Health risks for the population living near petrochemical industrial complexes. 1. Cancer risks: A review of the scientific literature

Estimates of the global burden of cancer-related deaths attributable to residential exposure to petrochemical industrial complexes from 2020 to 2040

The petrochemical industry is a major industrial emitter of greenhouse gas (CO2) and environmental pollution, posing health risks to nearby communities. Although previous studies have indicated that residents living near petrochemical industrial complexes are at a higher risk of cancer, they have focused on local or regional burdens. This study aimed to estimate the global cancer burden attributable to residential exposure to petrochemical industrial complexes. The geographical coordinates of petrochemical plants and oil refineries were retrieved and verified from published sources. The ArcGIS software and global population data were used to estimate the number of people living within specific distances (exposed population). The exposure time window was framed as ranging from 1992 to 2035, extending to the latest period of the exposure time window for all cancer types to estimate the attributable deaths between 2020 and 2040. The relative risk of cancer was estimated from 15 published studies. Population attributable fraction (PAF) method was used to estimate the risk of cancer attributable to residential exposure and calculate the number of cancer-related deaths. Our findings indicate that >300 million people worldwide will be estimated to live near petrochemical industrial complexes by 2040. The overall global burden of cancer-related deaths was 19,083 in 2020, and it is estimated to increase to 27,366 deaths by 2040. The region with the highest attributable cancer deaths due to exposure is the high-income region, which had 10,584 deaths in 2020 and is expected to reach 13,414 deaths by 2040. Residential exposure to petrochemical industrial complexes could contribute to global cancer deaths, even if the proportion is relatively small, and proactive measures are required to mitigate the cancer burdens among these residents. Enforcing emissions regulations, improving monitoring, educating communities, and fostering collaboration are vital to protecting residents' health.

Multivariate analysis of carcinogenic equivalence (CEQ) to characterize carcinogenic VOC emissions in a typical petrochemical industrial park in Taiwan

Large industrial emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from the petrochemical industry are a critical concern due to their potential carcinogenicity. VOC emissions vary in composition depending on the source and occur in mixtures containing compounds with varying degrees of toxicity. We proposed the use of carcinogenic equivalence (CEQ) and multivariate analysis to identify the major contributors to the carcinogenicity of VOC emissions. This method weights the carcinogenicity of each VOC by using a ratio of its cancer slope factor to that of benzene, providing a carcinogenic equivalence factor (CEF) for each VOC. We strategically selected a petrochemical industrial park in southern Taiwan that embodies the industry's comprehensive nature and serves as a representative example. The CEQs of different emission sources in three years were analyzed and assessed using principal component analysis (PCA) to characterize the major contributing sectors, vendors, sources, and species for the carcinogenicity of VOC emissions. Results showed that while the study site exhibited a 20.7 % (259.8 t) decrease in total VOC emissions in three years, the total CEQ emission only decreased by 4.5 % (15.9 t), highlighting a potential shift in the emitted VOC composition towards more carcinogenic compounds. By calculating CEQ followed by PCA, the important carcinogenic VOC emission sources and key compounds were identified. More importantly, the study compared three approaches: CEQ followed by PCA, PCA followed by CEQ, and PCA only. While the latter two methods prioritized sources based on emission quantities, potentially overlooking less abundant but highly carcinogenic compounds, the CEQ-first approach effectively identified vendors and sources with the most concerning cancer risks. This distinction underscores the importance of selecting the appropriate analysis method based on the desired focus. Our study highlighted how prioritizing CEQ within the analysis framework empowered the development of precise control measures that address the most carcinogenic VOC sources.

Ports and their influence on local air pollution and public health: A global analysis

Despite the skyrocketing growth in recent decades of environmental studies on ports and shipping, their local health impacts remain largely under-researched. This article tackles this gap in research by statistically analyzing data on global shipping flows across nearly 5000 ports in 35 OECD countries between 2001 and 2018. The different traffic types, from containers to bulk and passengers, are analyzed jointly with data on natural conditions, air pollution, socio-economic indicators, and public health. The principal results show that port regions pollute more than non-port regions on average, while health impacts vary according to the size and specialization of the port region. Three types of port regions are clearly differentiated: industrial, intermediate, and metropolitan port regions.

