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Jones BC, Jones AL, Shiramizu V, Anderson C. What Does Women's Facial Attractiveness Signal? Implications for an Evolutionary Perspective on Appearance Enhancement. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2022; 51:67-71. [PMID: 33733308 PMCID: PMC8858290 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-021-01955-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Benedict C Jones
- School of Psychological Sciences and Health, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G4 0LN, Scotland.
| | - Alex L Jones
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales
| | - Victor Shiramizu
- Institute of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland
| | - Claire Anderson
- Textile Design Programme, Chelsea College of Arts, University of the Arts London, London, England
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2
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Locke A, Arnocky S. Breast symmetry, but not size or volume, predicts salivary immunoglobulin-A (sIgA) in women. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2021.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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3
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Pawłowski B, Żelaźniewicz A. The evolution of perennially enlarged breasts in women: a critical review and a novel hypothesis. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:2794-2809. [PMID: 34254729 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The possession of permanent, adipose breasts in women is a uniquely human trait that develops during puberty, well in advance of the first pregnancy. The adaptive role and developmental pattern of this breast morphology, unusual among primates, remains an unresolved conundrum. The evolutionary origins of this trait have been the focus of many hypotheses, which variously suggest that breasts are a product of sexual selection or of natural selection due to their putative role in assisting in nursing or as a thermoregulatory organ. Alternative hypotheses assume that permanent breasts are a by-product of other evolutionary changes. We review and evaluate these hypotheses in the light of recent literature on breast morphology, physiology, phylogeny, ontogeny, sex differences, and genetics in order to highlight their strengths and flaws and to propose a coherent perspective and a new hypothesis on the evolutionary origins of perennially enlarged breasts in women. We propose that breasts appeared as early as Homo ergaster, originally as a by-product of other coincident evolutionary processes of adaptive significance. These included an increase in subcutaneous fat tissue (SFT) in response to the demands of thermoregulatory and energy storage, and of the ontogenetic development of the evolving brain. An increase in SFT triggered an increase in oestradiol levels (E2). An increase in meat in the diet of early Homo allowed for further hormonal changes, such as greater dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA/S) synthesis, which were crucial for brain evolution. DHEA/S is also easily converted to E2 in E2-sensitive body parts, such as breasts and gluteofemoral regions, causing fat accumulation in these regions, enabling the evolution of perennially enlarged breasts. Furthermore, it is also plausible that after enlarged breasts appeared, they were co-opted for other functions, such as attracting mates and indicating biological condition. Finally, we argue that the multifold adaptive benefits of SFT increase and hormonal changes outweighed the possible costs of perennially enlarged breasts, enabling their further development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bogusław Pawłowski
- Department of Human Biology, University of Wrocław, ul. Przybyszewskiego 63, Wrocław, 51-148, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Żelaźniewicz
- Department of Human Biology, University of Wrocław, ul. Przybyszewskiego 63, Wrocław, 51-148, Poland
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4
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Dinsdale N, Nepomnaschy P, Crespi B. The evolutionary biology of endometriosis. EVOLUTION MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 9:174-191. [PMID: 33854783 PMCID: PMC8030264 DOI: 10.1093/emph/eoab008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
We provide the first analysis and synthesis of the evolutionary and mechanistic bases for risk of endometriosis in humans, structured around Niko Tinbergen's four questions about phenotypes: phylogenetic history, development, mechanism and adaptive significance. Endometriosis, which is characterized by the proliferation of endometrial tissue outside of the uterus, has its phylogenetic roots in the evolution of three causally linked traits: (1) highly invasive placentation, (2) spontaneous rather than implantation-driven endometrial decidualization and (3) frequent extensive estrogen-driven endometrial proliferation and inflammation, followed by heavy menstrual bleeding. Endometriosis is potentiated by these traits and appears to be driven, proximately, by relatively low levels of prenatal and postnatal testosterone. Testosterone affects the developing hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis, and at low levels, it can result in an altered trajectory of reproductive and physiological phenotypes that in extreme cases can mediate the symptoms of endometriosis. Polycystic ovary syndrome, by contrast, is known from previous work to be caused primarily by high prenatal and postnatal testosterone, and it demonstrates a set of phenotypes opposite to those found in endometriosis. The hypothesis that endometriosis risk is driven by low prenatal testosterone, and involves extreme expression of some reproductive phenotypes, is supported by a suite of evidence from genetics, development, endocrinology, morphology and life history. The hypothesis also provides insights into why these two diametric, fitness-reducing disorders are