Early life exposure to air pollution, green spaces and built environment, and body mass index growth trajectories during the first 5 years of life: A large longitudinal study

Associations of preconception air pollution exposure with growth trajectory in young children: A prospective cohort study

Gestational air pollution exposure was associated with childhood obesity. However, little is known about the effect of air pollution exposure during the preconception period, a critical window when environmental exposures may affect body growth trajectory and increase obesity risk. We conducted a population-based prospective cohort study of preconception women and their newborn children followed until 2 years old from metropolitan Shanghai, China to investigate the impact of preconception air pollution on childhood weight and body mass index (BMI) growth trajectories. Exposures to PM2.5, PM10, and NO2 during 3 months before conception and each trimester of pregnancy were estimated using high-resolution spatiotemporal models matched at residential addresses. Children's weight and BMI were assessed postnatally every three months. Multivariate and longitudinal models with piecewise linear mixed effects were used to examine the relationship between preconception air pollution and child growth trajectories of weight, BMI, and standardized BMI (BMIZ). The study population comprised 26,714 women in the baseline enrolled in preconception clinics and 5,834 children reached 2 years included in the analysis with 34,398 longitudinal weight and height measurements. One interquartile range (IQR) increase in preconception PM2.5 (16.2 μg/m3) was associated with a 0.078 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.002-0.154, p = 0.04) increase in attained BMIZ and 1 IQR increase of PM10 (21.1 μg/m3) were associated with an 0.093 (95% CI: 0.002-0.184, p = 0.04) kg/m2 increase in attained BMI, respectively, at the age of two years, after controlling for individual covariates and gestational air pollution exposure. Higher weight, BMI, and BMIZ growth rates during 6-24 months of life were also associated with higher preconception NO2 and PM exposure. Males and children born to mothers less than 35 years old or with overweight/obesity status were more affected by preconception air pollution exposure on weight growth. The 3-month preconception period was a critical time window for air pollution exposure.

Residential relocation and changes in patterns of environmental exposures by health determinants among children and adolescents in Catalonia, Spain

Residential relocation leads to environmental changes, besides being likely to be influenced by sociodemographic characteristics. The relationship between them is, however, still not well described. We aimed to investigate changes in patterns of urban, natural and physical environmental exposures due to relocation and related sociodemographic determinants in a population-based cohort study of children and adolescents. We included individuals between 0 and 17 years of age, registered in primary healthcare records in Catalonia, Spain from 2006 to 2018 and categorized them as non-movers and movers (first residential change). Hierarchical clustering identified groups of individuals based on their exposure to air pollution, green spaces and built environment. Low, medium and high environmental hazard exposure clusters were identified, which were used to identify changes in environmental exposure patterns due to relocation, namely same, worse, and better environment. Multinomial logistic regression determined whether sex, age, nationality and area-level deprivation influenced these changes. From 1,316,138 individuals, 221,058 were movers. Compared to non-movers, movers were more frequently with foreign nationality (12.1% vs. 21.3%, respectively) and more likely to live in the most deprived areas at baseline (19.2% vs. 24.4%). Younger children had higher risk of moving to better or worse environments. Individuals living in areas with the highest levels of deprivation were least likely to move within the same environments (i.e., either moving to better (Odds Ratio [95% Confidence Interval] 1.39[1.34-1.44]) or worse environment (1.56[1.49-1.63])). Compared to people from Spain, those from Africa moved to similar environments (OR of moving to a better environment 0.90 (0.87-0.94) with respect to move to the same environment, and OR of moving to a worse environment 0.82 (0.78-0.85)), those from America tended to move to other environments (1.17 (1.12-1.23) better and 1.09 (1.03-1.15) worse), while those from Asia and Europe moved to better environments (1.22 (1.12-1.33) and 1.20 (1.14-1.27) respectively). No associations were found for sex. Changes in patterns of environmental exposures due to residential mobility are complex and may be determined by age, deprivation and nationality.

Socio-Ecologic Influences on Weight Trajectories Among Children with Obesity Living in Rural and Urban Settings

Background: Childhood obesity is a risk factor for poor cardiovascular, metabolic, and respiratory health. The studies examining influences of socio-ecologic factors on weight trajectories using longitudinal data are limited, often examine single measures (e.g., proximity to parks), and have not examined the specific trajectories of children with obesity. Methods: We examined influences on weight among 1518 children, 6-12 years of age, who had obesity using body mass index (BMI) criteria. BMI slope trajectories were categorized as decreasing, flat, or increasing, with a median of 2.1 years of follow-up. We examined socio-ecologic exposures, stratified by rural and urban settings, using census tracts to map indices, including food access, proximity to parks, normalized difference vegetation index, and area deprivation index (ADI). We used ordinal logistic regression to examine the associations between the socio-ecologic factors and BMI trajectories. Results: Among the 1518 children, 360 (24%) had a decreasing BMI trajectory with the remainder having flat (23%) or increasing (53%) trajectories. Children in rural areas were more likely to live in high disadvantage areas, 85%, compared with urban children, 46%. In the multivariable ordinal model, living in a lower ADI census tract had a 0.78 (95% CI 0.61-0.99) lower odds of being in an increasing BMI slope group, and no other socio-ecologic factor was associated. Conclusions: The area deprivation index captures a range of resources and social context compared with the built environment indicators, which had no association with BMI trajectory. Further work examining how to develop effective interventions in high deprivation areas is warranted.