Source apportionment and suitability evaluation of seasonal VOCs contaminants in the soil around a typical refining-chemical integration park in China

Accurate source apportionment of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in soil nearby petrochemical industries prevailing globally, is critical for preventing pollution. However, in the process, seasonal effect on contamination pathways and accumulation of soil VOCs is often neglected. Herein, Yanshan Refining-Chemical Integration Park, including a carpet, refining, synthetic rubber, and two synthetic resin zones, was selected for traceability. Season variations resulted in a gradual decrease of 31 VOCs in soil from winter to summer. A method of dry deposition resistance model coupling partitioning coefficient model was created, revealing that dry deposition by gas phase was the primary pathway for VOCs to enter soil in winter and spring, with 100 times higher flux than by particle phase. Source profiles for five zones were built by gas sampling with distinct substance indicators screened, which were used for positive matrix factorization factors determination. Contributions of the five zones were 14.9%, 20.8%, 13.6%, 22.1%, and 28.6% in winter and 33.4%, 12.5%, 10.7%, 24.9%, and 18.5% in spring, respectively. The variation in the soil sorption capacity of VOCs causes inter-seasonal differences in contribution. The better correlation between dry deposition capacity and soil storage of VOCs made root mean square and mean absolute errors decrease averagely by 8.8% and 5.5% in winter compared to spring. This study provides new perspectives and methods for the source apportionment of soil VOCs contamination in industrial sites.

Urinary concentrations of heavy metals in pregnant women living near a petrochemical area according to the industrial activity

BACKGROUND

The progressive industrialization has resulted in an increase in heavy metal pollution in the environment, which has a dangerous impact on human health. Prenatal exposure to heavy metals, even at very low concentrations, may be especially harmful to pregnant women and their children. Different industrial activities can contribute to heavy metal pollution in a specific area.

OBJECTIVE

1) To explore the concentrations of heavy metals in urine samples of pregnant women, and 2) to evaluate the potential effect of different industrial activities in Tarragona (Spain).

METHODS

Urinary levels of four heavy metals (nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb)) from 368 pregnant women recruited in the ECLIPSES study were analyzed. Home addresses and all the industries potentially releasing heavy metals were geo-referenced. Buffer zones were established within a 1.5, 3, and 5 km radius at the center of each industry. Subsequently, the number of participants living in and out of each buffer zone was recorded.

RESULTS

Urinary levels of Ni and Cd, but not those of Hg and Pb, were obviously increased in pregnant women living near most of the industrial sites. After adjustment for potential co-variates, only Cd showed notable differences according to the industrial activity. Compared to women living outside the buffer, Cd levels were increased in those living within 1.5 and 3 km of chemical industries, within 5 km of energy industries, within 1.5, 3, and 5 km of mineral industries, and within 3 and 5 km of metal processing industries.

CONCLUSION

Among the analyzed heavy metals, Cd showed an increasing trend in urinary concentrations in women living near chemical, energy, mineral, and metal processing industries. This study highlights the need to develop legislative measures to minimize Cd exposure, especially by sensitive populations. Moreover, additive or synergistic effects of co-exposure to other air pollutants should not be disregarded.

