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Bendinskas K, Liu J, Jandev V, Careem FR, Hidoyatov M, Garofalo R, Norful AA, Padilla JJ, Schnall R. Hair and nail cortisol levels are associated and affected by glucocorticoid use. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2024; 168:107139. [PMID: 39047612 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2024.107139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 07/13/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
Hair and nail cortisol is increasingly studied as a physiologic proxy for chronic stress response. Glucocorticoid use is an expected confounder for cortisol measurement, yet there remains little evidence of whether external cortisol use should be subject to exclusion in study subjects. In a group of 209 youth (15-22 year-olds), we analyzed hair and fingernail cortisol concentrations. We assessed topical, nasal, oral, and injectable glucocorticoid use via a questionnaire. Extensively validated methods were used for hair and nail cortisol extraction and measurements. The median value of hair cortisol was 10.2 pg/mg (n=200), and the median value of nail cortisol was 7.06 pg/mg (n=203). Topical glucocorticoid use significantly increased hair and nail cortisol concentrations (p<0.005). Hair and nail cortisol concentrations were positively associated (p<0.0001, n=194). Spearman correlation coefficients demonstrated that the positive correlation between hair and nail cortisol values was higher in participants who used external glucocorticoids. Topical glucocorticoids moderated the association between hair and nail cortisol values (p=0.006). Based on these findings, we recommend that the assessment of topical glucocorticoid use must be performed when collecting hair/nail samples and that subjects reporting glucocorticoid use should be excluded from all future hair and nail cortisol studies; also, all outliers must be excluded to account for glucocorticoid medication underreporting and yet-unknown confounders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kestutis Bendinskas
- Department of Chemistry, SUNY-Oswego, 296 Shineman Bldg., 30 Centennial Dr., Oswego, NY 13126, USA.
| | - Jianfang Liu
- School of Nursing, Columbia University, 560 West 168th Street, New York, NY 10032, USA.
| | - Vikrant Jandev
- Department of Chemistry, SUNY-Oswego, 296 Shineman Bldg., 30 Centennial Dr., Oswego, NY 13126, USA.
| | - Fathima Raviya Careem
- Department of Chemistry, SUNY-Oswego, 296 Shineman Bldg., 30 Centennial Dr., Oswego, NY 13126, USA.
| | - Muhammadzohir Hidoyatov
- Department of Chemistry, SUNY-Oswego, 296 Shineman Bldg., 30 Centennial Dr., Oswego, NY 13126, USA.
| | - Robert Garofalo
- Department of Pediatrics Northwestern's Feinberg School of Medicine, Ann& Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago, 225 E. Chicago Ave, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
| | - Allison A Norful
- School of Nursing, Columbia University, 560 West 168th Street, New York, NY 10032, USA.
| | - Janeth Juarez Padilla
- School of Nursing, Columbia University, 560 West 168th Street, New York, NY 10032, USA.
| | - Rebecca Schnall
- School of Nursing and Department of Population and Family Health, Columbia University, 560 West 168th Street, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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García-Cabrerizo R, Cryan JF. A gut (microbiome) feeling about addiction: Interactions with stress and social systems. Neurobiol Stress 2024; 30:100629. [PMID: 38584880 PMCID: PMC10995916 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2024.100629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024] Open
Abstract
In recent years, an increasing attention has given to the intricate and diverse connection of microorganisms residing in our gut and their impact on brain health and central nervous system disease. There has been a shift in mindset to understand that drug addiction is not merely a condition that affects the brain, it is now being recognized as a disorder that also involves external factors such as the intestinal microbiota, which could influence vulnerability and the development of addictive behaviors. Furthermore, stress and social interactions, which are closely linked to the intestinal microbiota, are powerful modulators of addiction. This review delves into the mechanisms through which the microbiota-stress-immune axis may shape drug addiction and social behaviors. This work integrates preclinical and clinical evidence that demonstrate the bidirectional communication between stress, social behaviors, substance use disorders and the gut microbiota, suggesting that gut microbes might modulate social stress having a significance in drug addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubén García-Cabrerizo
- IUNICS, University of the Balearic Islands, Palma, Spain
- Health Research Institute of the Balearic Islands (IdISBa), Palma, Spain
- Department of Medicine, University of the Balearic Islands, Palma, Spain
| | - John F. Cryan
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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Johnson-Ferguson L, Shanahan L, Bechtiger L, Steinhoff A, Zimmermann J, Baumgartner MR, Binz TM, Eisner M, Ribeaud D, Quednow BB. Associations of psychoactive substances and steroid hormones in hair: Findings relevant to stress research from a large cohort of young adults. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2023; 157:106369. [PMID: 37639800 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2023.106369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Epidemiological studies increasingly use hair samples to assess people's cumulative exposure to steroid hormones, but how the use of different psychoactive substances may affect steroid hormone levels in hair is, so far, largely unknown. The current study addresses this gap by establishing the substance exposure correlates of cortisol, cortisone, and testosterone in hair, while also accounting for a number of relevant covariates. METHOD Data came from a large urban community-sample of young adults with a high prevalence of substance use (N = 1002, mean age=20.6 years, 50.2% female), who provided 3 cm of hair samples. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) quantified cortisol, cortisone, and testosterone, as well as delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy"), cocaine, several opioids, and their respective metabolites. Multiple linear regression models with covariates were used to predict steroid hormone levels from substance exposure in a four-step approach: In the full sample, low and high substance hair concentrations (median split) were first tested against no use for each substance individually (step 1) and for all substances together (step 2). Then, within the participants with any substance in hair only, the continuous hair concentration of each substance in pg/mg (step 3) and finally of all substances together, were regressed (step 4). RESULTS Low, high, and continuous levels of THC in hair were robustly associated with higher levels of cortisol (sig. in step 1 low THC: β = 0.29, p = .021; high THC: β = 0.42, p = .001; step 2: low THC: β = 0.27, p = 0.036, and high THC: β = 0.40, p = .004, and step 4: β = 0.12, p = .041). Participants with high MDMA levels had higher levels of cortisone without adjusting for other substances (step 1: β = 0.34, p = .026), but this effect was not significant in the other models. While high THC levels were associated with lower levels of testosterone in step 2 (β = -0.35, p = .018), MDMA concentration was positively related to testosterone concentration with and without adjusting for other substances (step 3: β = 0.24, p = .041; step 4: β = 0.17, 95%, p = .015) in male participants. CONCLUSION The use of psychoactive substances, especially of cannabis and ecstasy, should be considered in studies investigating steroid hormones in hair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Johnson-Ferguson
- Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Lilly Shanahan
- Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Laura Bechtiger
- Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Annekatrin Steinhoff
- University Hospital of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bern, Bolligenstrasse 111, 3000 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Josua Zimmermann
- Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Neuroscience Center Zurich, ETH Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Markus R Baumgartner
- Zurich Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tina M Binz