The relationship between natural environments and obesity: a systematic review

More than 100 million children and 13% of the adult population suffer from obesity globally. People with obesity experience higher risks of chronic illness, poor mental health outcomes, and premature death. Exposure to natural environments, including green spaces, encourages regular physical activity and cardiovascular exercise to combat obesity. This systematic review, based on the health lifestyle theory, explores previous research on the relationship between natural environments and obesity. We reviewed studies (N = 11) published between 2018 and 2023 examining the relationship between participants (N = 1,225,680) across seven countries. Two overarching areas of impact emerged: environmental health factors (air pollution) and social factors (socioeconomic status and food availability). Although many studies suggested that exposure to green spaces correlated with a lower incidence of obesity, few studies identified possible external factors to explain the relationship between green space and obesity. Implications for future policy legislation, clinical interventions, and research are presented.

Prenatal exposure to PM2.5 and childhood body mass index growth trajectories from birth to 6 years old

This study aimed to determine the relationships between prenatal PM2.5 exposure and childhood growth trajectories during the first 6 years of life. A total of 47,625 pairs of mothers and children were recruited from a prospective birth cohort conducted between 2011 and 2013 in Wuhan, China, and followed for 6 years. We used the group-based trajectory models to classify the population into three trajectory groups: slow growth (n = 13,671, 28.7%), normal growth (n = 29,736, 62.4%), and rapid growth (n = 4218, 8.9%). Multinomial logistic regression models were used to determine the associations of prenatal PM2.5 exposure and childhood growth trajectories. Compared to normal growth trajectory, increased PM2.5 exposure in trimester 1, trimester 2 and the entire pregnancy showed significant associations with an increased risk of the slow growth trajectory but reduced the risk for the rapid growth trajectory, significant association of prenatal PM2.5 exposure with rapid growth trajectory was only observed in the trimester 3. Stratified analyses displayed relatively stronger associations among those mothers with maternal age over 35 years, pre-pregnancy BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2, and previous delivery experience. Prenatal exposure to PM2.5, particularly during the midpoint period of pregnancy, was more likely to have a slow growth trajectory and a lower risk of rapid growth trajectory. Maternal age, pre-pregnancy BMI, and previous delivery experience might modify these associations.

Independent and joint effects of neighborhood-level environmental and socioeconomic exposures on body mass index in early childhood: The environmental influences on child health outcomes (ECHO) cohort

Past studies support the hypothesis that the prenatal period influences childhood growth. However, few studies explore the joint effects of exposures that occur simultaneously during pregnancy. To explore the feasibility of using mixtures methods with neighborhood-level environmental exposures, we assessed the effects of multiple prenatal exposures on body mass index (BMI) from birth to age 24 months. We used data from two cohorts: Healthy Start (n = 977) and Maternal and Developmental Risks from Environmental and Social Stressors (MADRES; n = 303). BMI was measured at delivery and 6, 12, and 24 months and standardized as z-scores. We included variables for air pollutants, built and natural environments, food access, and neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES). We used two complementary statistical approaches: single-exposure linear regression and quantile-based g-computation. Models were fit separately for each cohort and time point and were adjusted for relevant covariates. Single-exposure models identified negative associations between NO2 and distance to parks and positive associations between low neighborhood SES and BMI z-scores for Healthy Start participants; for MADRES participants, we observed negative associations between O3 and distance to parks and BMI z-scores. G-computations models produced comparable results for each cohort: higher exposures were generally associated with lower BMI, although results were not significant. Results from the g-computation models, which do not require a priori knowledge of the direction of associations, indicated that the direction of associations between mixture components and BMI varied by cohort and time point. Our study highlights challenges in assessing mixtures effects at the neighborhood level and in harmonizing exposure data across cohorts. For example, geospatial data of neighborhood-level exposures may not fully capture the qualities that might influence health behavior. Studies aiming to harmonize geospatial data from different geographical regions should consider contextual factors when operationalizing exposure variables.

Early-life external exposome in children 2-5 years old in Colombia

Exposome studies are advancing in high-income countries to understand how multiple environmental exposures impact health. However, there is a significant research gap in low- and middle-income and tropical countries. We aimed to describe the spatiotemporal variation of the external exposome, its correlation structure between and within exposure groups, and its dimensionality. A one-year follow-up cohort study of 506 children under 5 in two cities in Colombia was conducted to evaluate asthma, acute respiratory infections, and DNA damage. We examined 48 environmental exposures during pregnancy and 168 during childhood in eight exposure groups, including atmospheric pollutants, natural spaces, meteorology, built environment, traffic, indoor exposure, and socioeconomic capital. The exposome was estimated using geographic information systems, remote sensing, spatiotemporal modeling, and questionnaires. The median age of children at study entry was 3.7 years (interquartile range: 2.9-4.3). Air pollution and natural spaces exposure decreased from pregnancy to childhood, while socioeconomic capital increased. The highest median correlations within exposure groups were observed in meteorology (r = 0.85), traffic (r = 0.83), and atmospheric pollutants (r = 0.64). Important correlations between variables from different exposure groups were found, such as atmospheric pollutants and meteorology (r = 0.76), natural spaces (r = -0.34), and the built environment (r = 0.53). Twenty principal components explained 70%, and 57 explained 95% of the total variance in the childhood exposome. Our findings show that there is an important spatiotemporal variation in the exposome of children under 5. This is the first characterization of the external exposome in urban areas of Latin America and highlights its complexity, but also the need to better characterize and understand the exposome in order to optimize its analysis and applications in local interventions aimed at improving the health conditions and well-being of the child population and contributing to environmental health decision-making.