Co-exposure health risk of benzo[a]pyrene with aromatic VOCs: Monoaromatic hydrocarbons inhibit the glucuronidation of benzo[a]pyrene

Occupational workers and residents near petrochemical industry facilities are exposed to multiple contaminants on a daily basis. However, little is known about the co-exposure effects of different pollutants based on biotransformation. The study examined benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), a representative polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon related to the petrochemical industry, to investigate changes in toxicity and co-exposure mechanism associated with different monoaromatic hydrocarbons (MAHs). A central composite design method was used to simulate site co-exposure scenarios to reveal biotransformation of BaP when co-exposed with benzene, toluene, chlorobenzene, or nitrobenzene in microsome systems. BaP metabolism depended on MAH concentration, and association of MAH with microsome concentration/incubation time. Particularly, MAH co-exposure negatively affected BaP glucuronidation, an important phase Ⅱ detoxification process. BaP metabolite intensities decreased to 43%-80% for OH-BaP-G, and 32%-71% for diOH-BaP-G in co-exposure system with MAHs, compared with control group. Furthermore, glucuronidation was affected by competitive and time-dependent inhibition. Co-exposure significantly decreased gene expression of UGT 1A10 and BCRP/ABCG2 in HepG2 cells, which are involved in BaP detoxification through metabolism and transmembrane transportation. Therefore, human co-exposure to multiple contaminants may deteriorate toxic effects of these chemicals by disturbing metabolic pathways. This study provides a reference for assessing toxic effects and co-exposure risks of pollutants.

Living proximity to petrochemical industries and the risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children

Evidence regarding the negative neurodevelopmental effects of compound exposure to petrochemicals remains limited. We aimed to evaluate the association between exposure to petrochemical facilities and generated emissions during early life and the risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) development in children. We conducted a population-based birth cohort study using the 2004 to 2014 Taiwanese Birth Certificate Database and verified diagnoses of ADHD using the National Health Insurance Database. The level of petrochemical exposure in each participant's residential township was evaluated using the following 3 measurements: distance to the nearest petrochemical industrial plant (PIP), petrochemical exposure probability (accounting for monthly prevailing wind measurements), and monthly benzene concentrations estimated using kriging-based land-use regression models. We applied Cox proportional hazard models to evaluate the association. During the study period, 48,854 out of 1,863,963 children were diagnosed as having ADHD. The results revealed that residents of townships in close proximity to PIPs (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.20, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.16-1.23, <3 vs. ≥10 km), highly affected by petrochemical-containing prevailing winds (HR = 1.12, 95% CI: 1.08-1.16, ≥40% vs. <10%), and with high benzene concentrations (HR = 1.26, 95% CI: 1.23-1.29, ≥0.75 vs. <0.55 ppb) were consistently associated with the increased risk of ADHD development in children. The findings of the sensitivity analysis remained robust, particularly for the 2004 to 2009 birth cohort and for models accounting for a longer duration of postnatal exposure. This work provided clear evidence that living near petrochemical plants increases the risk of ADHD development in children. Further studies are warranted to confirm our findings.

Valuation of ecosystem damage induced by soil-groundwater pollution in an arid climate area: Framework, method and case study

Groundwater is an important source of water, even the only source in some arid areas. However, climate changing and ecosystem damage induced by pollution aggravate water resource crisis. The "polluter pays" principle is deeply rooted in efforts to manage the polluted sites, particularly in the soil-groundwater environment. Unfortunately, there is no ecosystem damage compensation mechanism generally accepted by all stakeholders. In this study, we establish an assessment framework and valuation methods for ecosystem damage induced by soil-groundwater pollution in an arid climate area based on a "pollution source → target (soil-groundwater) → receptor (humans, animals, and plants) → damages → stakeholders (human society and ecosystem)" model that is usually applied in groundwater risk assessment research. Five economic loss are included in the valuation methods: (1) human health loss, (2) emergency disposal cost, (3) direct economic loss, (4) ecological restoration cost, and (5) ecosystem services loss. We apply the framework to a case study in an arid climate area, northwest China and calculate the total economic loss from ecosystem damage in the case study at 12.6 million yuan. The largest proportion of the total loss was the ecological restoration cost (85.6%), followed by the emergency disposal cost (11.2%), and finally ecosystem services loss (3.2%). Valuation of ecosystem damage from environmental pollution is essentially a socioeconomic issue. This study supplies a new framework and methods for valuing ecosystem damage induced by pollution, and offers suggestions for environmental management to reduce the damage caused by soil-groundwater pollution to health and ecosystems.

