Ozonolysis efficiency and safety evaluation of aflatoxin B1 in peanuts

Instant catapult steam explosion combined with ammonia water: A complex technology for detoxification of aflatoxin-contaminated peanut cake with the aim of producing a toxicity-free and nutrients retention of animal feed

Aflatoxin is one of the most toxic biotoxins found in contaminated agricultural products. It has strong mutagenicity, carcinogenesis and teratogenicity to humans and animals. In this study, instant catapult steam explosion combined with ammonia water was examined for its potential to degrade aflatoxin B1 in peanut cake in order to improve its utilization as a toxic-free animal feed. Incubation of AFB1-containing peanut cake followed by processing with Instant Catapult Steam Explosion (ICSE) led to approximately 79.03 % degradation of AFB1, while the degradation of AFB1 was up to 91.48 % under the treatment of ICSE combined with 4 % NH₃·H₂O at 1.2 MPa in 200 s of process time. After treatment, nutrients in peanut cake were not significantly changed. The toxicity of AFB1 degradation products was evaluated and the results showed that the toxicity of these products were found to be substantially less than that possessed by AFB1. A low chemical pollution, efficient and toxic-free technology system of AFB1 degradation was established, which detoxify aflatoxin-contaminated biomass for sustainable and safe utilization of agricultural biomass as animal feed.

Relevant mycotoxins in oil crops, vegetable oils, de-oiled cake and meals: Occurrence, control, and recent advances in elimination

Mycotoxins in agricultural commodities have always been a concern due to their negative impacts on human and livestock health. Issues associated with quality control, hot and humid climate, improper storage, and inappropriate production can support the development of fungus, causing oil crops to suffer from mycotoxin contamination, which in turn migrates to the resulting oil, de-oiled cake and meals during the oil processing. Related research which supports the development of multi-mycotoxin prevention programs has resulted in satisfactory mitigation effects, mainly in the pre-harvest stage. Nevertheless, preventive actions are unlikely to avoid the occurrence of mycotoxins completely, so removal strategies may still be necessary to protect consumers. Elimination of mycotoxin has been achieved broadly through the physical, biological, or chemical course. In view of the steadily increasing volume of scientific literature regarding mycotoxins, there is a need for ongoing integrated knowledge systems. This work revisited the knowledge of mycotoxins affecting oilseeds, food oils, cake, and meals, focusing more on their varieties, toxicity, and preventive strategies, including the methods adopted in the decontamination, which supplement the available information.

Peppermint essential oil and its nano-emulsion: Potential against aflatoxigenic fungus Aspergillus flavus in food and feed

A facultative parasite called Aspergillus flavus contaminates several important food crops before and after harvest. In addition, the pathogen that causes aspergillosis infections in humans and animals is opportunistic. Aflatoxin, a secondary metabolite produced by Aspergillus flavus, is also carcinogenic and mutagenic, endangering human and animal health and affecting global food security. Peppermint essential oils and plant-derived natural products have recently shown promise in combating A. flavus infestations and aflatoxin contamination. This review discusses the antifungal and anti-aflatoxigenic properties of peppermint essential oils. It then discusses how peppermint essential oils affect the growth of A. flavus and the biosynthesis of aflatoxins. Several cause physical, chemical, or biochemical changes to the cell wall, cell membrane, mitochondria, and associated metabolic enzymes and genes. Finally, the prospects for using peppermint essential oils and natural plant-derived chemicals to develop novel antifungal agents and protect foods are highlighted. In addition to reducing the risk of aspergillosis infection, this review highlights the significant potential of plant-derived natural products and peppermint essential oils to protect food and feed from aflatoxin contamination and A. flavus infestation.

Current physical techniques for the degradation of aflatoxins in food and feed: Safety evaluation methods, degradation mechanisms and products

Aflatoxins are the most toxic natural mycotoxins discovered so far, posing a serious menace to the food safety and trading economy of the world, especially developing countries. How to effectively detoxify has persistently occupied a place on the list of "global hot-point" concerns. Among the developed detoxification methods, physical methods, as the authoritative techniques for aflatoxins degradation, could rapidly induce irreversible denaturation of aflatoxins. This review presents a brief overview of aflatoxins detection and degradation product structure identification methods. Four main safety evaluation methods for aflatoxins and degradation product toxicity assessment are highlighted combined with an update on research of aflatoxins decontamination in the last decade. Furthermore, the latest applications, degradation mechanisms and products of physical aflatoxin decontamination techniques including microwave heating, irradiation, pulsed light, cold plasma and ultrasound are discussed in detail. Regulatory issues related to "detoxification" are also explained. Finally, we put forward the challenges and future work in studying aflatoxin degradation based on the existing research. The purpose of supplying this information is to help researchers have a deeper understanding on the degradation of aflatoxins, break through the existing bottleneck, and further improve and innovate the detoxification methods of aflatoxins.