- University Hospital of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bern, Bolligenstrasse 111, 3000 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Manuel Eisner
- Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Institute of Criminology, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Denis Ribeaud
- Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Boris B Quednow
- Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Neuroscience Center Zurich, ETH Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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4
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Colding-Jørgensen P, Hestehave S, Abelson KSP, Kalliokoski O. Hair glucocorticoids are not a historical marker of stress - Exploring the time-scale of corticosterone incorporation into hairs in a rat model. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2023; 341:114335. [PMID: 37302763 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2023.114335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Hair glucocorticoids are increasingly popular biomarkers, used across numerous research fields, and studied species, as a measure of stress. Although they are suggested to be a proxy of the average HPA axis activity spanning a period of weeks or months into the past, this theory has never been tested. In the present study, adrenalectomized rats with no endogenous (adrenal) glucocorticoid production were used to study how circulating glucocorticoid levels would be reflected in the glucocorticoid levels found in hair samples. By dosing the animals daily with high levels of corticosterone for seven days, while sampling hairs before, during, and after treatments, a timeline for glucocorticoid uptake into hairs was constructed. This kinetic profile was compared to two hypothetical models, and the theory that hair glucocorticoids are a record of historical stress had to be rejected. Corticosterone concentrations in hairs were found to increase within three hours of the first injection, the highest concentrations were found on the seventh day of treatments, and the decrease in concentrations post-treatment suggests rapid elimination. We speculate that hair glucocorticoid levels can only be used to characterize a stress-response for a few days following a postulated stressor. An updated model, where glucocorticoids diffuse into, along, and out of hairs needs to be adopted to reconcile the experimentally obtained data. The inescapable consequence of this updated model is that hair glucocorticoids become a marker of - and can only be used to study - recent, or ongoing, stress, as opposed to historical events, weeks or months in the past.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pernille Colding-Jørgensen
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sara Hestehave
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, United Kingdom
| | - Klas S P Abelson
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Otto Kalliokoski
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Aburahma A, Rana S, Larsen R, Ward CS, Sprague JE. Influence of adrenalectomy on the gut microbiome and MDMA-induced hyperthermia. Eur J Pharmacol 2023; 945:175643. [PMID: 36882148 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2023.175643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
Abstract
The increased use of the stimulant drug, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), more commonly known as Ecstasy, Molly or X, has been linked to the development of life-threatening hyperthermia in human and animal models. The current study aimed to investigate the role of the gut-adrenal axis in MDMA-induced hyperthermia by assessing the influence of the acute exogenous supplementation with norepinephrine (NE) or corticosterone (CORT) to adrenalectomized (ADX) rats following MDMA administration. MDMA (10 mg/kg, sc) resulted in significant increase of body temperature in SHAM animals compared to ADX animals at 30-, 60- and 90-min timepoints post-MDMA treatment. The attenuated MDMA-mediated hyperthermic response seen in ADX animals was partially restored by the exogenous administration of NE (3 mg/kg, ip) or CORT (3 mg/kg, ip) 30 min after MDMA treatment. Additionally, 16 S rRNA analysis revealed distinct changes in the gut microbiome composition and diversity notable by the higher abundance of minor phyla Actinobacteria, Verrucomicrobia and Proteobacteria in ADX rats compared to control and SHAM rats. Furthermore, MDMA administration resulted in marked changes in the dominant phyla Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes and minor phyla Actinobacteria, Verrucomicrobia and Proteobacteria in ADX animals. The most notable changes in the gut microbiome upon CORT treatment were reported with increase in Bacteroidetes and decrease in Firmicutes phyla whereas NE treatment resulted in increase in Firmicutes and decrease in Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria post treatment. These results suggest a correlation between the sympathoadrenal axis, gut microbiome structure and diversity and MDMA-mediated hyperthermia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amal Aburahma
- The Ohio Attorney General's Center for the Future of Forensic Science, USA
| | - Srishti Rana
- The Department of Biological Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, 43403, USA
| | - Ray Larsen
- The Department of Biological Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, 43403, USA
| | - Christopher S Ward
- The Department of Biological Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, 43403, USA
| | - Jon E Sprague
- The Ohio Attorney General's Center for the Future of Forensic Science, USA.
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Della Rocca F, Maremmani AGI, Bacciardi S, Pacini M, Lamanna F, Tripodi B, Miccoli M, Maremmani I. Characteristics of Stress Sensitivity in Heroin Use Disorder Patients during Their Opioid Agonist Treatment. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:4566. [PMID: 36901575 PMCID: PMC10002439 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20054566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, performed on a sample of Heroin Use Disorder (HUD) patients undergoing Opioid Agonist Treatment (OAT), we attempted to explore the relationships between stress sensitivity and heroin addiction-related clinical aspects. HUD patients' stress sensitivity was evaluated with the Heroin/PTSD-Spectrum questionnaire (H/PSTD-S). The Drug Addiction History Questionnaire (DAH-Q), the Symptomatological Check List-90 (SCL-90), and The Behavioural Covariate of Heroin Craving inventory (CRAV-HERO) were all used, as were the Deltito Subjective Wellness Scale (D-SWS), a self-report scale evaluating subjective well-being; the Cocaine Problem Severity Index (CPSI), a questionnaire determining the extent of a cocaine problem; and the Marijuana Craving Questionnaire (MC-Q), an instrument assessing craving for cannabinoids. We checked correlations between stress sensitivity and the extent of HUD clinical features and compared patients with and without problematic stress sensitivity. H/PTSD-S was positively correlated with patients' income, altered mental status, legal problems, the lifetime different treatments index, the current treatment load index, and all SCL-90 indexes and factors. Regarding subjective well-being, stress sensitivity negatively correlated with the contrast best week (last five years) index. Patients with high-stress sensitivity were females with a low income. They exhibited a more severe mental status at treatment entry, greater difficulty in working adaptation, and legal problems during treatment. Additionally, these patients showed a higher level of psychopathology, more impairment in well-being, and more risky behaviours during treatment. Stress sensitivity, as H/PTSD-S, must be considered an outcome of HUD. HUD's addiction history and clinical features are significant risk factors for H/PTSD-S. Therefore, social and behavioural impairment in HUD patients could be considered the clinical expression of the H/PTSD spectrum. In summary, the long-term outcome of HUD is not represented by drug-taking behaviours. Rather, the inability to cope with the contingent environmental conditions is the key feature of such a disorder. H/PTSD-S, therefore, should be seen as a syndrome caused by an acquired inability (increased salience) concerning regular (daily) life events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Della Rocca
- Addiction Research Methods Institute, World Federation for the Treatment of Opioid Dependence, 225 Varick Street, Suite 402, New York, NY 10014, USA