maintained at such high frequencies in human populations. Finally, the hypotheses described and evaluated here lead to numerous testable predictions and have direct implications for the treatment and study of endometriosis. Lay summary: Endometriosis is caused by endometrial tissue outside of the uterus. We explain why and how humans are vulnerable to this disease, and new perspectives on understanding and treating it. Endometriosis shows evidence of being caused in part by relatively low testosterone during fetal development, that 'programs' female reproductive development. By contrast, polycystic ovary syndrome is associated with relatively high testosterone in prenatal development. These two disorders can thus be seen as 'opposite' to one another in their major causes and correlates. Important new insights regarding diagnosis, study and treatment of endometriosis follow from these considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Dinsdale
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Pablo Nepomnaschy
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Bernard Crespi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
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5
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Pavlovič O, Fiala V, Kleisner K. Environmental convergence in facial preferences: a cross-group comparison of Asian Vietnamese, Czech Vietnamese, and Czechs. Sci Rep 2021; 11:550. [PMID: 33436663 PMCID: PMC7804147 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-79623-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been demonstrated that sociocultural environment has a significant impact on human behavior. This contribution focuses on differences in the perception of attractiveness of European (Czech) faces as rated by Czechs of European origin, Vietnamese persons living in the Czech Republic and Vietnamese who permanently reside in Vietnam. We investigated whether attractiveness judgments and preferences for facial sex-typicality and averageness in Vietnamese who grew up and live in the Czech Republic are closer to the judgements and preferences of Czech Europeans or to those of Vietnamese born and residing in Vietnam. We examined the relative contribution of sexual shape dimorphism and averageness to the perception of facial attractiveness across all three groups of raters. Czech Europeans, Czech Vietnamese, and Asian Vietnamese raters of both sexes rated facial portraits of 100 Czech European participants (50 women and 50 men, standardized, non-manipulated) for attractiveness. Taking Czech European ratings as a standard for Czech facial attractiveness, we showed that Czech Vietnamese assessments of attractiveness were closer to this standard than assessments by the Asian Vietnamese. Among all groups of raters, facial averageness positively correlated with perceived attractiveness, which is consistent with the "average is attractive" hypothesis. A marginal impact of sexual shape dimorphism on attractiveness rating was found only in Czech European male raters: neither Czech Vietnamese nor Asian Vietnamese raters of either sex utilized traits associated with sexual shape dimorphism as a cue of attractiveness. We thus conclude that Vietnamese people permanently living in the Czech Republic converge with Czechs of Czech origin in perceptions of facial attractiveness and that this population adopted some but not all Czech standards of beauty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ondřej Pavlovič
- Department of Philosophy and History of Science, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Vinicna 7, Prague, 128 44, Czech Republic
| | - Vojtěch Fiala
- Department of Philosophy and History of Science, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Vinicna 7, Prague, 128 44, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Kleisner
- Department of Philosophy and History of Science, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Vinicna 7, Prague, 128 44, Czech Republic.
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6
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Not All Progestins are Created Equally: Considering Unique Progestins Individually in Psychobehavioral Research. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-020-00137-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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7
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Pazhoohi F, Macedo AF, Doyle JF, Arantes J. Waist-to-Hip Ratio as Supernormal Stimuli: Effect of Contrapposto Pose and Viewing Angle. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2020; 49:837-847. [PMID: 31214904 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-019-01486-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In women, the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) is an indicator of attractiveness, health, youthfulness, and reproductive potential. In the current study, we hypothesized that viewing angle and body postures influence the attractiveness of these forms based on the view dependency of WHR stimuli (vdWHR). Using eye tracking, we quantified the number of fixations and dwell time on 3D images of a female avatar in two different poses (standing and contrapposto) from eight viewing angles incrementing in 45 degrees of rotation. A total of 68 heterosexual individuals (25 men and 43 women) participated in the study. Results showed that the contrapposto pose was perceived as more attractive than the standing pose and that lower vdWHR sides of the stimuli attracted more first fixation, total fixations, and dwell time. Overall, the results supported that WHR is view-dependent and vdWHRs lower than optimal WHRs are supernormal stimuli that may generate peak shifts in responding. Results are discussed in terms of the attractiveness of women's movements (gaits and dance) and augmented artistic presentations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farid Pazhoohi
- Department of Basic Psychology, School of Psychology, University of Minho, 4710 - 057, Braga, Portugal.