Association between Personal Abiotic Airborne Exposures and Body Composition Changes among Healthy Adults (60-69 Years Old): A Combined Exposome-Wide and Lipidome Mediation Approach from the China BAPE Study

BACKGROUND

Evidence suggested that abiotic airborne exposures may be associated with changes in body composition. However, more evidence is needed to identify key pollutants linked to adverse health effects and their underlying biomolecular mechanisms, particularly in sensitive older adults.

OBJECTIVES

Our research aimed to systematically assess the relationship between abiotic airborne exposures and changes in body composition among healthy older adults, as well as the potential mediating mechanisms through the serum lipidome.

METHODS

From September 2018 to January 2019, we conducted a monthly survey among 76 healthy adults (60-69 years old) in the China Biomarkers of Air Pollutant Exposure (BAPE) study, measuring their personal exposures to 632 abiotic airborne pollutions using MicroPEM and the Fresh Air wristband, 18 body composition indicators from the InBody 770 device, and lipidomics from venous blood samples. We used an exposome-wide association study (ExWAS) and deletion/substitution/addition (DSA) model to unravel complex associations between exposure to contaminant mixtures and body composition, a Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) model to assess the overall effect of key exposures on body composition, and mediation analysis to identify lipid intermediators.

RESULTS

The ExWAS and DSA model identified that 2,4,5-T methyl ester (2,4,5-TME), 9,10-Anthracenedione (ATQ), 4b,8-dimethyl-2-isopropylphenanthrene, and 4b,5,6,7,8,8a,9,10-octahydro-(DMIP) were associated with increased body fat mass (BFM), fat mass indicators (FMI), percent body fat (PBF), and visceral fat area (VFA) in healthy older adults [Bonferroni-Hochberg false discovery rate ( FD R BH ) < 0.05 ]. The BKMR model demonstrated a positive correlation between contaminants (anthracene, ATQ, copaene, di-epi-α -cedrene, and DMIP) with VFA. Mediation analysis revealed that phosphatidylcholine [PC, PC(16:1e/18:1), PC(16:2e/18:0)] and sphingolipid [SM, SM(d18:2/24:1)] mediated a significant portion, ranging from 12.27% to 26.03% (p-value < 0.05 ), of the observed increase in VFA.

DISCUSSION

Based on the evidence from multiple model results, ATQ and DMIP were statistically significantly associated with the increased VFA levels of healthy older adults, potentially regulated through lipid intermediators. These findings may have important implications for identifying potentially harmful environmental chemicals and developing targeted strategies for the control and prevention of chronic diseases in the future, particularly as the global population is rapidly aging. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13865.

Air Pollution in Cardio-Oncology and Unraveling the Environmental Nexus: JACC: CardioOncology State-of-the-Art Review

Although recent advancements in cancer therapies have extended the lifespan of patients with cancer, they have also introduced new challenges, including chronic health issues such as cardiovascular disease arising from pre-existing risk factors or cancer therapies. Consequently, cardiovascular disease has become a leading cause of non-cancer-related death among cancer patients, driving the rapid evolution of the cardio-oncology field. Environmental factors, particularly air pollution, significantly contribute to deaths associated with cardiovascular disease and specific cancers, such as lung cancer. Despite these statistics, the health impact of air pollution in the context of cardio-oncology has been largely overlooked in patient care and research. Notably, the impact of air pollution varies widely across geographic areas and among individuals, leading to diverse exposure consequences. This review aims to consolidate epidemiologic and preclinical evidence linking air pollution to cardio-oncology while also exploring associated health disparities and environmental justice issues.

Association of air pollution exposure with overweight or obesity in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Childhood overweight and obesity is a global problem. 38 million children under five years old were reported as being overweight/obese in 2019. However, current evidence regarding the effects of air pollution on children weight status remains scarce and inconsistent. This study aimed to determine the association between air pollutants and the weight status of children and adolescents. Four databases were searched up to August 9, 2023. Adjusted merged odds ratios (ORs), regression coefficients (β), and their 95 % confidence intervals (95 % CIs) were calculated and pooled. A total of 27 studies were included. The results showed that air pollutants had adverse effects on the body weight of children and adolescents. Exposure to PM1, PM2.5, PMcoarse, and PM10 were associated with increased risk of overweight/obesity, with pooled ORs (95 % CI) of 1.23 (1.09, 1.40), 1.18 (1.10, 1.28), 1.04 (1.03, 1.05) and 1.11 (1.06, 1.17) per 10 μg/m3 increment, respectively. Individuals with higher exposure levels to NOX, O3, SO2 and CO (per 10 μg/m3 increment) were associated with 12 %, 6 %, 28 % and 1 % increased odds of being overweight/obese, respectively. With respect to the level of body mass index, the pooled β (95 % CIs) for each 10 μg/m3 increase in PM1, PM2.5, PM10, and NOX exposure were 0.15 (0.12, 0.18), 0.11 (0.06, 0.16), 0.07 (0.03, 0.10), and 0.03 (0.01, 0.04), respectively. PM1 has relatively strong adverse effects on body weight status. The subgroup analysis revealed a significantly increase in the risk of overweight/obesity when the concentrations of PM2.5, PM10, and NO2 exceeded 35 μg/m3, 50 μg/m3, and 40 μg/m3, respectively. Exposure to PM2.5, PM10 and NOX increased the risk of overweight/obesity, especially in Asia. This study provides evidence of the association between air pollution and being overweight/obese in children and adolescents.

Associations between maternal exposure to air pollution during pregnancy and trajectories of infant growth: A birth cohort study

OBJECTIVE

We examined the relationships between infants' growth trajectories and prenatal exposure to air pollution, which is still under-investigated.

