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Stanimirova I, Rich DQ, Russell AG, Hopke PK. Spatial variability of pollution source contributions during two (2012-2013 and 2018-2019) sampling campaigns at ten sites in Los Angeles basin. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 354:124244. [PMID: 38810681 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
This study assessed the spatial variability of PM2.5 source contributions across ten sites located in the South Coast Air Basin, California. Eight pollution sources and their contributions were obtained using positive matrix factorization (PMF) from the PM2.5 compositional data collected during the two sampling campaigns (2012/13 and 2018/19) of the Multiple Air Toxics Exposure Study (MATES). The identified sources were "gasoline vehicles", "aged sea salt", "biomass burning", "secondary nitrate", "secondary sulfate", "diesel vehicles", "soil/road dust" and "OP-rich". Among them, "gasoline vehicle" was the largest contributor to the PM2.5 mass. The spatial distributions of source contributions to PM2.5 at the sites were characterized by the Pearson correlation coefficients as well as coefficients of determination and divergence. The highest spatial variability was found for the contributions from the "OP-rich" source in both MATES campaigns suggesting varying influences of the wildfires in the Los Angeles Basin. Alternatively, the smallest spatial variabilities were observed for the contributions of the "secondary sulfate" and "aged sea salt" sources resolved for the MATES campaign in 2012/13. The "soil/road dust" contributions of the sites from the 2018/19 campaign were also highly correlated. Compared to the other sites, the source contribution patterns observed for Inland Valley and Rubidoux were the most diverse from the others likely due to their remote locations from the other sites, the major urban area, and the Pacific Ocean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Stanimirova
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Silesia in Katowice, Katowice, 40-006, Poland; Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA.
| | - David Q Rich
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Armistead G Russell
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Philip K Hopke
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA; Institute for Sustainable Environment, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, 13699, USA
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Tseng YL, Cheng WH, Yuan CS, Lo KC, Lin C, Lee CW, Bagtasa G. Impacts of ship emissions and sea-land breeze on urban air quality using chemical characterization, source contribution and dispersion model simulation of PM 2.5 at Asian seaport. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 347:123663. [PMID: 38428798 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2024] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) emitted from marine transportation, bulk materials handling at the docks, and dust dispersion has garnered increased attention, particularly in the interface between port and urban areas. This study explored the inter-transport of PM2.5 between Kaohsiung Harbor and neighboring Metro Kaohsiung. Chemical analyses of PM2.5 samples from four sites include water-soluble ions, metallic elements, carbons, anhydrosugars, and organic acids to establish PM2.5's chemical fingerprints. The CALPUFF air dispersion model is employed to simulate the spatiotemporal distribution of PM2.5 in Kaohsiung Harbor and adjacent urban areas. A clear seasonal and diurnal variation of PM2.5 concentrations and chemical composition was observed in both harbor and urban areas. The high correlation of nighttime PM2.5 levels between the port and urban areas suggests inter-transport phenomena. Sea salt spray, ship emissions, secondary aerosols, and heavy fuel-oil boilers exhibit higher levels in the port area than in the urban area. In Metro Kaohsiung, mobile sources, fugitive dust, and waste incinerators emerge as major PM2.5 contributors. Furthermore, sea breeze significantly influences PM2.5 dispersion from Kaohsiung Harbor to Metro Kaohsiung, particularly in the afternoon. The average contribution of PM2.5 from ships' main engines in Kaohsiung Harbor ranges from 2.9% to 5.3%, while auxiliary engines contribute 3.8%-8.3% of PM2.5 in Metro Kaohsiung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Lun Tseng
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Wen-Hsi Cheng
- Ph.D. Program in Maritime Science and Technology, College of Maritime, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chung-Shin Yuan
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, ROC.
| | - Kuo-Cheng Lo
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chitsan Lin
- Department of Marine Environmental Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chia-Wei Lee
- Department of Safety, Health and Environmental Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Gerry Bagtasa
- Institute of Environmental Science and Meteorology, University of the Philippines at Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
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3
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Tomson M, Kumar P, Abhijith KV, Watts JF. Exploring the interplay between particulate matter capture, wash-off, and leaf traits in green wall species. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 921:170950. [PMID: 38360301 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/11/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
The study investigated inter-species variation in particulate matter (PM) accumulation, wash-off, and retention on green wall plants, with a focus on leaf characteristics. Ten broadleaf plant species were studied in an experimental green wall. Ambient PM concentrations remained relatively stable throughout the measurement period: PM1: 16.60 ± 9.97 μgm-3, PM2.5: 23.27 ± 11.88 μgm-3, and PM10: 39.59 ± 25.72 μgm-3. Leaf samples were taken before and after three rainfall events, and PM deposition was measured using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Leaf micromorphological traits, including surface roughness, hair density, and stomatal density, exhibited variability among species and leaf surfaces. Notably, I.sempervirens and H.helix had relatively high PM densities across all size fractions. The study underscored the substantial potential of green wall plants for atmospheric PM removal, with higher Wall Leaf Area Index (WLAI) species like A.maritima and T.serpyllum exhibiting increased PM accumulation at plant level. Rainfall led to significant wash-off for smaller particles, whereas larger particles exhibited lower wash-off rates. Leaf micromorphology impacted PM accumulation, although effects varied among species, and parameters such as surface roughness, stomatal density, and leaf size did not consistently affect PM deposition. The composition of deposited particles encompassed natural, vehicular, salt, and unclassified agglomerates, with minimal changes after rainfall. Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) assessments revealed that I.sempervirens displayed the highest air pollution tolerance, while O.vulgare had the lowest. APTI showed a moderate positive correlation with PM deposition across all fractions. The study concluded that the interplay of macro and micromorphology in green wall plant species determines their PM removal potential. Further research is needed to identify the key leaf characteristics for optimal green wall species selection for effective PM removal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamatha Tomson
- Global Centre for Clean Air Research (GCARE), School of Sustainability, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, Surrey, United Kingdom; Centre for Atmospheric Chemistry, School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Prashant Kumar
- Global Centre for Clean Air Research (GCARE), School of Sustainability, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, Surrey, United Kingdom; Institute for Sustainability, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, Surrey, United Kingdom.