| | - Antonio F Macedo
- Vision Rehabilitation Laboratory, Department and Centre of Physics, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- Department of Medicine and Optometry, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden
| | | | - Joana Arantes
- Department of Basic Psychology, School of Psychology, University of Minho, 4710 - 057, Braga, Portugal
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8
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Kościński K, Makarewicz R, Bartoszewicz Z. Stereotypical and Actual Associations of Breast Size with Mating-Relevant Traits. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2020; 49:821-836. [PMID: 31562583 PMCID: PMC7058577 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-019-1464-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Breast size varies substantially among women and influences perception of the woman by other people with regard to her attractiveness and other characteristics that are important in social contexts, including mating. The theory of sexual selection predicts that physical criteria of partner selection should be markers of the candidate's desirable properties, mainly biological quality. Few studies, however, have examined whether breast size really signals biological quality or its components and whether observers accurately interpret these signals. Our first study encompassed 163 young women and aimed to establish actual correlates of breast size. The aim of the second study was to determine preferences and stereotypes related to breast size: 252-265 women and men evaluated female digital figures varying in, among other characteristics, breast size. Breast size (breast circumference minus chest circumference) was negatively associated with body asymmetry and positively associated with infections of the respiratory system, but did not correlate with infections of the digestive system, openness to casual sex, and testosterone and estradiol level. Women and men perceived breasts in a similar way to each other: the bigger the breasts the higher the reproductive efficiency, lactational efficiency, sexual desire, and promiscuity attributed to the woman. Nevertheless, large breasts were not regarded more attractive than average ones, though small breasts were the least attractive. In addition, big-breasted women were perceived as less faithful and less intelligent than women with average or small breasts. We discuss our results from the perspectives of evolutionary psychology, perceptual biases, and social stereotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Kościński
- Department of Human Evolutionary Ecology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 89, 61-614, Poznan, Poland.
| | - Rafał Makarewicz
- Department of Human Evolutionary Ecology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 89, 61-614, Poznan, Poland
| | - Zbigniew Bartoszewicz
- Department of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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9
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Pazhoohi F, Garza R, Kingstone A. Effects of Breast Size, Intermammary Cleft Distance (Cleavage) and Ptosis on Perceived Attractiveness, Health, Fertility and Age: Do Life History, Self-Perceived Mate Value and Sexism Attitude Play a Role? ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-020-00129-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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10
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Ertuğrul B, Özener B, Pawłowski B. Prenatal exposure to oestrogens estimated by digit ratio (2d/4d) and breast size in young nulliparous women. Ann Hum Biol 2019; 47:81-84. [PMID: 31830808 DOI: 10.1080/03014460.2019.1699955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Digit ratio (2d/4d) in humans is commonly used as a proxy for the exposure to oestrogens and androgens in prenatal life. Masculinisation/feminisation in adults may be also related to digit ratio and therefore to the oestrogen/androgen ratio in prenatal life. It has been shown, for instance, that Waist-to-Hip ratio (WHR) and the amount and distribution of body fat are related to digit ratio in women. A species-specific, sexually dimorphic morphological trait in humans is also a pair of permanent breasts that develop during puberty, under the influence of oestrogens. Here we test if prenatal exposure to oestrogens (in relation to androgens), measured by digit ratio, may also be related to breast size in young, nulliparous women. 133 Turkish students (mean age 22.2) were measured. Breast size was calculated as the difference between breast and under-breast circumferences. We found that when controlling for body mass index (BMI), both right and left digit ratios correlate positively with breast size. This relationship is stronger for the digit ratio of the right hand, which confirms that this side is a better measure of sex differences. Thus, higher exposure to oestrogens in prenatal life is related with stronger expression of a sexually dimorphic trait, such as breast size, in adult women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berna Ertuğrul
- Department of Anthropology, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Turkey
| | - Barış Özener
- Department of Anthropology, İstanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey
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11
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Catena TM, Simmons ZL, Roney JR. Do women's faces become more attractive near ovulation? Horm Behav 2019; 115:104560. [PMID: 31310761 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