| | - Angelo G. I. Maremmani
- Addiction Research Methods Institute, World Federation for the Treatment of Opioid Dependence, 225 Varick Street, Suite 402, New York, NY 10014, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Addictions, Section of Psychiatry, North-Western Tuscany Local Health Unit, Tuscany NHS, Versilia Zone, Via Aurelia 335, 55041 Viareggio, Italy
| | - Silvia Bacciardi
- Addiction Research Methods Institute, World Federation for the Treatment of Opioid Dependence, 225 Varick Street, Suite 402, New York, NY 10014, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Addictions, Section of Psychiatry, North-Western Tuscany Local Health Unit, Tuscany NHS, Versilia Zone, Via Aurelia 335, 55041 Viareggio, Italy
| | - Matteo Pacini
- V.P. Dole Research Group, G. De Lisio Institute of Behavioural Sciences, Via di Pratale 3, 56121 Pisa, Italy
| | - Francesco Lamanna
- Department of Psychiatry and Addictions, Section of Addictions, North-Western Tuscany Local Health Unit, Tuscany NHS, Pisa Zone, Via delle Torri 160, 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Beniamino Tripodi
- Department of Mental Health and Addictions, Division of Psychiatry, ASST Crema, Via Largo Dossena 2, 26013 Crema, Italy
| | - Mario Miccoli
- Addiction Research Methods Institute, World Federation for the Treatment of Opioid Dependence, 225 Varick Street, Suite 402, New York, NY 10014, USA
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Via Roma 67, 56100 Pisa, Italy
| | - Icro Maremmani
- Addiction Research Methods Institute, World Federation for the Treatment of Opioid Dependence, 225 Varick Street, Suite 402, New York, NY 10014, USA
- V.P. Dole Research Group, G. De Lisio Institute of Behavioural Sciences, Via di Pratale 3, 56121 Pisa, Italy
- Saint Camillus International University of Health Sciences (UniCamillus), Via di Sant’Alessandro 8, 00131 Rome, Italy
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Voegel CD, Kroll SL, Schmid MW, Kexel AK, Baumgartner MR, Kraemer T, Binz TM, Quednow BB. Alterations of Stress-Related Glucocorticoids and Endocannabinoids in Hair of Chronic Cocaine Users. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2021; 25:226-237. [PMID: 34676867 PMCID: PMC8929753 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyab070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous research in animals and humans has demonstrated a potential role of stress regulatory systems, such as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the endocannabinoid (eCB) system, in the development of substance use disorders. We thus investigated alterations of HPA and eCB markers in individuals with chronic cocaine use disorder by using an advanced hair analysis technique. METHODS We compared hair concentrations of glucocorticoids (cortisone, cortisol) and the eCBs 2-arachidonylglycerol, anandamide (AEA), oleoylethanolamide (OEA), and palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) between 48 recreational cocaine users (RCU), 25 dependent cocaine users (DCU), and 67 stimulant-naïve controls. Self-reported substance use and hair concentrations of substances were also assessed. RESULTS Significantly higher concentrations of hair cortisone were found in RCU and DCU compared with controls. Hair concentrations of OEA and PEA were significantly lower in DCU compared with RCU and controls. Additionally, within cocaine users, elevated cocaine hair concentration was a significant predictor for increased glucocorticoid and decreased OEA hair levels. Moreover, higher 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine hair concentration was correlated with elevated cortisone and AEA, OEA, and PEA levels in hair within cocaine users, whereas more self-reported cannabis use was associated with lower eCBs levels in hair across the total sample. CONCLUSION Our findings support the hypothesis that the HPA axis and eCB system might be important regulators for substance use disorders. The mechanistic understanding of changes in glucocorticoid and eCB levels in future research might be a promising pharmacological target to reduce stress-induced craving and relapse specifically in cocaine use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa D Voegel
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sara L Kroll
- Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland,Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | | | - Ann-Kathrin Kexel
- Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Markus R Baumgartner
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tina M Binz
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Boris B Quednow
- Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland,Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland,Correspondence: B. B. Quednow, PhD, Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University Hospital of Psychiatry, Zurich, Lenggstrasse 31, CH-8032 Zurich, Switzerland ()
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8
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Duan C, Wu Y, Yang J, Chen S, Pu Y, Deng H. Simultaneous Determination of Cortisol, Cortisone, and Multiple Illicit Drugs in Hair among Female Drug Addicts with LC-MS/MS. Molecules 2021; 26:516. [PMID: 33478156 PMCID: PMC7835904 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26020516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term dependence of illicit drugs impairs the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which regulates the secretion of endogenous steroids, cortisol, and cortisone. Thus, the present study aimed to develop a sensitive method for simultaneous determination of the multiple illicit drugs and two steroids in hair to monitor the status of illicit drug exposure and the physiological and psychological health of drug addicts. The target analytes were extracted from hair by incubation with 1 mL methanol for 24 h at 40 °C and then determined with LC-APCI+-MS/MS. The validated method showed acceptable linearity (R 2 > 0.99) in the range of 1.25-250 pg/mg for cortisol and cortisone, 2.5-125 pg/mg for heroin, 2.5-1250 pg/mg for ketamine, 2.5-5000 pg/mg for methamphetamine (MAM), 2.5-250 pg/mg for 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), morphine, and 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-AM). Limits of quantification were 1.6, 1.2, 1.6, 1.0, 1.4, 0.3, 2.1, and 1.2 pg/mg for cortisol, cortisone, heroin, ketamine, MAM, MDMA, morphine, and 6-AM, respectively. Method recoveries were from 90-115% for all analytes. Inter-day and intra-day coefficients of variation were within 10%. Finally, this method was successfully applied to detect the aforementioned analytes in hair among female drug addicts who self-reported to be MAM abuser, heroin abuser, ketamine abuser, and abuser of mixture drugs of MAM and heroin. MAM abusers with current MAM use showed significantly higher concentrations of cortisol, MAM, and MDMA than controls with drug withdrawal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cailing Duan
- Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science, Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China; (C.D.); (Y.W.); (J.Y.); (S.C.)
- Institute of Child Development and Education, Research Center of Learning Science, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
- Hangzhou College of Preschool Teacher Education, Zhejiang Normal University, Hangzhou 311231, China
| | - Yan Wu
- Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science, Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China; (C.D.); (Y.W.); (J.Y.); (S.C.)
- Institute of Child Development and Education, Research Center of Learning Science, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
| | - Jin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science, Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China; (C.D.); (Y.W.); (J.Y.); (S.C.)
- Institute of Child Development and Education, Research Center of Learning Science, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
| | - Shenghuo Chen
- Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science, Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China; (C.D.); (Y.W.); (J.Y.); (S.C.)
- Institute of Child Development and Education, Research Center of Learning Science, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
| | - Yun Pu
- Women’s Compulsory Isolated Drug Rehabilitation Center, Nanjing 210031, China;
| | - Huihua Deng
- Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science, Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China; (C.D.); (Y.W.); (J.Y.); (S.C.)