Essential Trace Elements in Scalp Hair of Residents across the Caspian Oil and Gas Region of Kazakhstan

Most of the country’s oil and gas fields are situated in West Kazakhstan, mainly on the Caspian Sea coast, causing significant damage to the local environment and contributing to an imbalance in the trace element composition of the human body. The study is aimed to evaluate the relationship between the concentration of essential trace elements in scalp hair of the western Kazakhstan adult population and the remoteness of their residence from oil and gas fields. The concentration of essential trace elements (Co, Cu, Fe, I, Mn, Se, Zn) in the hair of 850 individuals aged 18−60 years was determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. In residents of settlements located at a distance of >110 km from oil and gas fields, the concentration of Cu and I in hair was significantly higher than in those closer to 110 km (p < 0.001). The content of Cu and I were associated with the distance to oil and gas fields (0.072 (95% CI: 0.050; 0.094)) and (0.121 (95% CI: 0.058; 0.185)), respectively. We detected a significant imbalance in the distribution of some essential trace elements in residents’ scalp hair from the Caspian region of western Kazakhstan, living near oil and gas fields. The concentrations of Cu and I were significantly interrelated with the distance to oil and gas fields. The level of copper in the hair of both inhabitants of the area most remote from oil and gas facilities and the entire population of western Kazakhstan as a whole remains significantly low. The data obtained provide evidence of the possible impact of pollutants generated by the oil and gas facilities on a shortage of essential trace elements and associated subsequent health risks.

Proximity to petrochemical industrial parks and risk of chronic glomerulonephritis

This study determined whether individuals residing near petrochemical industrial parks (PIPs) have a higher risk of chronic glomerulonephritis (CGN). We performed population-based 1:4 case-control study by using Taiwan's National Health Insurance Research Database from 2000 to 2016. The subjects were aged 20-65 years, residing in western Taiwan, and did not have a history of any renal or urinary system disease in 2000. The case cohort included those who had at least three outpatient visits or one hospitalization between 2001 and 2016 with codes for CGN as per International Classification of Diseases (ICD)-Ninth and Tenth Revisions. Controls were randomly sampled age-, sex-, and urbanization-matched individuals without renal and urinary system diseases. Petrochemical exposure was evaluated by the distance to the nearest PIP of the residential township, and petrochemical exposure probability was examined considering the monthly prevailing wind direction. Conditional logistic regression was used to determine the association between petrochemical exposure and CGN risk. A total of 320,935 subjects were included in the final analysis (64,187 cases and 256,748 controls). After adjustment for potential confounders, living in townships within a 3-km radius of PIPs was associated with a higher risk of CGN (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.32, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.28-1.37). Compared with townships more than 20 km away from PIPs, those within 10 km of PIPs were associated with significantly increased risks of CGN in a dose-dependent manner. When prevailing wind was considered, townships with high exposure probability were associated with a significantly increased risk of CGN. We found that those residing near PIPs or with high petrochemical exposure probability had a higher risk of CGN. These findings highlight the need for monitoring environmental nephrotoxic substances and the renal health of residents living near PIPs.

An integrated strategy by using long-term monitoring data to identify volatile organic compounds of high concern near petrochemical industrial parks

