Kohl containing lead (and other toxic elements) is widely available in Europe

Magnetic-Field-Confined Laser Induced Kohl Plasma: Elemental Analysis and Plasma Characterization

In this study, the laser-induced kohl plasma is produced in the vicinity of the transverse magnetic field (B) of 0.8 T. A Q-switched neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) pulse laser (λ = 1064 nm, E = 100 mJ, τ_l = 8 ns) is focused to produce the kohl plasma with and without a B, and the plasma emissions are recorded using a laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) spectrometer. The comparison of the emission spectra shows that most of the emission line intensities are reduced due to the field. However, except for a few lines which are enhanced up to three times. However, the plasma parameters such as electron temperature (T_e), electron number density (N_e), and plasma frequency (ʋ_p) have been increased. Furthermore, thermal beta (β_t) is also estimated analytically, and its value is smaller than one (β < 1) for all samples, which confirmed the evidence of magnetic confinement effects. According to the analysis of the kohl emission spectrum, several elements were detected (Pb, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cr, and Zn), among which lead (Pb) and chromium (Cr) may cause chronic health effects like contact dermatitis and neurological diseases. A calibration-free LIBS (CF-LIBS) method is used for the quantitative elemental analysis of the detected elements, which yields Pb as 15-74% and Cr as 3%, which exceed the permissible limit for kohl.

Exposure and health risks of metals in imported and local brands' lipsticks and eye pencils from Bangladesh

Elemental contamination in cosmetics is a serious health concern as it can pose a cumulative effect on the user's body over a long period. The prime motive of the study was to assess the concentration of 10 concerning chemical elements (Pb, Cd, Cr, As, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn) in imported and local lipsticks and eye pencil samples collected from retail outlets in central Bangladesh (Dhaka city) and to assess their dynamic health risks for users. A total of 18 lipsticks and 24 eye pencils were studied and concentrations of chemical elements were examined with atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The health risk assessment was performed for dermal and ingestion routes of the contaminants. The results reveal that the concentrations of the examined elements vary with colors, brands, and origins. Pb and As concentrations were found below the permissible limit but Cr concentration in some samples exceeded the allowable limit in cosmetics. Cd was not detected in any samples; however, other examined elements such as Co, Ni, Cu, Mn, Zn, and Fe were detected in considerable concentrations. Elements like Mn, Zn, and Fe were found at high levels. In the case of lipstick samples, elemental concentrations followed the order of Fe > Zn > Mn > Ni > Cr > Cu > Pb > Co > As, while the order was Fe > Cu > Mn > Zn > Ni > Cr > Co > Pb > As for eye pencil samples. Results of the hazards quotient (HQ) indicate that there were no non-carcinogenic or carcinogenic risks of elements in samples for dermal exposure. But the cancer risk values of Cr (HQ > 1 for ingestion) in brown color lipsticks and Ni indicate that lipsticks have some carcinogenic effects if they enter the user's body. Dermal cancer risk for eye pencils has also been calculated and for Pb, Cr, Ni, and As; the values were found within the acceptable ranges of 10^-6-10^-4. It is suggested that the allowable limit of all toxic elements in cosmetics must be established. Furthermore, continuous monitoring is urgently needed for personal care products like lipsticks and eye pencils commonly available in the local markets in the country like Bangladesh.

Association between lead source exposure and blood lead levels in some lead manufacturing countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Lead is one of the 10 most toxic chemicals of greatest concern for its effects on public health. Predominantly, in undeveloped countries, high blood lead levels (BLLs) persist in the population. To develop intervention strategies that may reduce lead exposure in populations, it is a priority to know the sources of lead pollution. The objective of this critical review and meta-analysis is to assess whether there is an association between different sources of lead exposure and the mean difference in blood lead levels in people exposed. To identify the major lead source exposure, a statistical analysis was performed on selection studies. This investigation reveals the limited information available on the sources of lead in Mexico and other lead producer countries, such as Croatia, Ecuador, Brazil, South Korea, India, Nigeria, Turkey, and China. Meta-analysis could be performed only in battery, smelting mining, and glazed ceramic workers. Battery manufacturing workers have the highest mean difference level of lead in their blood worldwide. Mexico has the second highest mean difference BLL in battery workers in the world. An interesting difference between the mean difference in BLL in mining workers from uncontrolled industry (-39.38) and controlled industry (-5.68) was found. This difference highlighted the success of applying strict control of lead sources and community education to reduce BLL and its potential harmful effects on human health and the environment. Children living near mining sites have the highest mean difference BLL (-11.1). This analysis may aid in assessing the source of lead exposure associated with a range of BLLs in people. Furthermore, this review highlights several social and cultural patterns associated with lead exposure and lead levels in control populations. These results could help to develop international lead regulations and appropriate public health guidelines to protect people around the world.