METHODS

A birth cohort study was constructed using medical records of pregnant women and infants born between 2015 and 2019 in Foshan, China. Using satellite-based spatial-temporal models, prenatal exposure to air pollutants including particulate matter with an aerodynamic dimension of < 2.5 µm (PM2.5), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and ozone (O3) was assessed at each woman's residence. Latent class growth modeling was used to identify trajectories of physical (body length and weight) growth and neurodevelopment, which were repeatedly measured within 1 year after birth. Logistic regression models were used to investigate the associations between prenatal exposure to air pollution and the risks of growth disorders, adjusting for an array of potential confounders.

RESULTS

We identified two growth trajectories for body length [normal: 3829 (93%); retardation: 288 (7%)], three for weight [normal: 2475 (59.6%); retardation: 390 (9.4%); overgrowth: 1287 (31%)], and two for neurodevelopment [normal: 956 (66.1%); retardation: 491 (33.9%)]. For exposure over whole pregnancy, SO2 was associated with an increased risk of body length retardation (OR for per 1 µg/m3 increment: 1.09, 95%CI: 1.01-1.17); PM2.5 (OR: 1.05, 95%CI: 1.03-1.07), SO2 (OR: 1.15, 95%CI: 1.08-1.22), and NO2 (OR: 1.05, 95%CI: 1.03-1.07) were positively associated with neurodevelopmental retardation. Such associations appeared stronger for exposures over the first and second trimesters. No significant associations were detected for weight growth.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal exposure to air pollution during pregnancy was associated with higher risks of impairments in both physical growth, particularly body length, and neurodevelopment.

Associations of residential greenness and ambient air pollution with overweight and obesity in older adults

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to examine the impact of greenness and fine particulate matter <2.5 μm (PM2.5 ) on overweight/obesity among older adults in China.

METHODS

A total of 21,355 participants aged ≥65 years were included from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey between 2000 and 2018. Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) with a radius of 250 m and PM2.5 in a 1 × 1-km grid resolution were calculated around each participant's residence. Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate the effects of NDVI and PM2.5 on overweight/obesity. Interaction and mediation analyses were conducted to explore combined effects.

RESULTS

The study observed 1895 incident cases of overweight/obesity over 109,566 person-years. For every 0.1-unit increase in NDVI the hazard ratio of overweight/obesity was 0.91 (95% CI: 0.88-0.95), and for every 10-μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 the hazard ratio was 1.11 (95% CI: 1.07-1.14). The effect of NDVI on overweight/obesity was partially mediated by PM2.5 , with a relative mediation proportion of 20.10% (95% CI: 1.63%-38.57%).

CONCLUSIONS

Greenness exposure appears to lower the risk of overweight/obesity in older adults in China, whereas PM2.5 , acting as a mediator, partly mediated this protective effect.

Prenatal ambient air pollution exposure and child weight trajectories from the 3rd trimester of pregnancy to 2 years of age: a cohort study

BACKGROUND

Prenatal air pollution exposure may increase risk for childhood obesity. However, few studies have evaluated in utero growth measures and infant weight trajectories. This study will evaluate the associations of prenatal exposure to ambient air pollutants with weight trajectories from the 3rd trimester through age 2 years.

METHODS

We studied 490 pregnant women who were recruited from the Maternal and Development Risks from Environmental and Social Stressors (MADRES) cohort, which comprises a low-income, primarily Hispanic population in Los Angeles, California. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), particulate matter < 10 µm (PM10), particulate matter < 2.5 µm (PM2.5), and ozone (O3) concentrations during pregnancy were estimated from regulatory air monitoring stations. Fetal weight was estimated from maternal ultrasound records. Infant/child weight measurements were extracted from medical records or measured during follow-up visits. Piecewise spline models were used to assess the effect of air pollutants on weight, overall growth, and growth during each period.

RESULTS

The mean (SD) prenatal exposure concentrations for NO2, PM2.5, PM10, and O3 were 16.4 (2.9) ppb, 12.0 (1.1) μg/m3, 28.5 (4.7) μg/m3, and 26.2 (2.9) ppb, respectively. Comparing an increase in prenatal average air pollutants from the 10th to the 90th percentile, the growth rate from the 3rd trimester to age 3 months was significantly increased (1.55% [95%CI 1.20%, 1.99%] for PM2.5 and 1.64% [95%CI 1.27%, 2.13%] for NO2), the growth rate from age 6 months to age 2 years was significantly decreased (0.90% [95%CI 0.82%, 1.00%] for NO2), and the attained weight at age 2 years was significantly lower (- 7.50% [95% CI - 13.57%, - 1.02%] for PM10 and - 7.00% [95% CI - 11.86%, - 1.88%] for NO2).

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal ambient air pollution was associated with variable changes in growth rate and attained weight from the 3rd trimester to age 2 years. These results suggest continued public health benefits of reducing ambient air pollution levels, particularly in marginalized populations.

Early-life residential green spaces and traffic exposure in association with young adult body composition: a longitudinal birth cohort study of twins

BACKGROUND

Globally, the rapid increase of obesity is reaching alarming proportions. A new approach to reduce obesity and its comorbidities involves tackling the built environment. Environmental influences seem to play an important role, but the environmental influences in early life on adult body composition have not been thoroughly investigated. This study seeks to fill the research gap by examining early-life exposure to residential green spaces and traffic exposure in association with body composition among a population of young adult twins.