Exposure to ambient volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is associated with a risk of cancer in the residents living near petrochemical facilities. However, research on the contribution of different VOCs to the lifetime cancer risk remains inconclusive. The variability in source emissions, geographical locations, seasons, and meteorological conditions can be assessed through long-term measurement of ambient VOCs with a wide spatial distribution, thus reducing the uncertainty of health risk assessment from source emissions. This study analyzed comprehensive measurement data of 109 VOCs at 17 monitoring stations around petrochemical industrial parks, collected once every six days during 2015-2018 by the Taiwan Environmental Protection Agency. We calculated the annual mean concentration of selected VOCs and then integrated the probability risk assessment (PRA) and positive matrix factorization (PMF) models to identify the sources of VOCs of high concern. First, we prioritized 12 out of 23 carcinogenic VOCs based on the PRA results. Further, the results obtained from the PMF model revealed that petrochemical industrial parks contributed to more than 50% of the emissions of six VOCs, namely 1,3-butadiene, benzene, 1,2-dichloroethane, chloroform, vinyl chloride, and acrylonitrile, measured at a few monitoring stations. This integrated approach can help regulatory agencies to efficiently propose control strategies on the emissions of VOCs of high concern, thereby reducing the population's health risk.

Assessment of the combined effects of chromium and benzene on the rat neuroendocrine and immune systems

This study assessed the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis and lymphoid organs (thymus, spleen, and bone marrow) of Wistar rats treated with a mixture of chromium and benzene. Animals were assessed at three time-points (45, 90 and 135 days) following oral mixture exposure. The hypothalamus-pituitary system was examined in light and electron microscopy. Lymphoid organs underwent a morphological assessment and the immunophenotype of splenocytes was characterized immunohistochemically using monoclonal antibodies. Splenocytes cytokine production of was determined by ELISA after Con-A stimulation. Combined exposure to chromium and benzene in average doses of 20 mg Cr (VI)/kg body weight/day and 0.6 ml benzene/kg body weight/day impaired the responsiveness of the central compartment of the HPA axis, as evidenced by functional activation of the secretory activity of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, which was not followed by a sufficient extrusion of nonapeptides at the neurohypophysis and hypothalamic median eminence. Chromium and benzene exposure reduced the thymus mass, thymocytes count, and caused a number of structural and functional changes indicative of transient thymus involution. In the spleen, exposure to both chemicals resulted in lymphoreticular hyperplasia and plasma cell-macrophage transformation (also observed in lymph nodes). Apoptosis of thymocytes and lymphocytes was also observed in T-zones of the spleen. Notably, the effects were similar to those observed earlier for the single agents, under the same experimental conditions, without evidence of additivity.

Mortality due to COVID-19 in Spain and its association with environmental factors and determinants of health

BACKGROUND

The objective of this study was to identify which air pollutants, atmospheric variables and health determinants could influence COVID-19 mortality in Spain. This study used information from 41 of the 52 provinces in Spain (from Feb. 1, to May 31, 2021). Generalized Linear Models (GLM) with Poisson link were carried out for the provinces, using the Rate of Mortality due to COVID-19 (CM) per 1,000,000 inhabitants as dependent variables, and average daily concentrations of PM₁₀ and NO₂ as independent variables. Meteorological variables included maximum daily temperature (Tmax) and average daily absolute humidity (HA). The GLM model controlled for trend, seasonalities and the autoregressive character of the series. Days with lags were established. The relative risk (RR) was calculated by increases of 10 g/m³ in PM₁₀ and NO₂ and by 1 ℃ in the case of Tmax and 1 g/m³ in the case of HA. Later, a linear regression was carried out that included the social determinants of health.

RESULTS

Statistically significant associations were found between PM₁₀, NO₂ and the CM. These associations had a positive value. In the case of temperature and humidity, the associations had a negative value. PM₁₀ being the variable that showed greater association, with the CM followed of NO₂ in the majority of provinces. Anyone of the health determinants considered, could explain the differential geographic behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

The role of PM₁₀ is worth highlighting, as the chemical air pollutant for which there was a greater number of provinces in which it was associated with CM. The role of the meteorological variables-temperature and HA-was much less compared to that of the air pollutants. None of the social determinants we proposed could explain the heterogeneous geographical distribution identified in this study.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12302-022-00617-z.