| | - K V Abhijith
- Global Centre for Clean Air Research (GCARE), School of Sustainability, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - John F Watts
- School of Mechanical Engineering Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, Surrey, United Kingdom
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Zhu Y, Liu C, Huo J, Li H, Chen J, Duan Y, Huang K. A novel calibration method for continuous airborne metal measurements: Implications for aerosol source apportionment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 908:168274. [PMID: 37924870 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/06/2023]
Abstract
Continuous metal monitors have been widely used in environmental monitoring due to the high temporal resolution, high detection limit, and necessity for near real-time source apportionment. However, the reliability of the conventional calibration method, the deviation caused by uncalibrated monitoring data, and the subsequent impact on source identification results are rarely discussed. In this study, a reliable multi-point calibration approach by Primary Standard Aerosol Mass Concentration Calibration System (PAMAS) for the Xact625i Ambient Metals Monitor was developed and applied. The measured data was almost meaningless in the low-concentration range with bias even exceeding 100 % by using the conventional single-point calibration method based on thin-film standards. PAMAS was utilized to generate aerosols with known concentrations of the 20 metal elements including Al, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, As, Sr, Cd, Sn, Sb, Ba, Tl, Pb, and Bi, in two concentration ranges of 150-1200 ng m-3 and 2.5-30 ng m-3 to validate the Xact625i Monitor. The results showed that the elemental concentrations were underestimated, especially in the low-concentration range, only for Cr, As, and Sr with slopes close to unity (1.00 ± 0.03). After calibration by PAMAS, the slopes of the linear relationships between measured and standard concentrations were all unity for the 19 elements in the high-concentration range, and close to unity for the 15 elements in the low-concentration range, and the accuracy of the remaining elements was also improved. After considering the calibration of aerosol metal data, it was found the number of source factors and their contributions to metals and PM2.5 in Chongming Dongtan, China, based on the PMF model significantly changed. This study highlighted the need of developing reliable calibration methods for online aerosol monitoring instruments and implied that the source apportionment results could be biased without careful data calibration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yucheng Zhu
- Center for Atmospheric Chemistry Study, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention (LAP(3)), National Observations and Research Station for Wetland Ecosystems of the Yangtze Estuary, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Chengfeng Liu
- Center for Atmospheric Chemistry Study, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention (LAP(3)), National Observations and Research Station for Wetland Ecosystems of the Yangtze Estuary, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Juntao Huo
- State Ecologic Environmental Scientific Observation and Research Station for Dianshan Lake, Shanghai Environmental Monitoring Center, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Hao Li
- Center for Atmospheric Chemistry Study, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention (LAP(3)), National Observations and Research Station for Wetland Ecosystems of the Yangtze Estuary, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Jia Chen
- State Ecologic Environmental Scientific Observation and Research Station for Dianshan Lake, Shanghai Environmental Monitoring Center, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Yusen Duan
- State Ecologic Environmental Scientific Observation and Research Station for Dianshan Lake, Shanghai Environmental Monitoring Center, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Kan Huang
- Center for Atmospheric Chemistry Study, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention (LAP(3)), National Observations and Research Station for Wetland Ecosystems of the Yangtze Estuary, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China; Institute of Eco-Chongming (IEC), Shanghai 202162, China.
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Dat ND, Nguyen LSP, Vo TDH, Van Nguyen T, Do TTL, Tran ATK, Hoang NTT. Pollution characteristics, associated risks, and possible sources of heavy metals in road dust collected from different areas of a metropolis in Vietnam. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2023; 45:7889-7907. [PMID: 37493982 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-023-01696-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
Road dust samples were collected from different areas in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC)-the largest city in Vietnam to explore pollution characteristics, ecological and human health risks, and sources of heavy metals (HMs). Results revealed the level of HMs found in the samples from residential and industrial zones of HCMC in the order of Mn > Zn > Cu > Cr > Pb > Ni > Co > As > Cd, Zn > Mn > Cu > Cr > Pb > Ni > Co > As > Cd. Due to the high enrichment of Cu, Zn in residential areas and Cu, Pb, Zn in industrial areas, the HM contamination in these areas remained moderate to severe. The findings also revealed a rising trend in the level of HMs in road dust from the east to the west of HCMC, and a heavy metal contamination hotspot in the west. In addition, industrial areas were more contaminated with HMs, posing greater associated risks than residential areas. Children living in urban areas of HCMC were found to be exposed to unacceptable health risks. Meanwhile, adults living in industrial areas face intolerable cancer risk. Among the nine HMs, Cd, Pb, and Cu posed the greatest ecological risk, while Cr and As were the main culprits behind health risks. HMs in road dust might derive from non-exhaust vehicular emissions, crustal materials, and industrial activities. The results suggested that industrial areas to the west of HCMC should focus more on reducing and controlling severe pollution of HMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nguyen Duy Dat
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education, Thu Duc, Ho Chi Minh, 700000, Viet Nam.
| | - Ly Sy Phu Nguyen
- Faculty of Environment, University of Science, Ho Chi Minh City, 700000, Viet Nam
- Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, 700000, Viet Nam
| | - Thi-Dieu-Hien Vo
- Faculty of Environmental and Food Engineering, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi Minh City, 700000, Viet Nam
| | - Truc Van Nguyen
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Saigon University, Ho Chi Minh City, 700000, Viet Nam
| | - Thi Thuy Linh Do
- Institute for Environment and Resources (IER), Ho Chi Minh City, 700000, Viet Nam
- Department of Science and Technology, Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, 700000, Viet Nam
| | - Anh Thi Kim Tran
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education, Thu Duc, Ho Chi Minh, 700000, Viet Nam
| | - Nhung Thi-Tuyet Hoang
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education, Thu Duc, Ho Chi Minh, 700000, Viet Nam
