl phthalate (MiBP), 10.2% monoisononyl phthalate (MiNP), and 8.2% monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP). Gene expression was performed by qRT-PCR and cell migratory potential was measured using cell migration assays. Our results showed that the mixture of phthalates increased cell turnover, oxidative stress, biosynthesis, and expression of miRNAs in LNCaP cells; thus, increasing their cellular expansive and migratory potential and modulating tumor behavior, making them possibly more aggressive. However, these effects were less pronounced in benign cells, demonstrating that, in the short term, benign cells are able to develop effective mechanisms or more resistance against the insult.

Concurrent Assessment of Phthalates/HEXAMOLL® DINCH Exposure and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Performance in Three European Cohorts of the HBM4EU Aligned Studies

Information about the effects of phthalates and non-phthalate substitute cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylic acid diisononyl ester (HEXAMOLL^® DINCH) on children's neurodevelopment is limited. The aim of the present research is to evaluate the association between phthalate/HEXAMOLL^® DINCH exposure and child neurodevelopment in three European cohorts involved in HBM4EU Aligned Studies. Participating subjects were school-aged children belonging to the Northern Adriatic cohort II (NAC-II), Italy, Odense Child Cohort (OCC), Denmark, and PCB cohort, Slovakia. In each cohort, children's neurodevelopment was assessed through the Full-Scale Intelligence Quotient score (FSIQ) of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale of Children test using three different editions. The children's urine samples, collected for one point in time concurrently with the neurodevelopmental evaluation, were analyzed for several phthalates/HEXAMOLL^® DINCH biomarkers. The relation between phthalates/HEXAMOLL^® DINCH and FSIQ was explored by applying separate multiple linear regressions in each cohort. The means and standard deviations of FSIQ were 109 ± 11 (NAC-II), 98 ± 12 (OCC), and 81 ± 15 (PCB cohort). In NAC-II, direct associations between FSIQ and DEHP's biomarkers were found: 5OH-MEHP+5oxo-MEHP (β = 2.56; 95% CI 0.58-4.55; N = 270), 5OH-MEHP+5cx-MEPP (β = 2.48; 95% CI 0.47-4.49; N = 270) and 5OH-MEHP (β = 2.58; 95% CI 0.65-4.51; N = 270). On the contrary, in the OCC the relation between DEHP's biomarkers and FSIQ tended to be inverse but imprecise (p-value ≥ 0.10). No associations were found in the PCB cohort. FSIQ was not associated with HEXAMOLL^® DINCH in any cohort. In conclusion, these results do not provide evidence of an association between concurrent phthalate/DINCHHEXAMOLLR DINCH exposure and IQ in children.

Effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals on the expression of RACK1 and LPS-induced THP-1 cell activation

The existence of a complex hormonal balance among glucocorticoids, androgens and estrogens involved in the regulation of Receptor for Activated C Kinase 1 (RACK1) expression and its related immune cells activation, highlights the possibility to employ this protein as screening tool for the evaluation of the immunotoxic profile of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), hormone-active substances capable of interfering with the physiologic hormonal signaling. Hence, the aim of this work was to investigate the effect of the exposure of EDCS 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE), diethyl phthalate (DEP) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) on RACK1 expression and on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced activation of the human monocytic cell line THP-1, a validated model for this investigation. In line with our previous results with estrogen-active compounds, EE treatment significantly induced RACK1 promoter transcriptional activity, mRNA expression, and protein levels, which paralleled an increase in LPS-induced IL-8, TNF-α production and CD86 expression, previously demonstrated to be dependent on RACK1/PKCβ activation. EE mediates its effect on RACK1 expression through G-protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) and androgen receptor (AR) ligand-independent cascade, as also suggested by in silico molecular docking simulation. Conversely, DEP and PFOS induced a dose-dependent downregulation of RACK1 promoter transcriptional activity, mRNA expression, and protein levels, which was mirrored by a reduction of IL-8, TNF-α production and CD86 expression. Mifepristone pre-treatments abolish DEP and PFOS effects, confirming their GR agonist profile, also corroborated by molecular docking. Altogether, our data confirm that RACK1 represents an interesting target of steroid active compounds, which expression offers the opportunity to screen the immunotoxic potential of different hormone-active substances of concerns due to their human exposure and environmental persistence.