There have been mixed findings regarding whether raters judge women's natural faces more attractive when the women were photographed near ovulation relative to when photographed in other cycle regions. Bobst and Lobmaier (2012) isolated shape cues associated with ovulatory timing via computer morphing techniques and found that men judged face shapes characteristic of the fertile window as more attractive than those characteristic of the luteal phase. Here, we tested replication of their findings but also added stimuli from the early follicular phase. We constructed three composite faces constructed from photos of the same 23 women who had each been photographed in the early follicular phase, during the fertile window, and during the luteal phase. We next warped 20 other identity faces to the shapes of the composite faces representing each cycle phase, and asked male participants to rank order the resulting face triplets for attractiveness. Men ranked fertile window and luteal phase stimuli as more attractive than early follicular stimuli, but ranked fertile window and luteal phase faces as equally attractive. This result failed to replicate preferences for fertile window over luteal phase stimuli, and thereby argues against perceivers' ability to detect face shape cues of immediate fecundity. Because estradiol was lower in the early follicular phase relative to the other two cycle phases, our findings are consistent with the possibility that within-women increases in estradiol produce subtle increases in face shape attractiveness. Discussion addresses the overall evidence for facial cues of women's ovulatory timing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tikal M Catena
- University of California, Santa Barbara, United States of America
| | - Zachary L Simmons
- University of California, Santa Barbara, United States of America; University of Portland, United States of America
| | - James R Roney
- University of California, Santa Barbara, United States of America.
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12
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Sex Differences for Preferences of Shoulder to Hip Ratio in Men and Women: an Eye Tracking Study. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s40806-019-00198-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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13
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No compelling evidence that more physically attractive young adult women have higher estradiol or progesterone. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2018; 98:1-5. [PMID: 30077864 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Revised: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Putative associations between sex hormones and attractive physical characteristics in women are central to many theories of human physical attractiveness and mate choice. Although such theories have become very influential, evidence that physically attractive and unattractive women have different hormonal profiles is equivocal. Consequently, we investigated hypothesized relationships between salivary estradiol and progesterone and two aspects of women's physical attractiveness that are commonly assumed to be correlated with levels of these hormones: facial attractiveness (N = 249) and waist-to-hip ratio (N = 247). Our analyses revealed no compelling evidence that women with more attractive faces or lower (i.e., more attractive) waist-to-hip ratios had higher levels of estradiol or progesterone. One analysis did suggest that women with more attractive waist-to-hip ratios had significantly higher progesterone, but the relationship was weak and the relationship not significant in other analyses. These results do not support the influential hypothesis that between-women differences in physical attractiveness are related to estradiol and/or progesterone.
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Lassek WD, Gaulin SJC. Do the Low WHRs and BMIs Judged Most Attractive Indicate Higher Fertility? EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 2018; 16:1474704918800063. [PMID: 30296846 PMCID: PMC10480809 DOI: 10.1177/1474704918800063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
We examine the widely accepted view that very low waist-hip ratios and low body mass indices (BMIs) in women in well-nourished populations are judged attractive by men because these features reliably indicate superior fertility. In both subsistence and well-nourished populations, relevant studies of fertility do not support this view. Rather studies indicate lower fertility in women with anthropometric values associated with high attractiveness. Moreover, low maternal BMI predisposes to conditions that compromise infant survival. Consistent with these findings from the literature, new data from a large U.S. sample of women past reproductive age show that women with lower BMIs in the late teens had fewer live births, controlling for education, marital history, and race. They also had later menarche and earlier menopause compared with women with higher youth BMIs. In addition, data from the 2013 U.S. natality database show that mothers with lower prepregnancy BMIs have an increased risk of producing both low-birth-weight and preterm infants controlling for other relevant variables-conditions that would have adversely affected fitness over almost all of human evolution. Thus, a review of the relevant literature and three new tests fail to support the view that highly attractive women are more fertile.