METHODS

As part of the East Flanders Prospective Twin Survey (EFPTS) cohort, this study included 332 twins. Residential addresses of the mothers at time of birth of the twins were geocoded to determine residential green spaces and traffic exposure. To capture body composition, body mass index, waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), waist circumference, skinfold thickness, leptin levels, and fat percentage were measured at adult age. Linear mixed modelling analyses were conducted to investigate early-life environmental exposures in association with body composition, while accounting for potential confounders. In addition, moderator effects of zygosity/chorionicity, sex and socio-economic status were tested.

RESULTS

Each interquartile range (IQR) increase in distance to highway was found associated with an increase of 1.2% in WHR (95%CI 0.2-2.2%). For landcover of green spaces, each IQR increase was associated with 0.8% increase in WHR (95%CI 0.4-1.3%), 1.4% increase in waist circumference (95%CI 0.5-2.2%), and 2.3% increase in body fat (95%CI 0.2-4.4%). Stratified analyses by zygosity/chorionicity type indicated that in monozygotic monochorionic twins, each IQR increase in land cover of green spaces was associated with 1.3% increase in WHR (95%CI 0.5-2.1%). In monozygotic dichorionic twins, each IQR increase in land cover of green spaces was associated with 1.4% increase in waist-circumference (95%CI 0.6-2.2%).

CONCLUSIONS

The built environment in which mothers reside during pregnancy might play a role on body composition among young adult twins. Our study revealed that based on zygosity/chorionicity type differential effects of prenatal exposure to green spaces on body composition at adult age might exist.

Association of decreases in PM2.5 levels due to the implementation of environmental protection policies with the incidence of obesity in adolescents: A prospective cohort study

AIMS

To explore the association between decreased levels of particulate matter (≤2.5 µm; PM_2.5) due to the implementation of environmental protection policies and the incidence of obesity in adolescents in Chongqing, China through a prospective cohort study.

METHODS

A total of 2105 children (52.02% male; aged 7.33 ± 0.60 years at baseline) were enrolled from the Chongqing Children's Health Cohort. A mixed linear regression model was used to analyse the relationships of PM_2.5 levels with obesity indicators after adjusting for covariates. Additionally, a Poisson regression model was used to determine the relationship between PM_2.5 exposure and the incidence of overweight/obesity.

RESULTS

The average PM_2.5 exposure levels from participant conception to 2014, from 2015 to 2017, and from 2018 to 2019 were 66.64 ± 5.33 μg/m³, 55.49 ± 3.78 μg/m³, and 42.50 ± 1.87 μg/m³, respectively; these levels significantly decreased over time (P < 0.001). Throughout the entire follow-up period, the incidence of overweight/obesity after a ≥ 25 μg/m³ decrease in the PM_2.5 level was 4.57% among females; this incidence was the lowest among females who experienced remarkable decreases in PM_2.5 exposure. A 1-µg/m³ decrease in the PM_2.5 level significantly decreased the body mass index (BMI), BMI z score (BMI_z), and weight of adolescents (all P < 0.001). Compared with a < 20-μg/m³ decrease in the PM_2.5 level, a ≥ 25-μg/m³ decrease protected against increased BMI (net difference= -0.93; 95% confidence interval [CI]: (-1.23,-0.63) kg/m²), BMI_z (-0.28 (-0.39, -0.17)), weight (-1.59 (-2.44, -0.74) kg), and incidence of overweight/obesity (0.48 (0.37, 0.62), P < 0.001). Moreover, compared with a < 20-μg/m³ decrease in the PM_2.5 level, a ≥ 25-μg/m³ decrease resulted in significant absolute differences in BMI (-1.26 (-1.56, -0.96) kg/m²), BMI_z (-0.53 (-0.65, -0.40)) and weight (-3.01 (-3.8, -2.19) kg) (all P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed the etiological relevance of declining PM_2.5 concentrations for the incidence of obesity in children and adolescents, suggesting that controlling ambient air pollutants may prevent the development of obesity in this age group. Continuous implementation of environmental protection policies in China has led to substantial health benefits.

Air pollution and green spaces in relation to breast cancer risk among pre and postmenopausal women: A mega cohort from Catalonia

BACKGROUND

The association between air pollution and green spaces with breast cancer risk stratified by menopausal status has not been frequently investigated despite its importance given the different impact of risk factors on breast cancer risk depending on menopausal status.

OBJECTIVES

To study the association between air pollution, green spaces and pre and postmenopausal breast cancer risk.

METHODS

We conducted a population-based cohort study using electronic primary care records in Catalonia. We included women aged 17-85 years free of cancer at study entry between 2009 and 2017. Our exposures were particulate matter <2.5 μm (PM_2.5) & <10 μm (PM₁₀), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and percentage of green spaces estimated at the census tract level. Breast cancer was identified with ICD-10 code C50. We estimated cause-specific hazard ratios (HR) for the relationship between each individual exposure and pre and postmenopausal breast cancer risk, using linear and non-linear models.

RESULTS

Of the 1,054,180 pre and 744,658 postmenopausal women followed for a median of 10 years, 6,126 and 17,858 developed breast cancer, respectively. Among premenopausal women, only very high levels of PM₁₀ (≥46 μg/m³) were associated with increased cancer risk (compared to lower levels) in non-linear models. Among postmenopausal women, an interquartile range increase in PM_2.5 (HR:1.03; 95%CI:1.01-1.04), PM₁₀ (1.03; 1.01-1.05), and NO₂ (1.05; 1.02-1.08) were associated with higher cancer risk. NDVI was negatively associated with decreased cancer risk only among postmenopausal women who did not change residence during follow-up (0.84; 0.71-0.99) or who were followed for at least three years (0.82; 0.69-0.98).