Salivary Lead Levels among Workers in Different Industrial Areas in the West Bank of Palestine: a Cross-Sectional Study

Saliva is a biofluid that can easily be obtained and used for biomonitoring lead levels in occupationally and environmentally exposed individuals. The aims of this study were to determine salivary lead levels among workers in different industrial areas in the West Bank of Palestine and investigate the association between sociodemographic and occupational characteristics of the workers and their salivary lead levels. Salivary samples were obtained from workers in different industrial areas in metal-free polyethylene tubes. The samples were analyzed for their lead contents using a pre-validated inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometric method. A total of 97 salivary samples were analyzed. The median salivary lead level was 1.84 μg/dL an IQR of 5.04 μg/dL. Salivary lead levels were significantly higher in workers who were 40 years and older (p value = 0.031), had 3 children or more (p value = 0.048), worked in repair workshops (p value = 0.012), worked in industrial areas for 20 years or more (p value = 0.048), did not consume fruits on regular basis (p value = 0.031), and smoked for 30 years or more (p value = 0.013). Multiple linear regression showed that smoking of 30 years old or more was a significant (p value < 0.001) predictor of higher salivary lead levels. Salivary lead levels among workers from different industrial areas of the West Bank were comparable to those occupationally exposed to lead in more industrialized and urbanized areas of the world. Smoking was a predictor of higher salivary lead levels.

Breast milk to blood lead ratios among women from the West Bank of Palestine: a cross-sectional study of associated factors

Background

Infants fed contaminated breast milk are at an increased risk of exposure to lead. Breast milk to blood (M/B) ratios have not been investigated among women in Palestine. The aim of this study was to assess blood, breast milk, and M/B lead ratios in samples collected from Palestinian breastfeeding women. Associations between sociodemographic characteristics with breast milk lead levels and M/B lead ratios were also investigated.

Methods

This study was conducted in a cross-sectional design in the period between October 2017 and April 2018. Breastfeeding women visiting maternity care centers in different regions of the West Bank of Palestine were recruited to the study by the nurses in the maternity care centers. Sociodemographic characteristics, venous blood, and breast milk samples were collected from each participant. Lead concentrations were analyzed using a validated inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometric method. Mann–Whitney U test, Pearson’s Chi-square, Fisher’s exact, and Spearman’s correlations were used to analyze the data. Odds ratios (OR) were computed using a multivariate logistic regression model.

Results

Matching blood and milk samples were collected from 80 women. Lead concentrations in 11 (13.8%) of the breast milk samples were above the World Health Organization’s recommended levels. Breast milk lead levels were more likely to be ≥5 μg/L in breastfeeding women who lived in urban areas (aOR 4.96; 95% CI 1.10, 22.38) compared to those who lived in rural areas. Breast milk to blood lead ratios were more likely to be ≥25% in breastfeeding women who lived in urban areas (aOR 7.06; 95% CI 1.68, 29.77), used eye kohl (aOR 14.29; 95% CI 1.32, 155.06), and used hair dye (aOR 5.33; 95% CI 1.58, 18.00) compared to those who lived in rural areas, did not use eye kohl, and did not use hair dye, respectively.

Conclusions

Higher M/B lead ratios were predicted by living in urban areas, using eye kohl, and using hair dye. Decision makers in health authorities should address sources of exposure to lead in urban areas. Cosmetics containing lead should be assessed and regulated for lead content.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13006-021-00410-3.

Toxic Elements in Traditional Kohl-Based Eye Cosmetics in Spanish and German Markets

Kohl is a traditional cosmetic widely used in Asia and Africa. In recent years, demand for kohl-based eyelids and lipsticks has increased in Europe, linked to migratory phenomena of populations from these continents. Although the European legislation prohibits the use of heavy metals in cosmetics due to the harmful effects to human health, particularly to pregnant women and children, these elements are still present in certain products. The European Union recommended levels are Pb < 20 ppm, As < 5 ppm, Cd < 5 ppm, Sb < 100 ppm, and Ni < 200 ppm. In Germany, levels are more restrictive: Pb < 2 ppm, As < 0.5 ppm, Cd < 0.1 ppm, Sb < 0.5 ppm, and Ni < 10 ppm. Here, we analyzed 12 kohl-based cosmetics in different presentations (powder, paste, and pencil) that were purchased in Spanish and German local shops. An inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrophotometer was used to identify toxic elements and heavy metals. Levels of Pb ranged between 1.7 and 410,000 ppm in six of the study samples, four of which had levels above the recommended limit of at least two heavy metals. Arsenic (a carcinogenic element) values were within the range allowed by the EU in only 58% of the studied samples. Moreover, two products doubled this limit, reaching levels of 9.2 and 12.6 ppm. In one of the products, cadmium, related to toxic keratitis, was four times higher (20.7 ppm) than that allowed, while in two other products, these limits were doubled (11.8 and 12.7 ppm). Our results indicate the need to supervise the manufacture of kohl-based traditional products and the analysis of their composition prior distribution in European countries.