- Institute of Child Development and Education, Research Center of Learning Science, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
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Mead J, Parrott A. Mephedrone and MDMA: A comparative review. Brain Res 2020; 1735:146740. [PMID: 32087112 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Mephedrone and MDMA are both constituents of party drugs, with mephedrone being relatively new compared to MDMA. This review compares current knowledge regarding the patterns of usage and neuropsychobiological effects of both mephedrone and MDMA. Both drugs share common psychoactive effects, the duration of which is significantly shorter with mephedrone use, attributing towards a pattern of binge use among users. Both drugs have also been associated with adverse health, psychiatric, and neurocognitive problems. Whilst there is extensive research into the psychobiological problems induced by MDMA, the evidence for mephedrone is comparatively limited. The adverse effect profile of mephedrone appears to be less severe than that of MDMA. Users often believe it to be safer, although both drugs have been associated with overdoses. The neurotoxic potential of mephedrone appears to be low, whereas MDMA can cause long-term damage to the serotonergic system, although this needs further investigation. The abuse liability of mephedrone is significantly greater than that of MDMA, raising concerns regarding the impact of lifetime usage on users. Given that mephedrone is relatively new, the effects of long-term exposure are yet to be documented. Future research focused on lifetime users may highlight more severe neuropsychobiological effects from the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Mead
- Department of Psychology, School of Human and Health Sciences, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom.
| | - Andrew Parrott
- Department of Psychology, School of Human and Health Sciences, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
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10
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Shih JH, Chiu CH, Ma KH, Huang YS, Shiue CY, Yeh TY, Kao LT, Lin YY, Li IH. Autophagy inhibition plays a protective role against 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-induced loss of serotonin transporters and depressive-like behaviors in rats. Pharmacol Res 2019; 142:283-293. [PMID: 30826457 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2019.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2018] [Revised: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is a popular recreational drug, which ultimately leads to serotonergic (5-HT) neurotoxicity and psychiatric disorders. Previous in vitro studies have consistently demonstrated that MDMA provokes autophagic activation, as well as damage of 5-HT axons and nerve fibers. So far, whether autophagy, a well-conserved cellular process that is critical for cell fate, also participates in MDMA-induced neurotoxicity in vivo remains elusive. Here, we first examined time-course of autophagy-related changes during repeated administration of MDMA (10 mg/kg s.c. twice daily for 4 consecutive days) using immunofluorescent staining for tryptophan hydroxylase and microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta in rats. We also evaluated the protective effects of 3-methyadanine (3-MA, an autophagy inhibitor, 15 mg/kg i.p.) against MDMA-induced acute and long-term reductions in serotonin transporters (SERT) density in various brain regions using immunohistochemical staining and positron emission tomography (PET) imaging respectively. Plasma corticosterone measurements and forced swim tests were performed to evaluate the depressive performance. The staining results showed that repeated administration of MDMA increased expression of autophagosome and caused reduction in SERT densities of striatum and frontal cortex, which was ameliorated in the presence of 3-MA. PET imaging data also revealed that 3-MA could ameliorate MDMA-induced long-term decreased SERT availability in various brain regions of rats. Furthermore, immobility time of forced swim tests and plasma corticosterone levels were less in the group of MDMA co-injected with 3-MA compared with that of MDMA group. Together, these findings suggest that autophagy inhibition may confer protection against neurobiological and behavioral changes induced by MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jui-Hu Shih
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; School of Pharmacy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chuang-Hsin Chiu
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Hsing Ma
- Department of Biology and Anatomy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yuahn-Sieh Huang
- Department of Biology and Anatomy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chyng-Yann Shiue
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Yin Yeh
- Department of Biology and Anatomy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Li-Ting Kao
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Life Science, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yang-Yi Lin
- Department of Pharmacy, Chi Mei Medical Center, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - I-Hsun Li
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; School of Pharmacy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan.
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11
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Wemm SE, Sinha R. Drug-induced stress responses and addiction risk and relapse. Neurobiol Stress 2019; 10:100148. [PMID: 30937354 PMCID: PMC6430516 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2019.100148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 12/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A number of studies have assessed the effects of psychoactive drugs on stress biology, the neuroadaptations resulting from chronic drug use on stress biology, and their effects on addiction risk and relapse. This review mainly covers human research on the acute effects of different drugs of abuse (i.e., nicotine, cannabis, psychostimulants, alcohol, and opioids) on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) responses. We review the literature on acute peripheral stress responses in naïve or light recreational users and binge/heavy or chronic drug users. We also discuss evidence of alterations in tonic levels, or tolerance, in the latter relative to the former and associated changes in the phasic stress responses. We discuss the impact of the stress system tolerance in heavy users on their response to drug- and stress-related cue responses and craving as compared to control subjects. A summary is provided of the effects of glucocorticoid responses and their adaptations on brain striatal and prefrontal cortices involved in the regulation of drug seeking and relapse risk. Finally, we summarize important considerations, including individual difference factors such as gender, co-occurring drug use, early trauma and adversity and drug use history and variation in methodologies, that may further influence the effects of these drugs on stress biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie E. Wemm
- Yale Stress Center, Yale School of Medicine, 2 Church St South Suite 209, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA
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12
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Mood Fluctuation and Psychobiological Instability: The Same Core Functions Are Disrupted by Novel Psychoactive Substances and Established Recreational Drugs. Brain Sci 2018. [PMID: 29533974 PMCID: PMC5870361 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8030043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Many novel psychoactive substances (NPS) have entered the recreational drug scene in recent years, yet the problems they cause are similar to those found with established drugs. This article will debate the psychobiological effects of these newer and more traditional substances. It will show how they disrupt the same core psychobiological functions, so damaging well-being in similar ways. Every psychoactive drug causes mood states to fluctuate. Users feel better on-drug, then feel worse off-drug. The strength of these mood fluctuations is closely related to their addiction potential. Cyclical changes can occur with many other core psychobiological functions, such as information processing and psychomotor speed. Hence the list of drug-related impairments can include: homeostatic imbalance, HPA axis disruption, increased stress, altered sleep patterns, neurohormonal changes, modified brain rhythms, neurocognitive impairments, and greater psychiatric vulnerability. Similar patterns of deficit are found with older drugs such as cocaine, nicotine and cannabis, and newer substances such as 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), mephedrone and spice. All psychoactive drugs damage human well-being through similar basic neuropsychobiological mechanisms.