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Mahdi Badami M, Tohidi R, Jalali Farahani V, Sioutas C. Size-segregated source identification of water-soluble and water-insoluble metals and trace elements of coarse and fine PM in central Los Angeles. ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT (OXFORD, ENGLAND : 1994) 2023; 310:119984. [PMID: 37637474 PMCID: PMC10455048 DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2023.119984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the water-solubility and sources of metals and trace elements in both fine and coarse particulate matter (PM) were investigated in Central Los Angeles. Sampling was performed in the winter, spring, and summer of 2022 at the Particle Instrumentation Unit (PIU) of the University of Southern California located in the proximity of I-110 freeway. Both fine and coarse PM samples were collected using Personal Cascade Impactors (PCIS) and chemically analyzed to determine their water-soluble and water-insoluble metal content. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) were used to determine the sources of soluble and insoluble metals and obtain their contributions to total metal concentration. Our results indicate that the water-solubility of most of the metals is higher in the fine size fraction compared to the coarse fraction. Seasonal variations in the water solubility of selected metals for both coarse and fine fractions were observed, with higher water-soluble metal concentrations in summer for several species (e.g., Fe , S, Pb, Cu, La, Ni, and Al ), possibly due to higher photochemical processing, while in winter, almost all species exhibited higher insoluble fraction concentrations. The PCA and MLR analyses results showed that tire and brake wear was the most significant contributor to the total metals for both fine soluble and insoluble portions, accounting for 35% and 75% of the total metals, respectively. Combustion sources also contributed substantially to water-soluble metals for fine and coarse size ranges, representing 40% and 32% of the total metal mass, respectively. In addition, mineral dust and soil and re-suspended dust were identified as the highest contributors to coarse metals. The MLR analysis also revealed that secondary aerosols contributed 11% to the fine water-soluble metals. Our results suggest that non-tailpipe emissions significantly contribute to both coarse and fine PM metals in the Central Los Angeles region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Mahdi Badami
- University of Southern California, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Ramin Tohidi
- University of Southern California, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Vahid Jalali Farahani
- University of Southern California, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Constantinos Sioutas
- University of Southern California, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Martín-Cruz Y, Gómez-Losada Á. Risk Assessment and Source Apportionment of Metals on Atmospheric Particulate Matter in a Suburban Background Area of Gran Canaria (Spain). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:ijerph20105763. [PMID: 37239494 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20105763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Concentration levels of 11 heavy metals were analyzed in PM10 and PM2.5 samples from a suburban area frequently affected by Saharan dust in which is located a school. The heavy metals risk assessment was carried out by the 2011 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency method, estimating the chronic and carcinogenic hazard levels both in adults and children. The highest level of chronic hazard was reached for Cr, with values of approximately 8 (PM10, adulthood), 2 (PM10, childhood) and 1.5 (PM2.5, adult age), significantly exceeding the limit value (equal to 1). Regarding the carcinogenic risk level, it was also high for Cr, with values between 10-3 and 10-1 for both study populations and particle size. For the rest of the studied metals, no health risk levels of concern were obtained. The positive matrix factorization method was used for the estimation of heavy metal emission sources apportionment. Non-exhaust vehicle emissions were the main source of Cr emissions under PM2.5, while industrial processes were the main source for PM10. Mineral dust and marine aerosol were common emission sources for both particles sizes-with different contributions. Vehicle emissions, construction and agricultural activities were the main emission sources for PM10, and fossil fuel combustion, road dust re-suspension and ammonium sulfate were for PM2.5. The results obtained in this study support the need to continue applying mitigation measures in suburban areas which are affected by nearby anthropogenic emissions, causing the consequent emission of materials hazardous to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Álvaro Gómez-Losada
- Departament of Quantitative Methods, Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Avda de las Universidades s/n, 41704 Dos Hermanas, Spain
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Osae R, Nukpezah D, Darko DA, Koranteng SS, Mensah A. Accumulation of heavy metals and human health risk assessment of vegetable consumption from a farm within the Korle lagoon catchment. Heliyon 2023; 9:e16005. [PMID: 37215884 PMCID: PMC10195892 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e16005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The Korle lagoon is known to have high concentration of heavy metals. The use of land for agriculture and water for irrigation within the Korle Lagoon's catchment constitutes a potential health risk. Due to this, the study assessed the concentration of heavy metals in some vegetables (Amaranth, Spinach, Eggplant, Lettuce, Cauliflower, and Onion) and their corresponding soil from a farm within the Korle Lagoon's catchment. The estimated daily intake (EDI), hazard quotient (HQ), and lifetime cancer risk (LCR) was used to assess their health risks. Among the vegetables tested, heavy metals in lettuce exceeded their recommended guideline level. Additionally, the concentrations of Fe (265.94-3599.60 mg/kg) and Zn (76.77-294.70 mg/kg) in all vegetables were above the recommended guideline level. Also, Zn (227.30-534.57 mg/kg) and Pb (101.53-407.58 mg/kg), in soil were above the recommended guideline level for soil. The results also showed not only the severity of heavy metal pollution of soil in the study area, but also risks that were deemed carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic to both adults and children as a result of consumption of vegetables from the study area. The hazard index for adults (0.46-41.156) and children (3.880-384.122), were high for all vegetables tested and are associated with cancer risk due to high Cr and Pb levels. The risk assessment showed that children may suffer more carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic health risk than adults. The study concluded that vegetables grown within the Korle lagoon's catchment is not suitable for consumption due to the associated adverse health effect.
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Sofowote UM, Mooibroek D, Healy RM, Debosz J, Munoz A, Hopke PK. Source apportionment of ambient PM 2.5 in an industrialized city using dispersion-normalized, multi-time resolution factor analyses. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 323:121281. [PMID: 36804563 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) data were collected in the lower City of Hamilton, Ontario to apportion the sources of this pollutant over an 18-month period. Hamilton has complex topographical features that may result in worsened air pollution within the lower city, thus, dispersion-normalized, multi-time resolution factor analysis (DN-MT-FA) was used to identify and quantify contributions of factors in a manner that reduced the influence of local meteorology. These factors were secondary organic aerosols type 1 (SOA_1), particulate nitrate (pNO3), particulate sulphate (pSO4), primary traffic organic matter (PTOM), Steel/metal processing and vehicular road dust emissions (Steel & Mobile) and, secondary organic aerosols type 2 (SOA_2) with origins ranging from mainly regional to mainly local. Factors that were mainly local (PTOM, Steel & Mobile, SOA_2) contributed up to 17% of the average PM2.5 mass while mixed local/regional factors (pNO3, pSO4) made up 43% on average, indicating the potential for further reduction of harmful PM concentrations locally. Of particular interest from a health protection perspective, was the composition of PM2.5 on days when an exceedance of the 24-hr WHO air quality guideline for this pollutant was observed. In general, SOA_1 was found to drive summer exceedances while pNO3 dominated in the winter. During the summer period, SOA_1 was attributable to wildfires in the northern parts of Canada while local traffic sources in winter contributed to the high levels of pNO3. While local, industrial factors only had minor relative mass contributions during exceedances, they are high in highly oxidized organic species (SOA_2) and toxic metals (Steel & Mobile). Thus, they are likely to have more impacts on human health. The methods and results described in this work will be useful in understanding prevalent sources of particulate matter pollution in the ambient air in the presence of complex topography and meteorological effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uwayemi M Sofowote
- Environmental Monitoring and Reporting Branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks, Toronto, Canada.