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Affiliation(s)
- William D. Lassek
- Department of Anthropology, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Steven J. C. Gaulin
- Department of Anthropology, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
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15
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Lassek WD, Gaulin SJC. Do the Low WHRs and BMIs Judged Most Attractive Indicate Better Health? EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 2018; 16:1474704918803998. [PMID: 30296849 PMCID: PMC10367492 DOI: 10.1177/1474704918803998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
It is widely claimed that in well-nourished populations, very low female waist-hip ratios (WHRs) together with low body mass indices (BMIs) are judged attractive by men because these features reliably indicate superior health and fertility. However, studies show that mortality rates are higher in women with low BMIs than in women with average BMIs and are inversely related to BMI in subsistence populations. Measures of current health in women of reproductive age have not been similarly studied. We analyze large U.S. samples of reproductive-age women and show that controlling for other factors known to affect health, those with low BMIs (<20), WHRs, or waist/stature ratios did not have better health than those with values in the middle range, and there was no relationship between subsequent health outcomes and BMI in early adulthood. Lower self-reported BMIs were linked to poorer health and an increased risk of infection. However, based on recent U.S. natality data, primiparas with lower BMIs had a lower risk of an operative delivery and of gestational hypertension. Beyond these two parity-restricted effects, relevant studies and new tests fail to support the view that women with the very low BMIs and WHRs consistently judged attractive are generally healthier than women with average values; significant correlations were consistently in the opposite direction.
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Affiliation(s)
- William D. Lassek
- Department of Anthropology, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Steven J. C. Gaulin
- Department of Anthropology, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
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16
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Lobmaier JS, Fischbacher U, Wirthmüller U, Knoch D. The scent of attractiveness: levels of reproductive hormones explain individual differences in women's body odour. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 285:rspb.2018.1520. [PMID: 30209229 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.1520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Individuals are thought to have their own distinctive body odour which reportedly plays an important role in mate choice. In the present study we investigated individual differences in body odours of women and examined whether some women generally smell more attractive than others or whether odour preferences are a matter of individual taste. We then explored whether levels of reproductive hormones explain women's body odour attractiveness, to test the idea that body odour attractiveness may act as a chemosensory marker of reproductive fitness. Fifty-seven men rated body odours of 28 healthy, naturally cycling women of reproductive age. We collected all odours at peak fertility to control for menstrual cycle effects on body odour attractiveness. Women's salivary oestradiol, progesterone, testosterone and cortisol levels were assessed at the time of odour collection to test whether hormone levels explain body odour attractiveness. We found that the men highly agreed on how attractive they found women's body odours. Interestingly, women's body odour attractiveness was predicted by their oestradiol and progesterone levels: the higher a woman's levels of oestradiol and the lower her levels of progesterone, the more attractive her body odour was rated. In showing that women's body odour attractiveness is explained by levels of female reproductive hormones, but not by levels of cortisol or testosterone, we provide evidence that body odour acts as a valid cue to potential fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janek S Lobmaier
- Department of Social Psychology and Social Neuroscience, Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Urs Fischbacher
- Department of Economics, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany.,Thurgau Institute of Economics, Kreuzlingen, Switzerland
| | - Urs Wirthmüller
- Universitätsinstitut für Klinische Chemie, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Daria Knoch
- Department of Social Psychology and Social Neuroscience, Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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17
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Dinh T, Pinsof D, Gangestad SW, Haselton MG. Cycling on the fast track: Ovulatory shifts in sexual motivation as a proximate mechanism for regulating life history strategies. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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18
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19
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Motta-Mena NV, Puts DA. Endocrinology of human female sexuality, mating, and reproductive behavior. Horm Behav 2017; 91:19-35. [PMID: 27866819 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Revised: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/12/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Hormones orchestrate and coordinate human female sexual development, sexuality, and reproduction in relation to three types of phenotypic changes: life history transitions such as puberty and childbirth, responses to contextual factors such as caloric intake and stress, and cyclical patterns such as the ovulatory cycle. Here, we review the endocrinology underlying women's reproductive phenotypes, including sexual orientation and gender identity, mate preferences, competition for mates, sex drive, and maternal behavior. We highlight distinctive aspects of women's sexuality such as the possession of sexual ornaments, relatively cryptic fertile windows, extended sexual behavior across the ovulatory cycle, and a period of midlife reproductive senescence-and we focus on how hormonal mechanisms were shaped by selection to produce adaptive outcomes. We conclude with suggestions for future research to elucidate how hormonal mechanisms subserve women's reproductive phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie V Motta-Mena
- Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, United States
| | - David A Puts
- Department of Anthropology, Center for Brain, Behavior, and Cognition, Center for Human Evolution and Diversity, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802¸ United States.