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13
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Duffy AR, Schminkey DL, Groer MW, Shelton M, Dutra S. Comparison of Hair Cortisol Levels and Perceived Stress in Mothers Who Deliver at Preterm and Term. Biol Res Nurs 2018; 20:292-299. [PMID: 29490472 DOI: 10.1177/1099800418758952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate relationships between hair cortisol levels and perceived stress in mothers who deliver preterm and term. We hypothesized that the rate of change in cortisol levels would be greater in the preterm delivery group. METHODS This preliminary study compared hair cortisol levels and Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) scores in predominately Caucasian mothers who delivered preterm ( n = 22) and term ( n = 30). We collected PSS and hair samples of ≥10 cm in length from mothers after delivery. Hair was segmented into three sections, and cortisol was measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS The mean gestational age was 31.45 ( SD = 4.2) weeks for preterm deliveries and 39.45 ( SD = 1.1) for term. Cortisol differed significantly in the third trimester between mothers delivering term and preterm ( t = 2.16, df = 48, p = .04) and trended toward significance in the second trimester ( t = 1.88, df = 48, p = .06). PSS differed significantly between the two groups ( t = -2.96, df = 50, p = .05). Our data did not provide support for our hypothesis. CONCLUSION There appeared to be a blunted, flattened pattern of change in cortisol levels across gestation in the women who delivered preterm, suggesting diminished hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis responsiveness in mechanisms that promote preterm labor. Future studies are needed to further evaluate best strategies for measuring the mechanisms of allostatic load during pregnancy along with the psychoneuroendocrine and immune triggers and placental responses that lead to premature birth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allyson R Duffy
- 1 University of South Florida College of Nursing, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Donna L Schminkey
- 2 University of Virginia School of Nursing, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Maureen W Groer
- 1 University of South Florida College of Nursing, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Melissa Shelton
- 1 University of South Florida College of Nursing, Tampa, FL, USA.,3 Sarasota Memorial Health Care System, Sarasota, FL, USA
| | - Samia Dutra
- 1 University of South Florida College of Nursing, Tampa, FL, USA
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14
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Parrott AC, Downey LA, Roberts CA, Montgomery C, Bruno R, Fox HC. Recreational 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine or 'ecstasy': Current perspective and future research prospects. J Psychopharmacol 2017; 31:959-966. [PMID: 28661257 DOI: 10.1177/0269881117711922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The purpose of this article is to debate current understandings about the psychobiological effects of recreational 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or 'ecstasy'), and recommend theoretically-driven topics for future research. METHODS Recent empirical findings, especially those from novel topic areas were reviewed. Potential causes for the high variance often found in group findings were also examined. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS The first empirical reports into psychobiological and psychiatric aspects from the early 1990s concluded that regular users demonstrated some selective psychobiological deficits, for instance worse declarative memory, or heightened depression. More recent research has covered a far wider range of psychobiological functions, and deficits have emerged in aspects of vision, higher cognitive skill, neurohormonal functioning, and foetal developmental outcomes. However, variance levels are often high, indicating that while some recreational users develop problems, others are less affected. Potential reasons for this high variance are debated. An explanatory model based on multi-factorial causation is then proposed. FUTURE DIRECTIONS A number of theoretically driven research topics are suggested, in order to empirically investigate the potential causes for these diverse psychobiological deficits. Future neuroimaging studies should study the practical implications of any serotonergic and/or neurohormonal changes, using a wide range of functional measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Parrott
- 1 Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, UK.,2 Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Luke A Downey
- 2 Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Australia.,3 Institute for Breathing and Sleep, Austin Health, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Carl A Roberts
- 4 Institute of Psychology, Health and Society, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Cathy Montgomery
- 5 School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- 6 School of Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Helen C Fox
- 7 Department of Psychiatry, Stony Brook University, New York, USA
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15
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Stalder T, Steudte-Schmiedgen S, Alexander N, Klucken T, Vater A, Wichmann S, Kirschbaum C, Miller R. Reply to the commentary by Parrot and Downey (2017). Psychoneuroendocrinology 2017; 81:160. [PMID: 28410838 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Stalder
- Biological Psychology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany; Clinical Psychology, University of Siegen, Siegen, Germany.
| | | | - Nina Alexander
- Biological Psychology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany; Differential and Personality Psychology, Medical School Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tim Klucken
- Clinical Psychology, University of Siegen, Siegen, Germany
| | - Annika Vater
- Biological Psychology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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16
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Parrott AC, Downey LA. Psychoactive drug influences on hair cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2017; 81:159. [PMID: 28392096 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.02.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Parrott
- Department of Psychology, College of Human and Health Sciences, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, Wales, UK; Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University, Hawthorn, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia.
| | - Luke A Downey
- Department of Psychology, College of Human and Health Sciences, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, Wales, UK; Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University, Hawthorn, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia
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17
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Parrott AC, Hayley AC, Downey LA. Recreational stimulants, herbal, and spice cannabis: The core psychobiological processes that underlie their damaging effects. Hum Psychopharmacol 2017; 32. [PMID: 28557129 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Revised: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 03/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Recreational drugs are taken for their positive mood effects, yet their regular usage damages well-being. The psychobiological mechanisms underlying these damaging effects will be debated. METHODS The empirical literature on recreational cannabinoids and stimulant drugs is reviewed. A theoretical explanation for how they cause similar types of damage is outlined. RESULTS All psychoactive drugs cause moods and psychological states to fluctuate. The acute mood gains underlie their recreational usage, while the mood deficits on withdrawal explain their addictiveness. Cyclical mood changes are found with every central nervous system stimulant and also occur with cannabis. These mood state changes provide a surface index for more profound psychobiological fluctuations. Homeostatic balance is altered, with repetitive disturbances of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, and disrupted cortisol-neurohormonal secretions. Hence, these drugs cause increased stress, disturbed sleep, neurocognitive impairments, altered brain activity, and psychiatric vulnerability. Equivalent deficits occur with novel psychoactive stimulants such as mephedrone and artificial "spice" cannabinoids. These psychobiological fluctuations underlie drug dependency and make cessation difficult. Psychobiological stability and homeostatic balance are optimally restored by quitting psychoactive drugs. CONCLUSIONS Recreational stimulants such as cocaine or MDMA (3.4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) and sedative drugs such as cannabis damage human homeostasis and well-being through similar core psychobiological mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Parrott
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, UK.,Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Amie C Hayley
- Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Luke A Downey
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, UK.,Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Australia
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18
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Pochigaeva K, Druzhkova T, Yakovlev A, Onufriev M, Grishkina M, Chepelev A, Guekht A, Gulyaeva N. Hair cortisol as a marker of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal Axis activity in female patients with major depressive disorder. Metab Brain Dis 2017; 32:577-583. [PMID: 28064407 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-017-9952-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Hair cortisol is regarded as a promising marker of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPAA) activity alterations due to stress, somatic and mental health conditions. Hair cortisol was previously reported to be elevated in patients with depression, however the data related to remission and recurrent depressive episodes are different. In this study, levels of hair cortisol were assessed in female patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) and the validity of hair cortisol as a marker of HPAA activity in this condition was evaluated. Hair cortisol was measured in 1 cm hair segments of 21 female patients with MDD and 22 female age-matched controls using enzyme-immunoassay analysis. Concurrently, serum cortisol was assessed and psychological status was evaluated using 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD-17), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and the Spielberger state trait anxiety inventory (STAI). The levels of hair cortisol were significantly lower in the MDD group, while serum cortisol levels were significantly higher in patients, as compared with controls. A significant negative correlation was found between HAMD-17 scores and hair cortisol. Decreased hair cortisol found in female patients with MDD as compared to controls suggests downregulation of HPAA activity during the preceding month. Further studies are needed to investigate the profiles of hair cortisol at different stages of depressive disorder to establish this parameter as a handy clinical tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ksenia Pochigaeva
- Healthcare Department of Moscow, Moscow Research and Clinical Center for Neuropsychiatry, Moscow, Russia
| | - Tatiana Druzhkova
- Healthcare Department of Moscow, Moscow Research and Clinical Center for Neuropsychiatry, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander Yakovlev
- Healthcare Department of Moscow, Moscow Research and Clinical Center for Neuropsychiatry, Moscow, Russia
- Department of Functional Biochemistry of the Nervous System, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova street 5a, Moscow, 117485, Russia
| | - Mikhail Onufriev
- Healthcare Department of Moscow, Moscow Research and Clinical Center for Neuropsychiatry, Moscow, Russia
- Department of Functional Biochemistry of the Nervous System, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova street 5a, Moscow, 117485, Russia
| | - Maria Grishkina
- Healthcare Department of Moscow, Moscow Research and Clinical Center for Neuropsychiatry, Moscow, Russia
| | - Aleksey Chepelev
- Healthcare Department of Moscow, Moscow Research and Clinical Center for Neuropsychiatry, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alla Guekht
- Healthcare Department of Moscow, Moscow Research and Clinical Center for Neuropsychiatry, Moscow, Russia
- Department of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Medical Genetics, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Natalia Gulyaeva
- Healthcare Department of Moscow, Moscow Research and Clinical Center for Neuropsychiatry, Moscow, Russia.