| | - Dennis Mooibroek
- Centre for Environmental Monitoring, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), A. van Leeuwenhoeklaan 9, P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Robert M Healy
- Environmental Monitoring and Reporting Branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks, Toronto, Canada
| | - Jerzy Debosz
- Environmental Monitoring and Reporting Branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks, Toronto, Canada
| | - Anthony Munoz
- Environmental Monitoring and Reporting Branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks, Toronto, Canada
| | - Philip K Hopke
- Center for Air Resources Engineering and Science, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, USA; Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
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10
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Bai X, Tian H, Zhu C, Luo L, Hao Y, Liu S, Guo Z, Lv Y, Chen D, Chu B, Wang S, Hao J. Present Knowledge and Future Perspectives of Atmospheric Emission Inventories of Toxic Trace Elements: A Critical Review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:1551-1567. [PMID: 36661479 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c07147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Toxic trace elements (TEs) can pose serious risks to ecosystems and human health. However, a comprehensive understanding of atmospheric emission inventories for several concerning TEs has not yet been developed. In this study, we systematically reviewed the status and progress of existing research in developing atmospheric emission inventories of TEs focusing on global, regional, and sectoral scales. Multiple studies have strengthened our understanding of the global emission of TEs, despite attention being mainly focused on Hg and source classification in different studies showing large discrepancies. In contrast to those of developed countries and regions, the officially published emission inventory is still lacking in developing countries, despite the fact that studies on evaluating the emissions of TEs on a national scale or one specific source category have been numerous in recent years. Additionally, emissions of TEs emitted from waste incineration and traffic-related sources have produced growing concern with worldwide rapid urbanization. Although several studies attempt to estimate the emissions of TEs based on PM emissions and its source-specific chemical profiles, the emission factor approach is still the universal method. We call for more extensive and in-depth studies to establish a precise localization national emission inventory of TEs based on adequate field measurements and comprehensive investigation to reduce uncertainty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxuan Bai
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Hezhong Tian
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Chuanyong Zhu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250353, China
| | - Lining Luo
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Yan Hao
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Shuhan Liu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Zhihui Guo
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Yunqian Lv
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Dongxue Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Biwu Chu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Shuxiao Wang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Jiming Hao
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100875, China
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11
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Varrica D, Alaimo MG. Determination of Water-Soluble Trace Elements in the PM 10 and PM 2.5 of Palermo Town (Italy). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 20:724. [PMID: 36613045 PMCID: PMC9819477 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20010724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
This study contributes to the current knowledge on the solubility of trace elements in the atmospheric particulate matter of the urban area of Palermo. Daily sample filters of PM10 and PM2.5 were collected in monitoring stations within and outside the urban area, characterized by variable traffic density. The bulk of compositions in PM10 and PM2.5 were determined by ICP-MS. The water-soluble trace elements (WSTE) and major ion components of particulate matter were determined by ICP-MS and ion chromatography, respectively. A significant difference in the metals content was observed between the samples taken in urban areas and those from suburban areas. The calculated enrichment factor highlights the high values for Cu, Mo, Sb, V, and Zn, confirming the contribution of human activities. The leaching test was applied to PM10 and PM2.5 filters and showed different behaviors and transport of metals and metalloids. The calculated leaching coefficient highlights the metals typically produced by anthropic activities, compared to those of geogenic origin, are much more soluble in water and have greater mobility. The factor analysis was used to identify the sources of water-soluble ions. The main sources are anthropic, geogenic, and sea spray. The final objective of this study is to obtain, with the aid of leaching experiments on PM2.5 and PM10 filter samples, information about the bioavailability and mobility of the different metals and metalloids that could be used as the scientific basis for public health intervention and to raise the prevention and control of heavy metal pollution in the urban environment, especially in densely populated areas.
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12
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Shen J, Taghvaee S, La C, Oroumiyeh F, Liu J, Jerrett M, Weichenthal S, Del Rosario I, Shafer MM, Ritz B, Zhu Y, Paulson SE. Aerosol Oxidative Potential in the Greater Los Angeles Area: Source Apportionment and Associations with Socioeconomic Position. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:17795-17804. [PMID: 36472388 PMCID: PMC9775201 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c02788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Oxidative potential (OP) has been proposed as a possible integrated metric for particles smaller than 2.5 μm in diameter (PM2.5) to evaluate adverse health outcomes associated with particulate air pollution exposure. Here, we investigate how OP depends on sources and chemical composition and how OP varies by land use type and neighborhood socioeconomic position in the Los Angeles area. We measured OH formation (OPOH), dithiothreitol loss (OPDTT), black carbon, and 52 metals and elements for 54 total PM2.5 samples collected in September 2019 and February 2020. The Positive Matrix Factorization source apportionment model identified four sources contributing to volume-normalized OPOH: vehicular exhaust, brake and tire wear, soil and road dust, and mixed secondary and marine. Exhaust emissions contributed 42% of OPOH, followed by 21% from brake and tire wear. Similar results were observed for the OPDTT source apportionment. Furthermore, by linking measured PM2.5 and OP with census tract level socioeconomic and health outcome data provided by CalEnviroScreen, we found that the most disadvantaged neighborhoods were exposed to both the most toxic particles and the highest particle concentrations. OPOH exhibited the largest inverse social gradients, followed by OPDTT and PM2.5 mass. Finally, OPOH was the metric most strongly correlated with adverse health outcome indicators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaqi Shen
- Department
of Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences, University
of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Sina Taghvaee
- Department
of Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences, University
of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Chris La
- Department
of Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences, University
of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Farzan Oroumiyeh
- Department
of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School
of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Jonathan Liu
- Department
of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School
of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Michael Jerrett
- Department
of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School
of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Scott Weichenthal
- Department
of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1A2, Canada
| | - Irish Del Rosario
- Department
of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Martin M. Shafer
- Environmental
Chemistry and Technology Program, University
of Wisconsin−Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Beate Ritz
- Department
of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Yifang Zhu
- Department
of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School
of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Suzanne E. Paulson
- Department
of Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences, University
of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
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13
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Raparthi N, Phuleria HC. On-road vehicular emission characterization from the road-tunnel measurements in India: Morphology, emission factors, and sources. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 215:114295. [PMID: 36126689 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In India, there is very limited data on vehicular emission characterization in real-world driving conditions and the contribution of non-exhaust vehicular emissions to ambient particulate matter (PM) is still unanswered. Furthermore, there are no real-world emission factors (EFs) for the PM constituents. Thus, this study aims to characterize the trace elements and metals, and black carbon (BC) in PM2.5 and PM10 from the light-duty vehicles (LDVs) and mixed vehicular fleet with significant contribution of heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) through road-tunnel measurements. Real-world EFs were estimated for the measured PM chemical constituents. Further, source apportionment was carried out to find the plausible sources and their contribution to total PM2.5 and PM10 road traffic emissions. Air pollutant and traffic measurements were conducted at two roadway tunnels: Eastern Freeway tunnel (FT; only LDVs) and Kamshet-I tunnel (KT; 80% LDVs & 20% HDVs) in Mumbai, India covering both peak and off-peak traffic hours. Major elements (Al, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, and Na) constitute 90─93% of total measured elemental concentrations in both PM2.5 and PM10 road traffic emissions. Overall, the elemental concentrations were higher for the HDV-dominant fleet than the LDV-fleet for both PM2.5 and PM10. Similarly, BC was higher for the HDV-dominant fleet which is corroborated by the morphological analysis. The measured BC, trace elements and metals EFs in this study were higher than those reported than previous road tunnel studies with similar vehicle composition indicating the presence of high-emitting vehicles in this study. The dominant proportion of PM2.5 road traffic emissions was from the tailpipe (52%) followed by brake wear (30%) and vehicular driven resuspended road dust (18%). Whilst, resuspended road dust (63%) was identified as the major source of PM10 traffic emissions followed by vehicular exhaust (28%) and brake wear (9%). With the potential increase in the share of electric and hybrid vehicles in the vehicular fleet, the relative contribution of non-exhaust emissions to the airborne PM will be more significant. Hence, there is an imminent need to regulate non-exhaust vehicular emissions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagendra Raparthi
- Environmental Science and Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Harish C Phuleria
- Environmental Science and Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India; Interdisciplinary Programme in Climate Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India.