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20
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Roney JR, Simmons ZL. Ovarian hormone fluctuations predict within-cycle shifts in women's food intake. Horm Behav 2017; 90:8-14. [PMID: 28202355 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2017.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Revised: 01/05/2017] [Accepted: 01/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
What role do ovarian hormones play in modulating day-to-day shifts in women's motivational priorities? In many nonhuman mammals, estradiol causes drops in feeding and foraging, progesterone reverses this effect, and the two hormones in combination produce cycle phase shifts characterized by lower food intake near ovulation when sexual receptivity is at its peak. Hormonal predictors of within-cycle shifts in women's total food intake have not been previously tested. Here, in a study with both daily hormone measures and self-reported food intake, we found that within-cycle fluctuations in estradiol negatively predicted shifts in food intake, progesterone fluctuations positively predicted them, and the two hormones together statistically mediated a significant peri-ovulatory drop in eating. These patterns are precisely opposite to those previously reported for sexual desire from this same sample (i.e. positive and negative effects of estradiol and progesterone, respectively, on desire). To more precisely test endocrine regulation of tradeoffs between sexual and eating motivation, a difference score for the daily standardized values of the sexual desire and food intake variables was created. Fluctuations in estradiol and progesterone were oppositely associated with shifts in this difference score, supporting hormone modulation of tradeoffs between alternative motivational priorities. These tradeoffs were especially pronounced during the fertile window of the menstrual cycle on days when conception was possible, consistent with the hormone effects functioning to shift motivational salience between feeding and mating depending on within-cycle changes in fecundity. The findings provide direct evidence that phylogenetically conserved endocrine signals regulate daily shifts in human motivational priorities.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Roney
- University of California, Santa Barbara, United States.
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21
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Blake KR, Dixson BJW, O'Dean SM, Denson TF. No compelling positive association between ovarian hormones and wearing red clothing when using multinomial analyses. Horm Behav 2017; 90:129-135. [PMID: 28315307 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2017.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Revised: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Several studies report that wearing red clothing enhances women's attractiveness and signals sexual proceptivity to men. The associated hypothesis that women will choose to wear red clothing when fertility is highest, however, has received mixed support from empirical studies. One possible cause of these mixed findings may be methodological. The current study aimed to replicate recent findings suggesting a positive association between hormonal profiles associated with high fertility (high estradiol to progesterone ratios) and the likelihood of wearing red. We compared the effect of the estradiol to progesterone ratio on the probability of wearing: red versus non-red (binary logistic regression); red versus neutral, black, blue, green, orange, multi-color, and gray (multinomial logistic regression); and each of these same colors in separate binary models (e.g., green versus non-green). Red versus non-red analyses showed a positive trend between a high estradiol to progesterone ratio and wearing red, but the effect only arose for younger women and was not robust across samples. We found no compelling evidence for ovarian hormones increasing the probability of wearing red in the other analyses. However, we did find that the probability of wearing neutral was positively associated with the estradiol to progesterone ratio, though the effect did not reach conventional levels of statistical significance. Findings suggest that although ovarian hormones may affect younger women's preference for red clothing under some conditions, the effect is not robust when differentiating amongst other colors of clothing. In addition, the effect of ovarian hormones on clothing color preference may not be specific to the color red.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khandis R Blake
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Australia.