- Department of Functional Biochemistry of the Nervous System, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova street 5a, Moscow, 117485, Russia.
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19
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Oxytocin, cortisol and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine: neurohormonal aspects of recreational ‘ecstasy’. Behav Pharmacol 2016; 27:649-658. [DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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20
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Jones L, Reed P, Parrott A. Mephedrone and 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine: Comparative psychobiological effects as reported by recreational polydrug users. J Psychopharmacol 2016; 30:1313-1320. [PMID: 27371497 DOI: 10.1177/0269881116653106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of mephedrone and 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA), as reported by young recreational polydrug users. METHODS 152 MDMA users and 81 mephedrone users were recruited through snowballing on social network sites. They completed a standard online questionnaire for either mephedrone or MDMA. The questions covered the average amount taken per session, the longest duration of usage in the last 12-months, subjective effects while on-drug, and recovery effects in the days afterwards. RESULTS Mephedrone users reported a significantly longer maximum session of use than MDMA users. Mephedrone users also reported a significantly greater average amount used per session. The majority of on-drug subjective ratings did not differ between drugs, with similar increases in entactogenic effects. Although mephedrone users did report significantly more frequent issues with sleeping, anger and anxiety. In relation to recovery, mephedrone users reported more frequent craving, nasal irritation, paranoia, and relationship difficulties. Mephedrone users also rated general recovery effects as more severe over the seven-day period following use, taking more days to feel normal. CONCLUSIONS The acute effects of MDMA and mephedrone were broadly similar. However, the recovery period for mephedrone was more enduring, possibly due to the longer duration of acute session usage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lewis Jones
- Psychology Department, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Phil Reed
- Psychology Department, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
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21
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Geng L, Xiang P, Yang J, Shen H, Sang Z. Association between hair cortisol concentration and perceived stress in female methamphetamine addicts. J Psychosom Res 2016; 91:82-86. [PMID: 27894467 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2016] [Revised: 10/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The present study aims to explore whether hair cortisol concentration is associated with explicit stress or implicit stress in female methamphetamine addicts. METHODS Hair samples were collected from 51 female methamphetamine addicts from inpatient addiction treatment programs. Perceived stress was assessed by both explicit and implicit measures through the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and the Implicit Association Test (IAT), respectively. RESULTS The positive relationship between hair cortisol concentration with D-scores of the IAT reached statistically significant difference. A marginal correlation between hair cortisol concentration and scores of the PSS was observed. Additionally, linear regression analysis indicated that D-scores of the IAT are strongly predictive of hair cortisol concentration. CONCLUSION Hair cortisol concentration is strongly related to implicit stress but only weakly related with explicit stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liuna Geng
- Department of Psychology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
| | - Peng Xiang
- Department of Psychology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jin Yang
- Research Centre for Learning Science, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hui Shen
- Department of Social Work and Policy, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhiqin Sang
- Department of Psychology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
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22
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Heinze K, Lin A, Reniers RL, Wood SJ. Longer-term increased cortisol levels in young people with mental health problems. Psychiatry Res 2016; 236:98-104. [PMID: 26749569 PMCID: PMC4756272 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2015.12.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2015] [Revised: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 12/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Disturbance of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity is commonly reported in a range of mental disorders in blood, saliva and urine samples. This study aimed to look at longer-term cortisol levels and their association with clinical symptoms. Hair strands of 30 young people (16-25 years) presenting with mental health problems (Mage±SD=21±2.4, 26 females) and 28 healthy controls (HC, Mage±SD=20±2.9, 26 females) were analyzed for cortisol concentrations, representing the past 6 months prior to hair sampling. Clinical participants completed an assessment on psychiatric symptoms, functioning and lifestyle factors. All participants completed the Perceived Stress Scale. Hair cortisol concentrations representing the past 3 (but not 3-6) months were significantly increased in clinical participants compared to HC. Perceived stress in the past month was significantly higher in clinical participants compared to HC, but not significantly correlated with hair cortisol. Hair cortisol levels were not significantly associated with any other measures. Hair segment analyses revealed longer-term increased levels of cortisol in the past 3 months in early mental health problems. Further insight into the role of cortisol on the pathogenesis of mental illnesses requires longitudinal studies relating cortisol to psychopathology and progression of illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kareen Heinze
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, UK; School of Psychology, Keele University, UK.
| | - Ashleigh Lin
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Australia
| | | | - Stephen J. Wood
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, UK,Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Carlton South, VIC, Australia
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23
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Fosnocht AQ, Briand LA. Substance use modulates stress reactivity: Behavioral and physiological outcomes. Physiol Behav 2016; 166:32-42. [PMID: 26907955 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Revised: 02/11/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Drug addiction is a major public health concern in the United States costing taxpayers billions in health care costs, lost productivity and law enforcement. However, the availability of effective treatment options remains limited. The development of novel therapeutics will not be possible without a better understanding of the addicted brain. Studies in both clinical and preclinical models indicate that chronic drug use leads to alterations in the body and brain's response to stress. Dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis may shed light on the ability of stress to increase vulnerability to relapse. Further, within both the HPA axis and limbic brain regions, corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) is critically involved in the brain's response to stress. Alterations in both central and peripheral CRF activity seen following chronic drug use provide a mechanism by which substance use can alter stress reactivity, thus mediating addictive phenotypes. While many reviews have focused on how stress alters drug-mediated changes in physiology and behavior, the goal of this review is to focus on how substance use alters responses to stress.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lisa A Briand
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, United States.