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14
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Liu J, Banerjee S, Oroumiyeh F, Shen J, Del Rosario I, Lipsitt J, Paulson S, Ritz B, Su J, Weichenthal S, Lakey P, Shiraiwa M, Zhu Y, Jerrett M. Co-kriging with a low-cost sensor network to estimate spatial variation of brake and tire-wear metals and oxidative stress potential in Southern California. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 168:107481. [PMID: 36037546 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Due to regulations and technological advancements reducing tailpipe emissions, an increasing proportion of emissions arise from brake and tire wear particulate matter (PM). PM from these non-tailpipe sources contains heavy metals capable of generating oxidative stress in the lung. Although important, these particles remain understudied because the high cost of actively collecting filter samples. Improvements in electrical engineering, internet connectivity, and an increased public concern over air pollution have led to a proliferation of dense low-cost air sensor networks such as the PurpleAir monitors, which primarily measure unspeciated fine particulate matter (PM2.5). In this study, we model the concentrations of Ba, Zn, black carbon, reactive oxygen species concentration in the epithelial lining fluid, dithiothreitol (DTT) loss, and OH formation. We use a co-kriging approach, incorporating data from the PurpleAir network as a secondary predictor variable and a land-use regression (LUR) as an external drift. For most pollutant species, co-kriging models produced more accurate predictions than an LUR model, which did not incorporate data from the PurpleAir monitors. This finding suggests that low-cost sensors can enhance predictions of pollutants that are costly to measure extensively in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Liu
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Sudipto Banerjee
- Department of Biostatistics, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Farzan Oroumiyeh
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Jiaqi Shen
- Department of Atomospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of Caifornia Los Angeles, 520 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Irish Del Rosario
- Department of Epidemiology, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Jonah Lipsitt
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Suzanne Paulson
- Department of Atomospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of Caifornia Los Angeles, 520 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Beate Ritz
- Department of Epidemiology, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Jason Su
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, 2121 Berkeley Way, Berkeley, CA, United States.
| | - Scott Weichenthal
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Occupational Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill Unviersity, 2001 McGill College, Suite 1200, Montreal, QC H3A 1G1, Canada.
| | - Pascale Lakey
- Deaprtment of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Natural Sciences II, 1102, Irvine, CA 92617, United States.
| | - Manabu Shiraiwa
- Deaprtment of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Natural Sciences II, 1102, Irvine, CA 92617, United States.
| | - Yifang Zhu
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Michael Jerrett
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
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15
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Jalali Farahani V, Altuwayjiri A, Taghvaee S, Sioutas C. Tailpipe and Nontailpipe Emission Factors and Source Contributions of PM 10 on Major Freeways in the Los Angeles Basin. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:7029-7039. [PMID: 35230811 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c06954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the emission factors of PM10 and its chemical constituents from various contributing sources including nontailpipe and tailpipe emissions were estimated on two interstate freeways in the Los Angeles basin. PM10 samples were collected on the I-110 and I-710 freeways as well as at the University of Southern California (USC) campus as the urban background site, while freeway and urban background CO2 levels were measured simultaneously. PM10 samples were analyzed for their content of chemical species which were used to estimate the emission factors of PM10 and its constituents on both I-110 and I-710 freeways. The estimated values were employed to determine the emission factors for light (LDV) and heavy-duty vehicles (HDV). The quantified species were also processed by the positive matrix factorization (PMF) model to produce PM10 freeway source profiles and their contribution to PM10 mass concentrations. Using the PMF factor profiles and emission factors on the two freeways, we characterized the emission factors for light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles by each nontailpipe source. Our findings indicated higher nontailpipe emission factors of PM10 and metal elements on the I-710 freeway compared to the I-110 freeway, due to the higher fraction of heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) on that freeway. Furthermore, the generation of nontailpipe PM10 from resuspension of road dust was twice of tire and brake wear. The results of this study provide significant insights into PM10 freeway emissions and particularly the overall contribution of nontailpipe and tailpipe sources in Los Angeles, which can be helpful to modelers and air quality officials in assessing the importance of individual traffic-related emissions on the overall population exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vahid Jalali Farahani
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90007, United States
| | - Abdulmalik Altuwayjiri
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90007, United States
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Majmaah University, Majmaah, Riyadh 15341, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sina Taghvaee
- Department of Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences, University of California─Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Constantinos Sioutas
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90007, United States
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16
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Comparative Evaluation of Road Vehicle Emissions at Urban Intersections with Detailed Traffic Dynamics. MATHEMATICS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/math10111887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The insufficient development of intelligent dynamic monitoring systems, which operate with big data, obstructs the control of traffic-related air pollution in regulated urban road networks. The study introduces mathematical models and presents a practical comparative assessment of pollutant emissions at urban intersections, with two typical modes of vehicle traffic combined, i.e., freely passing an intersection when the green signal appears and uniformly accelerated passing after a full stop at the stop line. Input data on vehicle traffic at regulated intersections were collected using real-time processing of video streams by Faster R-CNN neural network. Calculation models for different traffic flow patterns at a regulated intersection for dynamic monitoring of pollutant emissions were obtained. Statistical analysis showed a good grouping of intersections into single-type clusters and factor reduction of initial variables. Analysis will further allow us to control and minimize traffic-related emissions in urban road networks. A comparative analysis of pollutant emissions in relation to the basic speed of passing at the intersection of 30 km/h was performed according to the calculations of the mathematical models. When reducing the speed to 10 km/h (similar to a traffic jam), the amount of emissions increases 3.6 times over, and when increasing the speed to 50 km/h, the amount of emissions decreases by 2.3 times. Fuzzy logic methods allow us to make a comparative prediction of the amount of emissions when changing both the speed of traffic and the capacity of the intersection lanes. The study reveals the benefits of using a real-life measurement approach and provides the foundation for continuous monitoring and emission forecasting to control urban air quality and reduce congestion in the road network.