| | | | | | - Thomas F Denson
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Australia
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22
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Varella Valentova J, Bártová K, Štěrbová Z, Corrêa Varella MA. Influence of sexual orientation, population, homogamy, and imprinting-like effect on preferences and choices for female buttock size, breast size and shape, and WHR. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Roney JR, Simmons ZL. Within-cycle fluctuations in progesterone negatively predict changes in both in-pair and extra-pair desire among partnered women. Horm Behav 2016; 81:45-52. [PMID: 27049465 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2016] [Revised: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 03/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Grebe et al. (2016) argued that women's sexual interest in their own partners may be under different hormonal regulation than their sexual desire for other men. They measured partnered women's salivary hormones and reports of attraction to different categories of men at two time points separated by one week. Change in progesterone positively predicted change in women's desire for their own partners, whereas change in estradiol was a negative predictor. These results are opposite to those we previously reported for the hormonal prediction of general sexual desire in a study that employed frequent hormone sampling across multiple menstrual cycles (Roney and Simmons, 2013). Here, to test replication of the Grebe et al. findings, we assessed hormonal predictors of targeted in-pair and extra-pair desire among the subset of the sample from our 2013 paper who reported being in romantic relationships. Contrary to Grebe et al. (2016), we found that within-cycle fluctuations in progesterone were negatively correlated with changes in women's desire for both their own partners and other men. In addition, both in-pair and extra-pair desire were elevated within the fertile window and lowest during the luteal phase. Our findings contradict the idea that partner-specific desire has a unique form of hormonal regulation, and instead support a general elevation of sexual motivation associated with hormonal indices of fecundity. Discussion focuses on possible reasons for the discrepancies in findings between our study and that of Grebe et al. (2016), and on the evolved functions of women's sexual motivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Roney
- University of California, Santa Barbara, United States.
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24
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Gangestad SW, Haselton MG, Welling LL, Gildersleeve K, Pillsworth EG, Burriss RP, Larson CM, Puts DA. How valid are assessments of conception probability in ovulatory cycle research? Evaluations, recommendations, and theoretical implications. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2015.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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25
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Havliček J, Cobey KD, Barrett L, Klapilová K, Roberts SC. Greater precision, not parsimony, is the key to testing the peri-ovulation spandrel hypothesis: a response to comments on Havliček et al. 2015. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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26
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Roney JR, Lukaszewski AW, Simmons ZL, Eisenbruch AB, Grillot RL. A between-women account of cycle-phase shifts is probably wrong: comment on Havliček et al. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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27
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Eisenbruch AB, Simmons ZL, Roney JR. Lady in Red. Psychol Sci 2015; 26:1332-8. [DOI: 10.1177/0956797615586403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2015] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent evidence supports the idea that women use red clothing as a courtship tactic, and results from one study further suggested that women were more likely to wear red on days of high fertility in their menstrual cycles. Subsequent studies provided mixed support for the cycle-phase effect, although all such studies relied on counting methods of cycle-phase estimation and used between-subjects designs. By comparison, in the study reported here, we employed frequent hormone sampling to more accurately assess ovulatory timing and used a within-subjects design. We found that women were more likely to wear red during the fertile window than on other cycle days. Furthermore, within-subjects fluctuations in the ratio of estradiol to progesterone statistically mediated the within-subjects shifts in red-clothing choices. Our results appear to represent the first direct demonstration of specific hormone measurements predicting observable changes in women’s courtship-related behaviors. We also demonstrate the advantages of hormonal determination of ovulatory timing for tests of cycle-phase shifts in psychology or behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adar B. Eisenbruch
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara
| | | | - James R. Roney
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara
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Jones BC, Hahn AC, Fisher CI, Wincenciak J, Kandrik M, Roberts SC, Little AC, DeBruine LM. Facial coloration tracks changes in women's estradiol. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2015; 56:29-34. [PMID: 25796069 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2015] [Revised: 02/20/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Red facial coloration is an important social cue in many primate species, including humans. In such species, the vasodilatory effects of estradiol may cause red facial coloration to change systematically during females' ovarian cycle. Although increased red facial coloration during estrus has been observed in female mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx) and rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), evidence linking primate facial color changes directly to changes in measured estradiol is lacking. Addressing this issue, we used a longitudinal design to demonstrate that red facial coloration tracks within-subject changes in women's estradiol, but not within-subject changes in women's progesterone or estradiol-to-progesterone ratio. Moreover, the relationship between estradiol and facial redness was observed in two independent samples of women (N = 50 and N = 65). Our results suggest that changes in facial coloration may provide cues of women's fertility and present the first evidence for a direct link between estradiol and female facial redness in a primate species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedict C Jones
- Institute of Neuroscience & Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QB, UK.