Estimation of multi-route exposures to various chemicals during Children's clay toy use

Clay toys have been used as play materials and educational tools for children. Clay toys exhibit adherent properties, and may facilitate chemical ingestion via dermal absorption and oral (hand-to-mouth, HTM) exposures. Inhalation exposure also be considered when contain volatile chemicals. The purpose of this study was to estimate the exposure dose for chemicals in clay toys via three exposure routes, and to evaluate the relationship between the exposure contribution of each route considering both the chemical properties and children's age. Chemical analysis was conducted for 9 semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), 17 volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and 7 metal elements in clay toys (n = 66) purchased from Korean market. Exposure factors for usage pattern of clay toys were conducted based on a nationally representative survey in Korea. A total of 12,144 (60.7%) children responded positively to playing with clay toys. Exposure to SVOCs and VOCs in clay toys via HTM, inhalation, and dermal absorption were estimated. The exposure level was the highest in styrene with 5.2 × 10^-3 mg/kg-bw/day (95th percentile population), which was approximately 13% of the acceptable daily dose for styrene. In 3-year-old children, dermal absorption route contributed the highest at 59.2-100%. Chemicals with higher octanol-water partition coefficient (K_ow) had the greater the contribution of the dermal absorption route and the weaker the contribution of the HTM route. In infants (0-2 years), the contribution via HTM exposure was higher than that in the other age groups. The contribution of inhalation exposure differed depending on the volatility of the chemicals. Furthermore, the exposure route contribution significantly differed due to age-dependent behavioral changes in children. These results suggest that the exposure assessments for children could be considered with multiple exposure routes related to chemical properties.

Occurrence, exposure and risk assessment of semi-volatile organic compounds in Chinese homes

Indoor semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) can have a significant impact on human health. Previous studies involved the detection of limited classes of indoor SVOCs in different regions of China. However, overall indoor pollution profiles and the associated health risks via multiple exposure pathways remain unclear. High-throughput screening of SVOCs would help clarify the overall indoor pollution status and identify high-risk pollutants. We collected indoor air and dust samples from 35 Chinese homes and investigated the occurrence of a wide range of SVOCs. Ninety-seven SVOCs including phthalate esters (PAEs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), organophosphate esters, alcohols, fatty acids, phenols, etc., were detected in the air (total concentrations: 0.13-48 μg/m³; median: 3.4 μg/m³) and dust (total concentrations: 120-1500 μg/g; median: 490 μg/g) samples. PAEs were the most abundant, accounting for 55.3 ± 28.6% and 43.4 ± 16.9% of the total SVOC concentrations in the air and dust samples respectively. Human exposure and health risks of 34 SVOCs with detection frequencies >10% were assessed based on inhalation, ingestion and dermal absorption of SVOCs from air and dust by infants and adults. In the case of indoor SVOCs with log K_oa < 9, inhalation and dermal contact with air was >90% for adults and >69% for infants. The following five SVOCs in air samples posed significant non-carcinogenic risks and are listed based on their decreasing risk level: dibutyl phthalate > phenanthrene > stearic acid > methyl palmitate > lauryl alcohol. Four PAHs with 2-4 rings posed potential carcinogenic risks, with phenanthrene exceeding the acceptable risk level of 10^-4. The high risks posed by SVOCs were due to inhalation exposure. Therefore, keeping the air concentrations of SVOCs, especially that of PAEs and PAHs under check would greatly benefit human health in indoor environments.

Gestational and lactational exposure to the emergent alternative plasticizer 1,2-cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid diisononyl ester (DINCH) impairs lipid metabolism to a greater extent than the commonly used Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in the adult rat mammary gland

Due to their endocrine disruption properties, phthalate plasticizers such as di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) can affect the hormone-dependent development of the mammary gland. Over the past few years, DEHP has been partially replaced by 1,2-cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid diisononyl ester (DINCH) which also have potential endocrine disrupting properties. The goal of the present study is to understand the impact of a gestational and lactational exposure to DEHP and DINCH on mammary gland development using Sprague-Dawley rats. Both plasticizers altered the adipocytes of the mammary gland fat pad of adult progeny, as demonstrated by a decrease in their size, folding of their membrane and modulations of the lipid profiles. DEHP treatments decreased the expression of Rxrα and Scd1 at the low and high dose, respectively, but did not affect any of the other genes studied. DINCH modulation of lipid metabolism could be observed at puberty by a decreased expression of genes implicated in triglyceride synthesis, lipid transport and lipolysis, but by an increased expression of genes of the β-oxidation pathway and of genes involved in lipid storage and fatty acid synthesis at adulthood, compared to control and DEHP-treated rats. A strong upregulation of different inflammatory markers was observed following DINCH exposure only. Together, our results indicate that a gestational and lactational exposure to DINCH has earlier and more significant effects on lipid homeostasis, adipogenesis and the inflammatory state of the adult mammary gland than DEHP exposure. The long-term consequence of these effects on mammary gland health remained to be determined.