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17
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Soba D, Gámez AL, Becerril JM, Esteban R, Aranjuelo I. Traffic restrictions during COVID-19 lockdown improve air quality and reduce metal biodeposition in tree leaves. URBAN FORESTRY & URBAN GREENING 2022; 70:127542. [PMID: 35310684 PMCID: PMC8916843 DOI: 10.1016/j.ufug.2022.127542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has had a great global impact on human health, the life of people, and economies all over the world. However, in general, COVID-19´s effect on air quality has been positive due to the restrictions on social and economic activity. This study aimed to assess the impact on air quality and metal deposition of actions taken to reduce mobility in 2020 in two different urban locations. For this purpose, we analysed air pollution (NO2, NO, NOx, SO2, CO, PM10, O3) and metal accumulation in leaves of Tilia cordata collected from April to September 2020 in two cities in northern Spain (Pamplona-PA and San Sebastián-SS). We compared their values with data from the previous year (2019) (in which there were no mobility restrictions) obtained under an identical experimental design. We found that metal accumulation was mostly lower during 2020 (compared with 2019), and lockdown caused significant reductions in urban air pollution. Nitrogen oxides decreased by 33%-44%, CO by 24%-38%, and PM10 by 16%-24%. The contents of traffic-related metals were significantly reduced in both studied cities. More specifically, significant decreases in metals related to tyre and brake wear (Zn, Fe, and Cu) and road dust resuspension (Al, Ti, Fe, Mn, and Ca) were observed. With these results, we conclude that the main reason for the improvement in urban air pollutants and metals was the reduction in the use of cars due to COVID-19 lockdown. In addition, we offer some evidence indicating the suitability of T. cordata leaves as a tool for biomonitoring metal accumulation. This information is relevant for future use by the scientific community and policy makers to implement measures to reduce traffic air pollution in urban areas and to improve environmental and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Soba
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología (IdAB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)-Gobierno de Navarra, Avenida Pamplona 123, 31192 Mutilva, Spain
| | - Angie L Gámez
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología (IdAB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)-Gobierno de Navarra, Avenida Pamplona 123, 31192 Mutilva, Spain
| | - José María Becerril
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), c/Sarriena s/n, 48080 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Raquel Esteban
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), c/Sarriena s/n, 48080 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Iker Aranjuelo
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología (IdAB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)-Gobierno de Navarra, Avenida Pamplona 123, 31192 Mutilva, Spain
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18
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Iakovides M, Tsiamis G, Tziaras T, Stathopoulou P, Nikolaki S, Iakovides G, Stephanou EG. Two-year systematic investigation reveals alterations induced on chemical and bacteriome profile of PM 2.5 by African dust incursions to the Mediterranean atmosphere. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 815:151976. [PMID: 34843760 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
PM2.5 atmospheric samples were regularly collected between January 2013 and March 2015 at a central location of Eastern Mediterranean (Island of Crete) during African dust events (DES) and periods of absence of such episodes as controls (CS). The elemental composition and microbiome DES and CS were thoroughly investigated. Fifty-six major and trace elements were determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. Relative mass abundances (RMA) of major crustal elements and lanthanoids were higher in DES than in CS. Conversely in CS, RMAs were higher for most anthropogenic transition metals. Lanthanum-to-other lanthanoids concentration ratios for DES approached the corresponding reference values for continental crust and several African dust source regions, while in CS they exceeded these values. USEPA's UNMIX receptor model, applied in all PM2.5 samples, established that African dust is the dominant contributing source (by 80%) followed by road dust/fuel oil emissions (17%) in the receptor area. Potential source contribution function (PSCF) identified dust hotspots in Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. The application of 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing revealed high variation of bacterial composition and diversity between DES and CS samples. Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria and Bacteroides were the most dominant in both DES and CS samples, representing ~88% of the total bacterial diversity. Cutibacterium, Tumebacillus and Sphingomonas dominated the CS samples, while Rhizobium and Brevundimonas were the most prevalent genera in DES. Mutual exclusion/co-occurrence network analysis indicated that Sphingomonas and Chryseobacterium exhibited the highest degrees of mutual exclusion in CS, while in DES the corresponding species were Brevundimonas, Delftia, Rubellimicrobium, Flavobacterium, Blastococcus, and Pseudarthrobacter. Some of these microorganisms are emerging global opportunistic pathogens and an increase in human exposure to them as a result of environmental changes, is inevitable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minas Iakovides
- Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece
| | - George Tsiamis
- Laboratory of Systems Microbiology and Applied Genomics, Department of Environmental Engineering, University of Patras, 2 Seferi St, 30100 Agrinio, Greece
| | | | - Panagiota Stathopoulou
- Laboratory of Systems Microbiology and Applied Genomics, Department of Environmental Engineering, University of Patras, 2 Seferi St, 30100 Agrinio, Greece
| | - Sofia Nikolaki
- Laboratory of Systems Microbiology and Applied Genomics, Department of Environmental Engineering, University of Patras, 2 Seferi St, 30100 Agrinio, Greece
| | - Giannis Iakovides
- Department of Mathematics and Applied Mathematics, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece
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19
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Stojanovic N, Glisovic J, Abdullah OI, Belhocine A, Grujic I. Particle formation due to brake wear, influence on the people health and measures for their reduction: a review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:9606-9625. [PMID: 34993797 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-17907-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
For achieving the desired vehicle speed, the IC engine is very important, while for further vehicle speed maintaining and adaptation to road conditions, the braking system is important. With each brake's activation, wear products are forming, which are very harmful to the environment, because they can contain heavy metals. The braking working parameters (initial speed and braking pressure) are beside the achieved temperature in contact par, the most responsible, for particle formation and their release into the air. The particles forming can be divided by size on coarse, fine, and ultrafine particles, and which were observed in the paper. However, the greatest accent was placed on coarse and fine particles. For the determination of the composition of wear products, most often, laboratory tests were used. Particle composition greatly depends on the composition of brake pads, which can consist of about 30 components, and where some of these components have very unfavourable effects on people's health. So today, many researches are focused on finding such composition for brake pads, which will wear as less as possible, without disturbing the basic tribological properties. The conclusion of this paper shows that the applied materials for manufacturing the braking system are very important, as well as the construction, for the reduction of particle emission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadica Stojanovic
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Kragujevac, Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Jasna Glisovic
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Kragujevac, Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Oday I Abdullah
- Dept. of Energy Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq
- Department of Mechanics, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan, 050040
- System Technologies and Engineering Design Methodology, Hamburg University of Technology, 21073, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ali Belhocine
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sciences and the Technology of Oran, L.P 1505 El -MNAOUER, Usto, 31000, Oran, Algeria
| | - Ivan Grujic
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Kragujevac, Kragujevac, Serbia.