Factors Associated with Urinary 1-Hydroxypyrene and Malondialdehyde among Adults near a Petrochemical Factory: Implications for Sex and Lifestyle Modification

Background: The association between the biomarkers of environmental exposure, oxidative stress, and health-related behaviors in community residents living in an endemic viral hepatitis area and near petrochemical industrial complexes remains unclear. From a health promotion perspective, healthcare providers must know what to do for residents concerned about their health and living environment, especially for individual-level and modifiable risk factors. Therefore, we aimed to explore the factors associated with urinary 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) and malondialdehyde (MDA). Methods: A community-based, cross-sectional study was conducted between July 2018 and February 2019 in western coastal Yunlin County, Taiwan. All participants lived within a 10 km radius of a large petrochemical complex and did not work in the factory. This study was conducted with the local hospital through annual community health screening. Biological samples were collected and biomarkers determined and quantified in the central laboratory of the collaborating hospital. Results: A total of 6335 adult residents completed the study. The mean age was 47.7 (SD = 16) years. Out of the total population, 56.4% were female, 30.1% had metabolic syndrome (MetS), and 16.8% and 14.3% had hepatitis B virus antigen (HBsAg) and hepatitis C virus antibody (anti-HCV) positivity, respectively. The median 1-OHP and MDA level was 0.11 and 0.9 μg/g creatinine with an interquartile range of 0.07–0.18, and 0.4–1.5, respectively. The MDA levels correlated with specific diseases. The multivariable ordinal logistic regression model revealed that female sex, smoking, betel nut use, HBsAg, and anti-HCV positivity were associated with higher 1-OHP levels. In men, MetS was associated with higher 1-OHP levels and regular exercise with lower 1-OHP levels. High MDA levels were associated with smoking, betel nut users, HBsAg, and anti-HCV positivity. Conclusions: The findings highlight the importance of initiating individualized health promotion programs for residents near petrochemical factories, especially for adults with substance-use and cardiometabolic risk factors. Furthermore, it is crucial to provide further treatment to patients with viral hepatitis.

Lipidomics of children and adolescents exposed to multiple industrial pollutants

BACKGROUND

There are limited studies on the lipidomics of children and adolescents exposed to multiple industrial pollutants.

OBJECTIVES

In this study, we aimed to investigate lipid profile perturbations in 99 children and adolescents (aged 9-15) who lived in a polluted area surrounding the largest petrochemical complex in Taiwan. Previous studies have reported increased risks of acute and chronic diseases including liver dysfunctions and chronic kidney disease (CKD) in residents living in this area.

METHODS

We measured urinary concentrations of 11 metals and metalloids and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) metabolite 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) as exposure biomarkers, and urinary oxidative stress biomarkers and serum acylcarnitines as early health effect biomarkers. The association between individual exposure biomarkers and early health effect biomarkers were analyzed using linear regression, while association of combined exposure biomarkers with four oxidative stress biomarkers and acylcarnitines were analyzed using weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression. Lipid profiles were analyzed using an untargeted liquid chromatography mass spectrometry-based technique. "Meet-in-the-middle" approach was applied to identify potential lipid features that linked multiple industrial pollutants exposure with early health effects.

RESULTS

We identified 15 potential lipid features that linked elevated multiple industrial pollutants exposure with three increased oxidative stress biomarkers and eight deregulated serum acylcarnitines, including one lysophosphatidylcholines (LPCs), four phosphatidylcholines (PCs), and two sphingomyelins (SMs) that were up-regulated in high exposure group compared to low exposure group, and two LPCs, four PCs, and two phosphatidylinositols (PIs) down-regulated in high exposure group compared to low exposure group.

CONCLUSION

Our findings could provide information for understanding the health effects, including early indicators and biological mechanism identification, of children and adolescents exposed to multiple industrial pollutants during critical stages of development.