| | - Amanda C Hahn
- Institute of Neuroscience & Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QB, UK
| | - Claire I Fisher
- Institute of Neuroscience & Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QB, UK
| | - Joanna Wincenciak
- Institute of Neuroscience & Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QB, UK
| | - Michal Kandrik
- Institute of Neuroscience & Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QB, UK
| | - S Craig Roberts
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Anthony C Little
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Lisa M DeBruine
- Institute of Neuroscience & Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QB, UK
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Havliček J, Cobey KD, Barrett L, Klapilová K, Roberts SC. The spandrels of Santa Barbara? A new perspective on the peri-ovulation paradigm. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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30
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Cloud JM, Perilloux C. “Drawing” Conclusions About Perceptions of Ideal Male and Female Body Shapes. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s40806-015-0020-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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31
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Probst F, Bobst C, Lobmaier JS. Testosterone-to-oestradiol ratio is associated with female facial attractiveness. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2015; 69:89-99. [PMID: 25730636 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2015.1024696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The relationship between facial shape and attractiveness has been extensively studied, yet few studies have investigated the underlying biological factors of an attractive face. Many researchers have proposed a link between female attractiveness and sex hormones, but there is little empirical evidence in support of this assumption. In the present study we investigated the relationship between circulating sex hormones and attractiveness. We created prototypes by separately averaging photographs of 15 women with high and low levels of testosterone, oestradiol, and testosterone-to-oestradiol ratio levels, respectively. An independent set of facial images was then shape transformed toward these prototypes. We paired the resulting images in such a way that one face depicted a female with high hormone level and the other one with a low hormone level. Fifty participants were asked to choose the more attractive face of each pair. We found that low testosterone-to-oestradiol ratio and low testosterone were positively associated with female facial attractiveness. There was no preference for faces with high oestradiol levels. In an additional experiment with 36 participants we confirmed that a low testosterone-to-oestradiol ratio plays a larger role than low testosterone alone. These results provide empirical evidence that an attractive female face is shaped by interacting effects of testosterone and oestradiol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Probst
- a Institute of Psychology , University of Bern , Bern , Switzerland.,b Center for Cognition, Learning, and Memory , University of Bern , Bern , Switzerland
| | - Cora Bobst
- a Institute of Psychology , University of Bern , Bern , Switzerland.,b Center for Cognition, Learning, and Memory , University of Bern , Bern , Switzerland
| | - Janek S Lobmaier
- a Institute of Psychology , University of Bern , Bern , Switzerland.,b Center for Cognition, Learning, and Memory , University of Bern , Bern , Switzerland
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32
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Bernard LC, Hardy DJ. Motivated behavioral outcomes affect ratings of attractiveness. Psychol Rep 2014; 115:849-71. [PMID: 25457092 DOI: 10.2466/21.02.pr0.115c30z0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
A relatively new theory of motivation posits that purposeful human behavior may be partly explained by multidimensional individual differences "traits of action" (motives). Its 15 motives can be characterized according to their purpose: individual integrity, competitiveness, and cooperativeness. Existing evidence supports the model on which the motives are based and the reliability and validity of strategies to assess them. This experiment tested whether the hypothetical results of consistent, motivated cooperative and competitive behavior could affect ratings of attractiveness. Male and female participants (N = 98; M age = 18.8, SD = 1.4) were shown 24 opposite-sex facial photos ranging in attractiveness. The photos were paired with one of three conditions representing theoretical outcomes that would result from low, control, and high levels of cooperative and competitive motives. As predicted, outcome descriptions representing high motive strength of six motives statistically significantly affected ratings of attractiveness. This result was independent of sex of participant and consistent with the theory.
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