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20
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Oroumiyeh F, Jerrett M, Del Rosario I, Lipsitt J, Liu J, Paulson SE, Ritz B, Schauer JJ, Shafer MM, Shen J, Weichenthal S, Banerjee S, Zhu Y. Elemental composition of fine and coarse particles across the greater Los Angeles area: Spatial variation and contributing sources. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 292:118356. [PMID: 34653582 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/09/2021] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The inorganic components of particulate matter (PM), especially transition metals, have been shown to contribute to PM toxicity. In this study, the spatial distribution of PM elements and their potential sources in the Greater Los Angeles area were studied. The mass concentration and detailed elemental composition of fine (PM2.5) and coarse (PM2.5-10) particles were assessed at 46 locations, including urban traffic, urban community, urban background, and desert locations. Crustal enrichment factors (EFs), roadside enrichments (REs), and bivariate correlation analysis revealed that Ba, Cr, Cu, Mo, Pd, Sb, Zn, and Zr were associated with traffic emissions in both PM2.5 and PM2.5-10, while Fe, Li, Mn, and Ti were affected by traffic emissions mostly in PM2.5. The concentrations of Ba, Cu, Mo, Sb, Zr (brake wear tracers), Pd (tailpipe tracer), and Zn (associated with tire wear) were higher at urban traffic sites than urban background locations by factors of 2.6-4.6. Both PM2.5 and PM2.5-10 elements showed large spatial variations, indicating the presence of diverse emission sources across sampling locations. Principal component analysis extracted four source factors that explained 88% of the variance in the PM2.5 elemental concentrations, and three sources that explained 86% of the variance in the PM2.5-10 elemental concentrations. Based on multiple linear regression analysis, the contribution of traffic emissions (27%) to PM2.5 was found to be higher than mineral dust (23%), marine aerosol (18%), and industrial emissions (8%). On the other hand, mineral dust was the dominant source of PM2.5-10 with 45% contribution, followed by marine aerosol (22%), and traffic emissions (19%). This study provides novel insight into the spatial variation of traffic-related elements in a large metropolitan area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farzan Oroumiyeh
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Michael Jerrett
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Irish Del Rosario
- Department of Epidemiology, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Jonah Lipsitt
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Jonathan Liu
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Suzanne E Paulson
- Department of Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Beate Ritz
- Department of Epidemiology, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - James J Schauer
- Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene, School of Medicine & Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Martin M Shafer
- Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene, School of Medicine & Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Jiaqi Shen
- Department of Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Scott Weichenthal
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Sudipto Banerjee
- Department of Biostatistics, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Yifang Zhu
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
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21
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Guarino F, Improta G, Triassi M, Castiglione S, Cicatelli A. Air quality biomonitoring through Olea europaea L.: The study case of "Land of pyres". CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 282:131052. [PMID: 34470149 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The "Land of pyres", namely "La Terra dei Fuochi", is an area of Campania region (South-Italy), highly inhabited and comprises between the Provinces of Naples and Caserta, sadly known worldwide for the criminal activities related to the illegal waste disposal and burning. These fires, concomitantly with traffic emissions, might be the source of potential toxic element (PTE) dangerous for the human health and causing pathologies. In the framework of Correlation Health-Environment project, funded by the Campania region, eight municipalities (of area "Land of pyres") and three remote sites have been bio-monitored using the olive (Olea europaea L.) plants as biomonitors. Leaves of olive plants were collected in each assayed municipality and the concentration of 11 metal(loid)s was evaluated by means of ICP-OES. Our findings revealed that the air of these municipalities was limitedly contaminated by PTE; in fact, only Sb, Al and Mn were detected in the olive leaves collected in some of the assayed municipalities and showed a high enrichment factors (EC) manly due, probably, to the vehicular traffic emissions. Furthermore, the concentrations of the other assayed PTEs were lower than those of Sb, Al and Mn. For these reasons we suppose that their emissions in the troposphere have been and are limited, and they mainly have a crustal origin. Even if our data are very comforting for those urban area, regarded by many as one of the most contaminated one in Italy, a great environment care, in any case, is always needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Guarino
- Department of Chemistry and Biology "A. Zambelli", University of Salerno, 84084, Fisciano, SA, Italy
| | - Giovanni Improta
- Department of Public Health, University of Naples Federico II, 80131, Naples, Italy
| | - Maria Triassi
- Department of Public Health, University of Naples Federico II, 80131, Naples, Italy
| | - Stefano Castiglione
- Department of Chemistry and Biology "A. Zambelli", University of Salerno, 84084, Fisciano, SA, Italy.