Occurrence of newly identified plasticizers in handwipes; development and validation of a novel analytical method and assessment of human exposure via dermal absorption

A novel analytical method for the monitoring of four newly identified plasticizers, namely di-propylene glycol dibenzoate (DiPGDB), tri-n-butyl trimellitate (TBTM), isooctyl 2-phenoxyethyl terephthalate (IOPhET) and bis 3,5,5-trimethylhexyl phosphate (TMHPh), in handwipes based on pulverization was developed and in-house validated. In total, 164 handwipe samples (paired with house dust and human urine) were collected during winter (n = 82) and summer (n = 82) 2019 from adults and toddlers living in Flanders, Belgium. Method LOQs ranged from 1 to 200 ng/g. The ranges of Σ_plasticizers were 70-5400 ng/g for winter and 70-3720 ng/g for summer. The detection frequencies were 39% for DiPGDB, 27% for TBTM and <5% for IOPhET and TMHPh in winter samples and 33% for DiPGDB, 21% for TBTM and <10% for IOPhET and TMHPh in summer ones. The dominant compound in handwipes was DiPGDB, with mean contributions of 74% and 83% for winter and summer, followed by TBTM (24% and 9.2%), TMHPh (1.8% and 8.1%) and IOPhET (<1% and <1%). Σ_plasticizers concentrations were positively correlated in summer with the use of sanitizer (r = 0.375, p < 0.05) and negatively correlated in winter with the use of personal care products (r = -0.349, p < 0.05). DiPGDB was found positively correlated with the age of the participants (r = 0.363, p < 0.05) and the time spent indoors (r = 0.359, p < 0.05), indicating indoor environment as a potential source. Levels of TBTM in handwipes were positively correlated with dust samples collected from the same households (r = 0.597, p < 0.05), and those detected in toddler handwipes were significantly higher compared to adults (p < 0.05). Human daily exposure via dermal absorption was evaluated using the dermal derived no effects level values (DNEL), available in the database of the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) and estimated using the theoretical bio-accessible fractions per compound. Toddler exposure to TBTM was significantly higher compared to adults (T-test, p < 0.05). No risk for adverse human health effects was derived from the comparison with DNELs for all compounds.

Exposure profiles and predictors of a cocktail of environmental chemicals in Chinese men of reproductive age

Personal care products, such as additives, have raised widespread concerns about the potential threat to male reproductive health. The spermatogenesis in humans lasts for approximately 90 days, the average levels of these chemicals remain unclear during spermatogenesis. In our study, we pooled urine samples from each man during the days of 1-15, 16-31, 32-63, and ≥64, and examined exposure to 48 typical additive chemicals. By principal component analysis (PCA), k-means clustering, and Spearman's rank correlations, we then identified 6 PC scores and 4 clusters based on profiles of these chemicals. Some industrial, commercial or structural similar chemicals (e.g., phthalates) were significantly correlated compared to unrelated chemicals (e.g., benzophenone). PCA scores were associated with individual lifestyles (e.g., household income, tea consumption, and drinking tap water). Distinct exposure components and exposure patterns of personal care products may help the reproductive health assessment of men. We suggested more concerns for widespread exposure to these chemicals for men.

Occurrence and dietary exposure risks of phthalate esters in food in the typical valley city Xi'an, Northwest China