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24
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Shih JH, Ma KH, Chen CFF, Cheng CY, Pao LH, Weng SJ, Huang YS, Shiue CY, Yeh MK, Li IH. Evaluation of brain SERT occupancy by resveratrol against MDMA-induced neurobiological and behavioral changes in rats: A 4-[¹⁸F]-ADAM/small-animal PET study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2016; 26:92-104. [PMID: 26612383 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2015] [Revised: 10/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The misuse of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) has drawn a growing concern worldwide for its psychophysiological impacts on humans. MDMA abusers are often accompanied by long-term serotonergic neurotoxicity, which is associated with reduced density of cerebral serotonin transporters (SERT) and depressive disorders. Resveratrol (RSV) is a natural polyphenolic phytoalexin that has been known for its antidepressant and neuroprotective effects. However, biological targets of RSV as well as its neuroprotective effects against MDMA remained largely unknown. In this study, we examined binding potency of RSV and MDMA to SERT using small-animal positron emission tomography (PET) with the SERT radioligand, N,N-dimethyl-2-(2-amino-4-[(18)F]fluorophenylthio)benzylamine (4-[(18)F]-ADAM) and investigated the protection of RSV against the acute and long-term adverse effects of MDMA. We found that RSV exhibit binding potentials to SERT in vivo in a dose-dependent manner with variation among brain regions. When the MDMA-treated rats (10mg/kg, s.c.) were co-injected with RSV (20mg/kg, i.p.) twice daily for 4 consecutive days, MDMA-induced acute elevation in plasma corticosterone was significantly reduced. Further, 4-[(18)F]-ADAM PET imaging revealed that RSV protected against the MDMA-induced decrease in SERT availability in the midbrain and the thalamus 2 weeks following the co-treatment. The PET data were comparable to the observation from the forced swim test that RSV sufficiently ameliorated the depressive-like behaviors of the MDMA-treated rats. Together, these findings suggest that RSV is a potential antidepressant and may confer protection against neurobiological and behavioral changes induced by MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jui-Hu Shih
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Pharmacy Practice, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; School of Pharmacy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Hsing Ma
- Department of Biology and Anatomy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Fu F Chen
- Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Yi Cheng
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Li-Heng Pao
- School of Pharmacy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Health-Industry Technology, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan, Taiwan; Research Center for Industry of Human Ecology, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Shao-Ju Weng
- Department of Biology and Anatomy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yuahn-Sieh Huang
- Department of Biology and Anatomy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chyng-Yann Shiue
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Kung Yeh
- School of Pharmacy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan; Ministry of Health and Welfare, Taiwan
| | - I-Hsun Li
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Pharmacy Practice, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; School of Pharmacy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan.
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The relationship between cortisol, stress and psychiatric illness: New insights using hair analysis. J Psychiatr Res 2015; 70:38-49. [PMID: 26424422 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Revised: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stress is an established important contributor to the development of mental illness and stress related disorders. The biology implicated in the homeostasis of pathological stress mechanisms is not fully established. One of the difficulties with current techniques is the limitation in capturing chronic levels of cortisol as an expression of stress levels in humans. Hair samples can be used to evaluate cortisol levels averaged over relatively long periods of time, therefore providing a more valid measure of chronic levels of this hormone. A highly replicable technique to measure long-term cortisol could prove pivotal in improving our understanding of the role of stress in psychiatric disorders. METHODS This review synthesises all the published studies relating hair cortisol concentration (HCC) to stress and to psychiatric disorders. It describes and summarises their findings with the aim of providing a summary picture of the current state of this line of research. RESULTS The strongest finding to date is the replicable increases in hair cortisol associated with stressful life events. Findings in psychiatric disorders are more sparse and inconsistent. There is some support for the presence of raised HCC in major depressive disorders, and for lowered HCC in posttraumatic stress disorder, suggesting chronic hypercortisolaemia and hypocortisolaemia respectively. CONCLUSIONS HCC is a promising methodology to study chronic cortisol levels with the potential to help characterise psychiatric and stress related disorders. The combination of chronic and acute cortisol measurements has the potential for more accurately determining different aspects of the stress response, and ultimately for the development of a biological marker to aid diagnosis and response to treatment.
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Parrott AC. Why all stimulant drugs are damaging to recreational users: an empirical overview and psychobiological explanation. Hum Psychopharmacol 2015. [PMID: 26216554 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Stimulant drugs such as nicotine and Ecstasy/3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) are taken for positive reasons, yet their regular use leads to deficits rather than gains. This article outlines the psychobiological rationale for this paradox. METHODS The empirical literature on nicotine, cocaine, amphetamine, Ecstasy/MDMA, and mephedrone are reviewed. A theoretical explanation for why they are problematic to humans is then described. RESULTS The acute effects of central nervous system (CNS) stimulants are typically positive, with greater alertness and emotional intensity. However, in the post-drug recovery period, the opposite feelings develop, with lethargy and low moods. All recreational stimulants cause mood fluctuation, although it is most pronounced in drugs with rapid onset and comedown (e.g. nicotine and cocaine), explaining why they are the most addictive. Parallel fluctuations occur across many psychological and neurocognitive functions, with users suffering various off-drug deficits. CNS stimulants also affect the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, impairing sleep, disrupting homeostasis, and exacerbating psychiatric distress. Neuroimaging studies reveal altered brain activity patterns in regular users. These problems are related to lifetime usage but commence in novice users. CONCLUSIONS Repetitive CNS stimulation is potentially damaging to the organism, both acutely and chronically. The review describes the various psychobiological systems through which recreational stimulant drugs impair human well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Parrott
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, South Wales, UK
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White LO, Klein AM, Kirschbaum C, Kurz-Adam M, Uhr M, Müller-Myhsok B, Hoffmann K, Sierau S, Michel A, Stalder T, Horlich J, Keil J, Andreas A, Resch L, Binser MJ, Costa A, Giourges E, Neudecker E, Wolf C, Scheuer S, Ising M, von Klitzing K. Analyzing pathways from childhood maltreatment to internalizing symptoms and disorders in children and adolescents (AMIS): a study protocol. BMC Psychiatry 2015; 15:126. [PMID: 26058452 PMCID: PMC4460761 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-015-0512-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 05/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Effective interventions for maltreated children are impeded by gaps in our knowledge of the etiopathogenic mechanisms leading from maltreatment to mental disorders. Although some studies have already identified individual risk factors, there is a lack of large-scale multilevel research on how psychosocial, neurobiological, and genetic factors act in concert to modulate risk of internalizing psychopathology in childhood following maltreatment. To help close this gap, we aim to delineate gender-specific pathways from maltreatment to psychological disorder/resilience. To this end, we examine the interplay of specific maltreatment characteristics and psychological, endocrine, metabolomic, and (epi-)genomic stress response patterns as well as cognitive-emotional/social processes as determinants of developmental outcome. Specifically, we will explore endocrine, metabolomic, and epigenetic mechanisms leading from maltreatment to a higher risk of depression and anxiety disorders. METHODS/DESIGN Four large samples amounting to a total of N = 920 children aged 4-16 years will be assessed: Two cohorts with prior internalizing psychopathology and controls will be checked for maltreatment and two cohorts with substantiated maltreatment will be checked for internalizing (and externalizing) psychopathology. We will apply a multi-source (interview, questionnaires, official records), multi-informant strategy (parents, children, teachers) to assess maltreatment characteristics (e.g., subtypes, developmental timing, chronicity) and psychopathological symptoms, supplemented with multiple measurements of risk and protective factors and cutting-edge laboratory analyses of endocrine, steroid metabolomic and epigenetic factors. As previous assessments in the two largest samples are already available, longitudinal data will be generated within the three year study period. DISCUSSION Our results will lay the empirical foundation for (a) detection of early biopsychosocial markers, (b) development of screening measures, and
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars O. White
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Annette M. Klein
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Clemens Kirschbaum
- Department of Psychology, Technical University of Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Maria Kurz-Adam
- Stadtjugendamt München (Child Protection Services Munich), Munich, Germany.