| | - Angela Cicatelli
- Department of Chemistry and Biology "A. Zambelli", University of Salerno, 84084, Fisciano, SA, Italy
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22
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Insights into Elemental Composition and Sources of Fine and Coarse Particulate Matter in Dense Traffic Areas in Toronto and Vancouver, Canada. TOXICS 2021; 9:toxics9100264. [PMID: 34678960 PMCID: PMC8537750 DOI: 10.3390/toxics9100264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Traffic is a significant pollution source in cities and has caused various health and environmental concerns worldwide. Therefore, an improved understanding of traffic impacts on particle concentrations and their components could help mitigate air pollution. In this study, the characteristics and sources of trace elements in PM2.5 (fine), and PM10-2.5 (coarse), were investigated in dense traffic areas in Toronto and Vancouver, Canada, from 2015–2017. At nearby urban background sites, 24-h integrated PM samples were also concurrently collected. The PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 masses, and a number of elements (i.e., Fe, Ba, Cu, Sb, Zn, Cr), showed clear increases at each near-road site, related to the traffic emissions resulting from resuspension and/or abrasion sources. The trace elements showed a clear partitioning trend between PM2.5 and PM10-2.5, thus reflecting the origin of some of these elements. The application of positive matrix factorization (PMF) to the combined fine and coarse metal data (86 total), with 24 observations at each site, was used to determine the contribution of different sources to the total metal concentrations in fine and coarse PM. Four major sources were identified by the PMF model, including two traffic non-exhaust (crustal/road dust, brake/tire wear) sources, along with regional and local industrial sources. Source apportionment indicated that the resuspended crustal/road dust factor was the dominant contributor to the total coarse-bound trace element (i.e., Fe, Ti, Ba, Cu, Zn, Sb, Cr) concentrations produced by vehicular exhaust and non-exhaust traffic-related processes that have been deposited onto the surface. The second non-exhaust factor related to brake/tire wear abrasion accounted for a considerable portion of the fine and coarse elemental (i.e., Ba, Fe, Cu, Zn, Sb) mass at both near-road sites. Regional and local industry contributed mostly to the fine elemental (i.e., S, As, Se, Cd, Pb) concentrations. Overall, the results show that non-exhaust traffic-related processes were major contributors to the various redox-active metal species (i.e., Fe, Cu) in both PM fractions. In addition, a substantial proportion of these metals in PM2.5 was water-soluble, which is an important contributor to the formation of reactive oxygen species and, thus, may lead to oxidative damage to cells in the human body. It appears that controlling traffic non-exhaust-related metals emissions, in the absence of significant point sources in the area, could have a pronounced effect on the redox activity of PM, with broad implications for the protection of public health.
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23
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Mamun AA, Celo V, Dabek-Zlotorzynska E, Charland JP, Cheng I, Zhang L. Characterization and source apportionment of airborne particulate elements in the Athabasca oil sands region. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 788:147748. [PMID: 34134367 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The oil sands industries in Alberta, Canada are potential sources of particulate-bound elements in the region. This study explored the ambient concentrations and size distributions, and conducted source apportionment of 48 particulate elements, based on samples collected in 2016-2017 at four air monitoring sites in the Athabasca oil sands region: Fort McKay (AMS1), Buffalo Viewpoint (AMS4), Wapasu Creek (AMS17), and Stoney Mountain (AMS18). Element concentrations in fine and coarse particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM2.5-10 respectively) at the four sites were generally lower than their typical concentrations at other urban and industrial sites in North America. Among all elements, S was the most abundant in PM2.5 with mean concentrations ranging from 189 ng/m3 (AMS18) to 284 ng/m3 (AMS1). Of the trace, toxic elements in PM2.5, Zn was the most abundant with mean concentrations ranging from 3.43 ng/m3 (AMS18) to 5.37 ng/m3 (AMS4). Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) modeling of the element concentrations in PM2.5 was used for source apportionment for Zone1 (including AMS 1, 4, and 17, situated closer to industrial activities) and for Zone2 (including AMS18, a background site). The sources of elements for Zone1, included crustal dust, bitumen processing, haul road dust, and biomass burning that explained ~33%, ~43%, ~15%, and ~9% of the total resolved elemental mass, respectively. The sources of elements for Zone2, included Pb-rich source, biomass burning, fugitive oil sands, crustal dust, and bitumen processing explaining ~8%, ~7%, ~3%, ~22%, and ~60% of the total resolved elemental mass, respectively. Elemental mass concentrations of the bitumen processing source factor at Zone2 was two-thirds of that in Zone1. Overall, mass proportions of the bitumen processing source factor at all four sites were significant, suggesting that the oil sands industries played a key role in ambient element concentration levels in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdulla Al Mamun
- Air Quality Research Division, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Valbona Celo
- Air Quality Research Division, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1V 1C7, Canada.
| | - Ewa Dabek-Zlotorzynska
- Air Quality Research Division, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1V 1C7, Canada
| | - Jean-Pierre Charland
- Air Quality Research Division, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1V 1C7, Canada
| | - Irene Cheng
- Air Quality Research Division, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Leiming Zhang
- Air Quality Research Division, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada.
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24
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Xu J, Jia C, Yu H, Xu H, Ji D, Wang C, Xiao H, He J. Characteristics, sources, and health risks of PM 2.5-bound trace elements in representative areas of Northern Zhejiang Province, China. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 272:129632. [PMID: 33482520 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to characterize PM2.5-bound trace elements in Northern Zhejiang Province (NZP), one of the most economically prosperous regions in China, and assess the associated health risks for the general populations. A year-long sampling campaign was conducted at four sites representative of urban, suburban, and rural areas of NZP. The average of the sum of twenty trace elements in PM2.5 was 2.8 ± 0.4 μg m-3, dominated by K, Al, Fe, Mg, Zn, and V (>100 ng m-3). The highest total elements' concentration occurred in winter, followed by autumn, spring, and summer. Enrichment factors and principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that the major sources of trace elements in NZP were fossil fuel combustion, biomass burning, crustal dust, traffic, and industrial emissions. Elevated concentrations of certain elements reflected featured sources in different areas, e.g., V and Ni from heavy oil combustion in the port city, and Cu, Fe and Ba from traffic emissions in urban areas. Arsenic (As) represented the major non-cancer risk driver as its hazard quotient was 8.7. The cumulative cancer risk from all the carcinogenic elements was 1.7 × 10-3 in NZP, exceeding the upper limit (10-4) of the acceptable risk range. As and Cr contributed 33% and 66%, respectively, and thus were regarded as cancer risk drivers. The high health risks from PM2.5-bound elements warrant future actions to control their emissions in this region. Priorities should target industrial operations and coal combustion emissions, as informed by the risk drivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingsha Xu
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom; Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo, 315100, China
| | - Chunrong Jia
- School of Public Health, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, 38152, USA.
| | - Huan Yu
- Department of Atmospheric Science, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, PR China
| | - Honghui Xu
- Zhejiang Institute of Meteorological Sciences, Hangzhou, 310008, China
| | - Dongsheng Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Boundary Layer Physics and Atmospheric Chemistry, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Chengjun Wang
- College of Resources and Environmental Science, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan, 430074, China.
| | - Hang Xiao
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Jun He
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo, 315100, China.
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