DISCUSSION

Living in areas with high concentrations of PM_2.5, PM₁₀, and NO₂ increases breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women while long-term exposure to green spaces may decrease this risk. Only very high concentrations of PM₁₀ increase breast cancer risk in premenopausal women.

Residential Proximity to Urban Play Spaces and Childhood Overweight and Obesity in Barcelona, Spain: A Population-Based Longitudinal Study

Findings on the relationship between play spaces and childhood overweight and obesity are mixed and scarce. This study aimed to investigate the associations between residential proximity to play spaces and the risk of childhood overweight or obesity and potential effect modifiers. This longitudinal study included children living in the city of Barcelona identified in an electronic primary healthcare record database between 2011 and 2018 (N = 75,608). Overweight and obesity were defined according to the WHO standards and we used 300 m network buffers to assess residential proximity to play spaces. We calculated the risk of developing overweight or obesity using Cox proportional hazard models. A share of 29.4% of the study population developed overweight or obesity, but we did not find consistent associations between play space indicators and overweight or obesity. We did not find any consistent sign of effect modification by sex, and only some indications of the modifying role of area socioeconomic status and level of exposure. Although it is not possible to draw clear conclusions from our study, we call for cities to continue increasing and improving urban play spaces with an equitable, healthy, and child-friendly perspective.

Exposure to outdoor and indoor air pollution and risk of overweight and obesity across different life periods: A review

Due to the highly evolved industrialization and modernization, air quality has deteriorated in most countries. As reported by the World Health Organization (WHO), air pollution is now considered as one of the major threats to global health and a principal risk factor for noncommunicable diseases. Meanwhile, the increasing worldwide prevalence of overweight and obesity is attracting more public attentions. Recently, accumulating epidemiological studies have provided evidence that overweight and obesity may be partially attributable to environmental exposure to air pollution. This review summarizes the epidemiological evidence for the correlation between exposure to various outdoor and indoor air pollutants (mainly particulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides (NO_x), ozone (O₃), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)) and overweight and obesity outcomes in recent years. Moreover, it discusses the multiple effects of air pollution during exposure periods throughout life and sex differences in populations. This review also describes the potential mechanism underlying the increased risk of obesity caused by air pollution, including inflammation, oxidative stress, metabolic imbalance, intestinal flora disorders and epigenetic modifications. Finally, this review proposes macro- and micro-measures to prevent the negative effects of air pollution exposure on the obesity prevalence.

Associations between PM2.5 exposure and infant growth: A mediation analysis of oral microbiota

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have linked growth retardation with ambient fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) exposure. However, few studies explored such association from the perspective of microbiota, such as oral microbiota. We aimed to identify the potential role of oral microbiota in the links between PM_2.5 exposure and infant growth.

METHODS

Baseline information of 335 recruited mother-child pairs was collected by structured questionnaires. Growth indicators (weight, length) of one-year-old infants were abstracted from medical records when they had physical examination and corresponding z scores were calculated. 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing was performed to assess oral microbiota of infants and co-abundance groups (CAGs) were further calculated. We assessed PM_2.5 levels by inverse distance weighting (IDW). Generalized linear regression and mediation analysis were performed to determine associations between PM_2.5 exposure, oral microbiota and growth indicators.

RESULTS

Per 10 μg m^-3 increment of PM_2.5 in the period of 10th month-examination was associated with decreased length z score (β = -1.97, 95%CI: -3.83, -0.11). Oral microbiota correlated with weight z score and body mass index (BMI) z score was identified by Spearman correlation analysis. CAG4 was statistically associated with increased weight z score (β = 3.40, 95%CI: 0.29, 6.51) and BMI z score (β = 5.44, 95%CI: 1.00, 9.87). Several bacteria in the level of genus and CAG associated with PM_2.5 exposure were additionally identified (P < 0.05). Mediation analysis revealed that PM_2.5 in the period of birth-3rd month impacted the z scores of weight and BMI by altering relative abundance of Megasphaera (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

PM_2.5 exposure from 10th to 12th month after birth could retard infant linear growth. PM_2.5 might impact oral microbiota of one-year-old infants. Growth-related bacteria and CAGs were identified. Megasphaera might function as mediator between PM_2.5 exposure during birth-3rd month and infant z scores of weight and BMI.

The Association between Childhood Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution and Obesity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Obesity has become a worldwide epidemic; 340 million of children and adolescents were overweight or obese in 2016, and this number continues to grow at a rapid rate. Epidemiological research has suggested that air pollution affects childhood obesity and weight status, but the current evidence remains inconsistent. Therefore, the aim of this meta-analysis was to estimate the effects of childhood exposure to air pollutants on weight. A total of four databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and Cochrane Library) were searched for publications up to December 31, 2021, and finally 15 studies met the inclusion criteria for meta-analysis. Merged odds ratios (ORs), coefficients (β), and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) that were related to air pollutants were estimated using a random-effects model. The meta-analysis indicated that air pollutants were correlated with childhood obesity and weight gain. For obesity, the association was considerable for PM₁₀ (OR = 1.12, 95% CI: 1.06, 1.18), PM_2.5 (OR = 1.28, 95% CI: 1.13, 1.45), PM₁ (OR = 1.41, 95% CI: 1.30, 1.53), and NO₂ (OR = 1.11, 95% CI: 1.06, 1.18). Similarly, BMI status increased by 0.08 (0.03-0.12), 0.11 (0.05-0.17), and 0.03 (0.01-0.04) kg/m² with 10 μg/m³ increment in exposure to PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and NO₂. In summary, air pollution can be regarded as a probable risk factor for the weight status of children and adolescents. The next step is to conduct longer-term and large-scale studies on different population subgroups, exposure concentrations, and pollutant combinations to provide detailed evidence. Meanwhile, integrated management of air pollution is essential.