| | - Manfred Uhr
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, 80804, Munich, Germany.
| | - Bertram Müller-Myhsok
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, 80804, Munich, Germany. .,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, 81377, Germany. .,University of Liverpool, Institute of Translational Medicine, Liverpool, L69 3BX, UK.
| | - Katrin Hoffmann
- Amt für Jugend, Familie und Bildung Leipzig (Child Protection Services Leipzig), Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Susan Sierau
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Andrea Michel
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Tobias Stalder
- Department of Psychology, Technical University of Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Jenny Horlich
- Amt für Jugend, Familie und Bildung Leipzig (Child Protection Services Leipzig), Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Jan Keil
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Anna Andreas
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Leonhard Resch
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Martin J. Binser
- Stadtjugendamt München (Child Protection Services Munich), Munich, Germany
| | - Anna Costa
- Stadtjugendamt München (Child Protection Services Munich), Munich, Germany.
| | - Elena Giourges
- Stadtjugendamt München (Child Protection Services Munich), Munich, Germany.
| | - Eva Neudecker
- Stadtjugendamt München (Child Protection Services Munich), Munich, Germany.
| | | | - Sandra Scheuer
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, 80804, Munich, Germany.
| | - Marcus Ising
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, 80804, Munich, Germany.
| | - Kai von Klitzing
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.
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Downey LA, Sands H, Jones L, Clow A, Evans P, Stalder T, Parrott AC. Reduced memory skills and increased hair cortisol levels in recent Ecstasy/MDMA users: significant but independent neurocognitive and neurohormonal deficits. Hum Psychopharmacol 2015; 30:199-207. [PMID: 25900184 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Revised: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 02/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The goals of this study were to measure the neurocognitive performance of recent users of recreational Ecstasy and investigate whether it was associated with the stress hormone cortisol. METHODS The 101 participants included 27 recent light users of Ecstasy (one to four times in the last 3 months), 23 recent heavier Ecstasy users (five or more times) and 51 non-users. Rivermead paragraph recall provided an objective measure for immediate and delayed recall. The prospective and retrospective memory questionnaire provided a subjective index of memory deficits. Cortisol levels were taken from near-scalp 3-month hair samples. RESULTS Cortisol was significantly raised in recent heavy Ecstasy users compared with controls, whereas hair cortisol in light Ecstasy users was not raised. Both Ecstasy groups were significantly impaired on the Rivermead delayed word recall, and both groups reported significantly more retrospective and prospective memory problems. Stepwise regression confirmed that lifetime Ecstasy predicted the extent of these memory deficits. CONCLUSIONS Recreational Ecstasy is associated with increased levels of the bio-energetic stress hormone cortisol and significant memory impairments. No significant relationship between cortisol and the cognitive deficits was observed. Ecstasy users did display evidence of a metacognitive deficit, with the strength of the correlations between objective and subjective memory performances being significantly lower in the Ecstasy users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke A Downey
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, UK; Centre for Human Psychopharmacology (CHP), Swinburne University, Melbourne, Australia
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Parrott AC, Young L. Saturday night fever in ecstasy/MDMA dance clubbers: Heightened body temperature and associated psychobiological changes. Temperature (Austin) 2014; 1:214-9. [PMID: 27626048 PMCID: PMC5008707 DOI: 10.4161/23328940.2014.977182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2014] [Revised: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 09/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Aims and rationale: to investigate body temperature and thermal self-ratings of Ecstasy/MDMA users at a Saturday night dance club. METHODS 68 dance clubbers (mean age 21.6 years, 30 females and 38 males), were assessed at a Saturday night dance club, then 2-3 d later. Three subgroups were compared: 32 current Ecstasy users who had taken Ecstasy/MDMA that evening, 10 abstinent Ecstasy/MDMA users on other psychoactive drugs, and 26 non-user controls (predominantly alcohol drinkers). In a comparatively quiet area of the dance club, each unpaid volunteer had their ear temperature recorded, and completed a questionnaire on thermal feelings and mood states. A similar questionnaire was repeated 2-3 d later by mobile telephone. RESULTS Ecstasy/MDMA users had a mean body temperature 1.2°C higher than non-user controls (P < 0.001), and felt significantly hotter and thirstier. The abstinent Ecstasy/MDMA polydrug user group had a mean body temperature intermediate between the other 2 groups, significantly higher than controls, and significantly lower than current Ecstasy/MDMA users. After 2-3 d of recovery, the Ecstasy/MDMA users remained significantly 'thirstier'. Higher body temperature while clubbing was associated with greater Ecstasy/MDMA usage at the club, and younger age of first use. Higher temperature also correlated with lower elation and poor memory 2-3 d later. It also correlated positively with nicotine, and negatively with cannabis. CONCLUSIONS Ecstasy/MDMA using dance clubbers had significantly higher body temperature than non-user controls. This heightened body temperature was associated with a number of adverse psychobiological consequences, including poor memory.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lucy Young
- University of Wales Swansea ; Swansea, UK
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Parrott AC. MDMA is certainly damaging after 25 years of empirical research: a reply and refutation of Doblin et al. (2014). Hum Psychopharmacol 2014; 29:109-19. [PMID: 24590542 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Human Psychopharmacology recently published my review into the increase in empirical knowledge about the human psychobiology of MDMA over the past 25 years (Parrott, 2013a). Deficits have been demonstrated in retrospective memory, prospective memory, higher cognition, complex visual processing, sleep architecture, sleep apnoea, pain, neurohormonal activity, and psychiatric status. Neuroimaging studies have shown serotonergic deficits, which are associated with lifetime Ecstasy/MDMA usage, and degree of neurocognitive impairment. Basic psychological skills remain intact. Ecstasy/MDMA use by pregnant mothers leads to psychomotor impairments in the children. Hence, the damaging effects of Ecstasy/MDMA were far more widespread than was realized a few years ago. In their critique of my review, Doblin et al. (2014) argued that my review contained misstatements, omitted contrary findings, and recited dated misconceptions. In this reply, I have answered all the points they raised. I have been able to refute each of their criticisms by citing the relevant empirical data, since many of their points were based on inaccurate summaries of the actual research findings. Doblin and colleagues are proponents of the use of MDMA for drug-assisted psychotherapy, and their strongest criticisms were focused on my concerns about this proposal. However, again all the issues I raised were based on sound empirical evidence or theoretical understanding. Indeed I would recommend potentially far safer co-drugs such as D-cycloserine or oxytocin. In summary, MDMA can induce a wide range of neuropsychobiological changes, many of which are damaging to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Parrott
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, South Wales, UK
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