Environmental impact and human health risks of air pollutants near a large chemical/petrochemical complex: Case study in Tarragona, Spain

Chemical industries and oil refineries are known emission sources of environmental contaminants, such as metals/metalloids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), among others. Based on the toxicological potential of these pollutants, harmful health effects can be expected for the population living near these facilities. One of the largest chemical/petrochemical complexes in Europe is located in Tarragona County (Catalonia, Spain). In the last two decades, a number of investigations aimed at assessing the environmental impact of air pollutants potentially emitted by this industrial complex have been carried out. The present paper is a review of the available scientific information on the levels of air pollutants related with the activities of this chemical/petrochemical complex. Although there are currently some data on the environmental burdens of metals/metalloids, PAHs, VOCs and PCDD/Fs, there is an evident lack of specific biological monitoring studies on human health. Taking into account the amount of chemicals released to air and their toxicity, it is essential to perform an in-depth analysis of the current health status of the population living in Tarragona County.

Concentrations of arsenic and vanadium in environmental and biological samples collected in the neighborhood of petrochemical industries: A review of the scientific literature

Petrochemical facilities, including oil refineries, are emission sources of a wide range of environmental pollutants such as trace elements, volatile organic compounds, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, among others. Populations living near this kind of facilities may be potentially exposed to contaminants, which are, in turn, associated with a wide range of adverse effects. In our laboratory, we have shown that the environmental concentrations of trace elements near the petrochemical complex of Tarragona County (Spain), which is among the largest complexes in the European Union, should not be a relevant pollution source for these elements, with the exception of arsenic (As) and vanadium (V). Moreover, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified As and V as Group 1 and Group 2B, respectively. Based on it, the present paper was aimed at reviewing the available scientific information on the occurrence of As and V in the vicinity of petrochemical complexes worldwide, considering environmental matrices (air, dust, sediments, soil, and water), as well as biological samples (blood, hair, and urine). In general, levels of As and V in environmental matrices showed higher fluctuation throughout the world and was highly dependent on the samples zone while levels of both elements in urinary samples from subjects living near a petrochemical area were higher than those of population living further.

Does living close to a petrochemical complex increase the adverse psychological effects of the COVID-19 lockdown?

The petrochemical industry has made the economic development of many local communities possible, increasing employment opportunities and generating a complex network of closely-related secondary industries. However, it is known that petrochemical industries emit air pollutants, which have been related to different negative effects on mental health. In addition, many people around the world are being exposed to highly stressful situations deriving from the COVID-19 pandemic and the lockdowns adopted by national and regional governments. The present study aims to analyse the possible differential effects on various psychological outcomes (stress, anxiety, depression and emotional regulation strategies) stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic and consequent lockdown experienced by individuals living near an important petrochemical complex and subjects living in other areas, nonexposed to the characteristic environmental pollutants emitted by these kinds of complex. The sample consisted of 1607 subjects who answered an ad hoc questionnaire on lockdown conditions, the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), the Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS) and the Emotional Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ). The results indicate that people living closer to petrochemical complexes reported greater risk perception [K = 73.42, p < 0.001, with a medium size effect (η2 = 0.061)]. However, no significant relationship between psychological variables and proximity to the focus was detected when comparing people living near to or far away from a chemical/petrochemical complex. Regarding the adverse psychological effects of the first lockdown due to COVID-19 on the general population in Catalonia, we can conclude that the conditions included in this survey were mainly related to changes in the participants' impulsivity levels, with different total impulsivity scores being obtained if they had minors in their care (p<0.001), if they had lost their jobs, if they were working (p<0.001), if they were not telecommuting (p<0.001), if they went out to work (p<0.001) or if they established routines (p = 0.009). However, we can also be fairly certain that the economic effects are going to be worse than those initially detected in this study. More research will be necessary to corroborate our results.