Individual and joint effects of prenatal green spaces, PM2.5 and PM1 exposure on BMI Z-score of children aged two years: A birth cohort study

BACKGROUND

Few studies examined the association of prenatal exposure to green spaces with children's body mass index (BMI) Z-score, and no study evaluated the joint effect of prenatal green spaces and PM_2.5 or PM₁ exposure on children's BMI Z-score. We aimed to assess the individual and joint effects of prenatal green spaces, PM_2.5, and PM₁ exposure on BMI Z-score of children aged two years.

METHODS

The study was based on a birth cohort in Beijing, China, in which 13,253 mothers (LMP from 2014 to 2017) and their children were included. We estimated prenatal green spaces exposure by calculating average normalized difference vegetation index with 500 m buffers (NDVI-500), prenatal PM_2.5 and PM₁ exposure based on maternal residential addresses. Weight and height of children were measured at 2 years old. We calculated children's BMI Z-score based on the WHO Standards. Generalized linear regression was used to examine the individual and joint effects of prenatal NDVI-500, PM_2.5 and PM₁ exposure on children's BMI Z-score.

RESULTS

A 0.1 increase in prenatal NDVI-500 exposure, a 10 μg/m³ decrease in PM_2.5, a 10 μg/m³ decrease in PM₁ were associated with 0.185 [95% confidence interval (95%CI): 0.155, 0.216], 0.034 (95%CI: 0.015, 0.052) and 0.041 (95%CI: 0.020, 0.061) increase of children's BMI Z-score, respectively. Compared with those exposed to low-level NDVI-500 (not greater than median) and high-level PM_2.5 (greater than median), the BMI Z-score was higher in children whose mother exposed to high-level of NDVI-500 and low-level PM_2.5 [β:0.172 (95%CI: 0.131, 0.214), P_interaction = 0.003]. Compared with those exposed to low-level NDVI-500 and high-level PM₁, the BMI Z-score was higher in children whose mother exposed to high-level of NDVI-500 and low-level PM₁ [β:0.169 (95%CI: 0.127, 0.210), P_interaction<0.001]. In the trimester-specific analysis, NDVI-500 and PM exposure during the second trimester have a consistent individual effect, together with a joint effect, on child growth.

CONCLUSION

The study suggested the beneficial effect of prenatal exposure to green spaces on child growth and its interaction with PM_2.5 and PM₁, especially in the second trimester. The findings call for developing public health policy to improve green infrastructure and control PM_2.5 and PM₁ concentrations, in order to promote child growth.

Associations of exposure to residential green space and neighborhood walkability with coronary atherosclerosis in Chinese adults

Residential green space and neighborhood walkability are important foundations of a healthy and sustainable city. Yet, their associations with atherosclerosis, the disease underlying clinical coronary heart disease (CHD), is unknown, especially in susceptible populations. We aim to explore the associations of exposure to residential green space and neighborhood walkability with coronary atherosclerosis. In this study of 2021 adults with suspected CHD, we evaluated the associations of exposure to green space (using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index [NDVI] and enhanced vegetation index [EVI] surrounding each participant's home) and neighborhood walkability (using walkability index and number of parks near home) with atherosclerosis (using coronary artery calcium score, CAC) using linear regression model adjusted for individual-level characteristics. Mediation analysis was further applied to explore potential mechanisms through the pathways of physical activity, air pollution, and psychological stress. In the primary model, an interquartile increase in annual mean NDVI and EVI within the 1-km area was associated with -15.8% (95%CI: 28.7%, -0.7%), and -18.6% (95%Cl: 31.3%, -3.6%) lower CAC score, respectively. However, an interquartile increase in the walkability index near home was associated with a 7.4% (95% CI: 0.1%, 15.2%) higher CAC score. The combined exposure to a green space area in a 1-km area and the walkability index were inversely associated with atherosclerosis, albeit with a smaller magnitude than a single-exposure model. The findings from a mediation analysis suggested that increased physical exercise and ameliorated particulate matter <2.5 μm (PM_2.5) may partially contribute to the relationship between green space and atherosclerosis, and for walkability index, partially explained by increased PM_2.5 exposure. Our study suggested a beneficial association between green space and atherosclerosis, but an adverse association between neighborhood walkability and atherosclerosis. Therefore, urban development that aims to improve neighborhood walkability should jointly account for enhancing green space properties from a public health perspective.

Urban environment and obesity and weight-related behaviours in primary school children

BACKGROUND

Urban environments are characterised by many factors that may influence children's lifestyle and increase the risk of childhood obesity, but multiple urban exposures have scarcely been studied.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated the association between multiple urban exposures and childhood obesity outcomes and weight-related behaviours.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study including 2213 children aged 9-12 years in Sabadell, Spain. We estimated ambient air pollution, green spaces, built and food environment, road traffic and road traffic noise at residential addresses through a total of 28 exposure variables in various buffers. Childhood obesity outcomes included body mass index (BMI), waist circumference and body fat. Weight-related behaviours included diet (fast food and sugar-sweetened beverage consumption), physical activity, sedentary behaviour, sleep duration and well-being. Associations between exposures (urban environment) and outcomes (obesity and behaviours) were estimated in single and multiple-exposure regression models and in a hierarchical clustering on principal components (HCPC) analysis.