Diet is an important exposure pathway of phthalate esters (PAEs) for humans. A total of 174 food samples covering 11 food groups were collected from Xi'an, a typical valley city in Northwest China, and analyzed to assess the occurrence and exposure risks for PAEs in the food. Twenty-two PAEs were detected. The sum of the 22 PAEs (∑22PAEs) varied between 0.0340 and 56.8 µg/g, with a mean of 3.94 µg/g. The major PAEs were di-iso-butyl phthalate (DiBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), di-iso-nonyl phthalate (DiNP), and di-iso-decyl phthalate (DiDP), which were associated mainly with the usage of plasticizers. Bio-availability of the PAEs in the combined gastro-intestinal fluid simulant of digestion was higher than that in the single gastric or intestinal fluid simulant. Bis(2-methoxyethyl) phthalate exhibited the highest bio-availability in each of the three simulants. Bio-availability of the PAEs was negatively correlated with the molecular weight and octanol-water partition coefficient of the PAEs and positively correlated with the solubility and vapor pressure of the PAEs. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of PAEs based on national and municipal food consumption data was lower than the reference dose (RfD) of the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the tolerable dairy intake (TDI) of European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), except for the EDI of DnBP and DiBP being higher than the TDI of EFSA. Grains and vegetables were the major sources of human dietary exposure to PAEs. The hazardous quotient for human dietary exposure to PAEs was less than the critical value of 1 and the cancer risk of butyl benzyl phthalate and DEHP was in the range of 10^-11-10^-6, suggesting relatively low health risks. The results indicated that human exposure to DnBP, DiBP, DEHP, DiNP, and DiDP in food is considerable and a health concern.

Skin models for dermal exposure assessment of phthalates

Phthalates are a class of compounds that have found widespread use in industrial applications, in particular in the polymer, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. While ingestion, and to a lesser degree inhalation, have been considered as the major exposure routes, especially for higher molecular weight phthalates, dermal exposure is an important route for lower weight phthalates such as diethyl phthalate (DEP). Assessing the dermal permeability of such compounds is of great importance for evaluating the impact and toxicity of such compounds in humans. While human skin is still the best model for studying dermal permeation, availability, cost and ethical concerns may preclude or restrict its use. A range of alternative models has been developed over time to substitute for human skin, especially in the early phases of research. These include ex vivo animal skin, human reconstructed skin and artificial skin models. While the results obtained using such alternative models correlate to a lesser or greater degree with those from in vivo human studies, the use of such models is nevertheless vital in dermal permeation research. This review discusses the alternative skin models that are available, their use in phthalate permeation studies and possible new avenues of phthalate research using skin models that have not been used so far.

Apigenin ameliorates di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced ferroptosis: The activation of glutathione peroxidase 4 and suppression of iron intake

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a widely artificial persistent organic pollutant, the contamination of which infiltrates daily human life from many aspects, imperceptibly causing damage to multiple organs in the body, including the liver. Apigenin (APG) is widely distributed in vegetables and fruits and can relieve or prevent the injuries caused by exogenous chemicals through various pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant effects. To investigate the mechanism of DEHP-induced liver injury and the antagonistic effects of APG, we treated AML12 cells with 1 mM DEHP and/or APG. Ultrastructural morphology analysis indicated that DEHP induced typical ferroptosis-like damage. In addition, we found that DEHP exposure induced ferroptosis by enhancing reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, disrupting iron homeostasis and lipid peroxidation, and regulating the expression of ferroptosis-related genes. Notably, supplementation with APG significantly inhibited these abnormal changes, and molecular docking further showed evidence of the activating effects of APG ligand on glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4). These results demonstrated that the protective effects of APG on DEHP-induced ferroptosis were achieved by activating GPX4 and suppressing intracellular iron accumulation. This information not only adds to DEHP toxicological data but also provides a basis for the practical application of APG.

A review of common non-ortho-phthalate plasticizers for use in food contact materials

Several non-ortho phthalate plasticizers, including ATBC, DEHA, DINCH, DOTP, and ESBO, are currently used in flexible PVC applications for food packaging and processing. The aim of this review is to summarize the available toxicity, migration, and human biomonitoring data. Available assessments from US CPSC, EFSA, other governmental and non-governmental organizations, and published toxicology studies were used to show that these plasticizers are generally well-studied and demonstrate low toxicity with a focus on potential carcinogenicity, reproductive, developmental, and endocrine related adverse effects as well as biodegradation, aquatic toxicity, and bioaccumulation. Seven other plasticizers, 2EHESBO, ASE, CMCHA, DBT, DEHCH, PETV, and TOTM, have at least some recent but limited food contact clearances; assessments from CPSC, EFSA, and robust summaries in the REACH dossiers were reviewed for these products. Data gaps were found for some of these products; however, there were no concerns raised by the existing data, and they for now have limited use in food contact applications. Migration of ASE, COMGHA, DINCH, DOTP, DEHCH, and TOTM in simulants for aqueous and low alcohol foods ranged from <0.02 to 0.165 mg/kg, which showed they are below established migration limits and well-suited for these applications. Human biomonitoring data are available for DINCH, DOTP, DEHA, DINA, and TOTM, and are essential for determining exposure from all uses.