Impact of the environment on the health: From theory to practice

The Erice 56 Charter titled "Impact of the environment on the health: from theory to practice" was unanimously approved at the end of the 56th course of the "International School of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine G. D'Alessandro" held from 3rd to November 7, 2019 in Erice - Sicily (Italy) and promoted by the Study Group of "Environment and Health" of the Italian Society of Hygiene, Preventive Medicine and Public Health. The course, that included lectures, open discussions and guided working groups, was aimed to provide a general training on epidemiological and toxicological aspects of the environmental health impact, to be used by public health professionals for risk assessment, without forgetting the risk communications. At the end of the course 12 key points were agreed among teachers and students: they underlined the need of specific training and research, in the perspective of "One Health" and "Global Health", also facing emerging scientific and methodological issues and focusing on communication towards stakeholders. This Discussion highlight the need to improve knowledge of Health and Environment topic in all sectors of health and environmental prevention and management.

Air pollution diffusion simulation and seasonal spatial risk analysis for industrial areas

The petrochemical industry produces many air pollutants during production, such as airborne particulate matters (PM₁₀ and PM_2.5), sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, carbon oxides, etc. Petrochemical industrial accidents are more likely to cause major air pollution hazards in a short period. Therefore this study simulated diffusion and performed air pollution spatial risk analysis for potential air pollutants generated by the petrochemical industry using meteorological observation data from 2017 to 2019. The study targets were No. 6 Naphtha Cracker Complex Petrochemical Industrial Park (6NCC) of Formosa Petrochemical Corporation and Taichung Thermal Power Plant (TTPP) in central Taiwan. We used the industrial source complex model short term (ISCST3) air simulation model developed by the US Environmental Protection Agency to simulate pollutant diffusion under different weather conditions and seasons. Air pollution spatial risk was investigated for neighboring hospitals and schools for pollutant emission and diffusion to provide feedback to petrochemical related industry's risk management. Emission areas (6NCC and TTPP) were all in the southwest since the main air pollution accumulation and diffusion is to the northeast during monsoon season (October through March). Air pollution April through September each year is more evenly distributed, with pollutant concentrations low in all directions, approximately half the concentration in winter. Simulated air pollutant concentrations often overlapped with high risk population clusters (schools and hospitals). 6NCC posed little impact on nearby schools throughout the year; whereas TTPP posed relatively low risks to nearby schools and hospitals in summer, with slightly higher risk for Shenren Elementary School in Shengang township, Changhua County in winter. Overall 6NCC posed higher risk for Mailiao and Taixi townships in Yunlin County; whereas the TTPP posed higher risk on Longjing District of Taichung City, Shengang and Xianxi townships in Changhua County, particularly during winter. The results of this study will help the petrochemical industry and public health authority to wider manage air pollution risks.

Novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19): origin, transmission through the environment, health effects, and mitigation strategies-a review

The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), was first identified in China and subsequently spread globally, resulting in a severe pandemic, and officially declared a significant health emergency by World Health Organization (WHO). Genetic analysis of coronavirus isolated from bats, snakes, and Malay pangolins suggested that they could be intermediate hosts for SARS-CoV-2. The transfer of virus from person to person has been confirmed widely, while the actual source of origin is still unknown. COVID-19 is a highly contagious and infectious disease, and the worldwide transmission of coronavirus has intense effects on the lives of human beings. The spread of the virus is observed mainly through close contact with the infected person due to coughing, sniffing or indirectly through the contaminated surfaces. If people touch contaminated surfaces through their hands, mouth, nose, or eye, it enters the body and causes disease. Also, the virus may transmit through air droplets, water, food, fecal-oral transmission, etc. The infection of virus in human beings could be detected by direct symptoms, or different diagnostic tools are available to determine the viral load. Various safety measures are used to contain the virus, including disinfectants, antiviral drugs, vaccines, wearing masks, social distancing, etc. In the present review, we have focused on transmission of COVID-19 through air and wastewater as environmental transmission modes. We have also discussed the origin of the virus, its mode of action, host immune response, vulnerability, varying symptoms and diagnosis, prevention and control. Further, we have discussed the various treatment options to cope with this viral outbreak.

Graphical abstract