RESULTS

Forty percent of children were overweight or obese. In single exposure models, very few associations were observed between the urban exposures and obesity outcomes or weight-related behaviours after correction for multiple testing. In multiple exposure models, PM_coarse, denser unhealthy food environment and land use mix were statistically significant associated with childhood obesity outcomes (e.g 17.7 facilities/km² increase of unhealthy food environment (OR overweight/obesity status) = 1.20 [95% CI: 1.01; 1.44]). Cluster analysis identified 5 clusters of urban exposures. Compared to the most neutral cluster, the cluster with high air pollution, road traffic, and road noise levels was associated with a higher BMI and higher odds of overweight and obesity (β (zBMI) = 0.17, [95% CI: 0.01, 0.17]; OR (overweight/obesity) = 1.36, [95% CI: 0.99, 1.85]); the clusters were not associated with the weight-related behaviours.

CONCLUSIONS

This systematic study of many exposures in the urban environment suggests that an exposure pattern characterised by higher levels of ambient air pollution, road traffic and road traffic noise is associated with increased childhood obesity risk and that PM_coarse, land use mix and food environment are separately associated with obesity risk. These findings require follow-up in longitudinal studies and different settings.

Mid-pregnancy PM2.5 exposure affects sex-specific growth trajectories via ARRDC3 methylation

Prenatal particulate matter <2.5 μm (PM_2.5) is associated with adverse birth growth. However, the longitudinal growth impacts have been little studied, and no mechanistic relationships have been described. We investigated the association between prenatal PM_2.5 exposure and growth trajectories, and the possible role of epigenetics. We enrolled 1313 neonates with PM_2.5 data measured by ordinary kriging from the COhort for Childhood Origin of Asthma and allergic diseases, followed up at 1, 3, and 5 years to evaluate growth. Differential DNA methylation and pyrosequencing of cord blood leukocytes was evaluated according to the prenatal PM_2.5 levels and birth weight (BW). PM_2.5 exposure during the second trimester (T2) caused the lowest BW in both sexes, further adjusted for indoor PM_2.5 levels [female, aOR 1.39 (95% CI 1.05-1.83); male, aOR 1.36 (95% CI 1.04-1.79)]. Bayesian distributed lag models with indoor PM_2.5 adjustments revealed a sensitive window for BW effects at 10-26 weeks gestation, but only in females. Latent class mixture models indicated that a persistently low weight-for-height percentile trajectory was more prevalent in the highest PM_2.5 exposure quartile at T2 in females, compared to a persistently high trajectory (36.5% vs. 20.3%, P = 0.022). Also, in the females only, the high PM_2.5 and low BW neonates showed significantly greater ARRDC3 methylation changes. ARRDC3 methylation was also higher only in females with low weight at 5 years of age. Higher fetal PM_2.5 exposure during T2 may cause a decreased growth trajectory, especially in females, mediated by ARRDC3 hyper-methylation-associated energy metabolism.

Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and obesity in school-aged children and adolescents in Jiangsu province of China

Studies have shown that ambient air pollution is associated with obesity in adults, but epidemiological evidence is scarce for children and adolescents. This study sought to examine the association between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and obesity in a large population of children and adolescents in China. A cross-sectional analysis was performed from a school-based health lifestyles intervention project between September 1, 2019 and November 31, 2019, including 36,456 participants aged 9-17 years in Jiangsu province of China. Exposure to air pollutants (nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), ozone (O₃), particulate matter with aerodynamic diameters ≤10 μm (PM₁₀), and ≤2.5 μm (PM_2.5)) were measured based on the nearest air monitoring station for each selected school. Data on each participant's weight and height was also recorded. Demographic and obesity-related behavioral information was collected using a self-reported questionnaire. We used the multivariate regression model to estimate the effects of three-year (2016-2018) average concentrations and the exceedance concentration days (ECD) of air pollutants on obesity after adjusting potential confounders. The ECD was defined as daily concentration exceeding the Chinese National Ambient Air Quality Standard and World Health Organization Ambient Air Quality Guidelines. We observed that higher concentrations of PM_2.5, NO₂, and O₃ were associated with elevated likelihood of obesity. For each 10 μg/m³ increment in concentration, odds ratio of obesity was 1.185 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.054, 1.333) for PM_2.5, 1.127 (95%CI: 1.042, 1.219) for NO₂, and 1.041 (95%CI: 1.001, 1.082) for O₃, respectively. A significant association between the ECD and obesity was also found for PM_2.5 and O₃. Effects of air pollutants on obesity were stronger in males, low economic level regions, and age subgroups of 9-11 and 15-17 years. Our findings suggest that long-term exposures to PM_2.5, NO₂, and O₃ were associated with higher prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents. Continuous efforts to reduce air pollution level could help ease the increasing prevalence of obesity within a region.

Community context, birth cohorts and childhood body mass index trajectories: Evidence from the China nutrition and health survey 1991-2011

Childhood overweight and obesity have shown an increase in recent birth cohorts. China has undergone rapid socioeconomic transitions accompanied by lifestyle changes that have profoundly affected the physical growth of children. Less empirical research has considered the role of community context on the cohort effects of children's body mass index (BMI) z-score trajectories. We used the mixed effect models for repeated measurements with restricted cubic spline to predict the BMI z-score trajectories in children aged 1-17 years, influenced by different birth cohorts and community context using data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey from 1991 to 2011, and stratified by sex. Results indicated that the mean of BMI z-scores of children aged 1-17 years have increased in the 2000s cohort. Community context contributed to significant differences in BMI z-score increase with age from middle childhood, and this trend of community inequalities divergences in middle childhood in recent birth cohorts. Therefore, to promote equitable growth for all children in China, policy interventions focusing on the community context may have far-reaching effects on the health of children and adolescents.