Toxic Effect of Aflatoxins in Dogs Fed Contaminated Commercial Dry Feed: A Review

Since its first patent (1897), commercial dry feed (CDF) for dogs has diversified its formulation to meet the nutritional needs of different breeds, age, or special conditions and establish a foundation for integration of these pets into urban lifestyles. The risk of aflatoxicosis in dogs has increased because the ingredients used to formulate CDF have also proliferated, making it difficult to ensure the quality required of each to achieve the safety of the entire CDF. This review contains a description of the fungi and aflatoxins detected in CDF and the ingredients commonly used for their formulation. The mechanisms of action and pathogenic effects of aflatoxins are outlined; as well as the clinical findings, and macroscopic and microscopic lesions found in aflatoxicosis in dogs. In addition, alternatives for diagnosis, treatment, and control of aflatoxins (AF) in CDF are analyzed, such as biomarkers of effect, improvement of blood coagulation, rate of elimination of AF, control of secondary infection, protection of gastric mucosa, reduction of oxidative stress, use of chemo-protectors, sequestrants, grain-free CDF, biocontrol, and maximum permitted limits, are also included.

Application of new technologies in decontamination of mycotoxins in cereal grains: Challenges, and perspectives

Emerging decontamination technologies have been attracted considerable attention to address the consumers' demand for high quality and safe food products. As one of the important foods in the human diet, cereals are usually stored for long periods, resulting in an increased risk of contamination by different hazards. Mycotoxins comprise one of the significant contaminants of cereals that lead to enormous economic losses to the industry and threats to human health. While prevention is the primary approach towards reducing human exposure to mycotoxins, decontamination methods have also been developed as complementary measures. However, some conventional methods (chemical treatments) do not fulfill industries' expectations due to limitations like safety, efficiency, and the destruction of food quality attributes. In this regard, novel techniques have been proposed to food to comply with the industry's demand and overcome conventional methods' limitations. Novel techniques have different efficiencies for removing or reducing mycotoxins depending on processing conditions, type of mycotoxin, and the food matrix. Therefore, this review provides an overview of novel mycotoxin decontamination technologies such as cold plasma, irradiation, and pulse light, which can be efficient for reducing mycotoxins with minimum adverse effects on the quality and nutritional properties of produce.

Novel strategies for degradation of aflatoxins in food and feed: A review

Aflatoxins are toxic secondary metabolites mainly produced by Aspergillus fungi, posing high carcinogenic potency in humans and animals. Dietary exposure to aflatoxins is a global problem in both developed and developing countries especially where there is poor regulation of their levels in food and feed. Thus, academics have been striving over the decades to develop effective strategies for degrading aflatoxins in food and feed. These strategies are technologically diverse and based on physical, chemical, or biological principles. This review summarizes the recent progress on novel aflatoxin degradation strategies including irradiation, cold plasma, ozone, electrolyzed oxidizing water, organic acids, natural plant extracts, microorganisms and enzymes. A clear understanding of the detoxification efficiency, mechanism of action, degradation products, application potential and current limitations of these methods is presented. In addition, the development and future perspective of nanozymes in aflatoxins degradation are introduced.

Mycotoxins in Feed and Food and the Role of Ozone in Their Detoxification and Degradation: An Update

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by some filamentous fungi, which can cause toxicity in animal species, including humans. Because of their high toxicological impacts, mycotoxins have received significant consideration, leading to the definition of strict legislative thresholds and limits in many areas of the world. Mycotoxins can reduce farm profits not only through reduced crop quality and product refusal, but also through a reduction in animal productivity and health. This paper briefly addresses the impacts of mycotoxin contamination of feed and food on animal and human health, and describes the main pre- and post-harvest systems to control their levels, including genetic, agronomic, biological, chemical, and physical methods. It so highlights (i) the lack of effective and straightforward solutions to control mycotoxin contamination in the field, at pre-harvest, as well as later post-harvest; and (ii) the increasing demand for novel methods to control mycotoxin infections, intoxications, and diseases, without leaving toxic chemical residues in the food and feed chain. Thus, the broad objective of the present study was to review the literature on the use of ozone for mycotoxin decontamination, proposing this gaseous air pollutant as a powerful tool to detoxify mycotoxins from feed and food.

Application of ozone for degradation of mycotoxins in food: A review

Mycotoxins such as aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA) fumonisins (FMN), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), and patulin are stable at regular food process practices. Ozone (O₃ ) is a strong oxidizer and generally considered as a safe antimicrobial agent in food industries. Ozone disrupts fungal cells through oxidizing sulfhydryl and amino acid groups of enzymes or attacks the polyunsaturated fatty acids of the cell wall. Fusarium is the most sensitive mycotoxigenic fungi to ozonation followed by Aspergillus and Penicillium. Studies have shown complete inactivation of Fusarium and Aspergillus by O₃ gas. Spore germination and toxin production have also been reduced after ozone fumigation. Both naturally and artificially, mycotoxin-contaminated samples have shown significant mycotoxin reduction after ozonation. Although the mechanism of detoxification is not very clear for some mycotoxins, it is believed that ozone reacts with the functional groups in the mycotoxin molecules, changes their molecular structures, and forms products with lower molecular weight, less double bonds, and less toxicity. Although some minor physicochemical changes were observed in some ozone-treated foods, these changes may or may not affect the use of the ozonated product depending on the further application of it. The effectiveness of the ozonation process depends on the exposure time, ozone concentration, temperature, moisture content of the product, and relative humidity. Due to its strong oxidizing property and corrosiveness, there are strict limits for O₃ gas exposure. O₃ gas has limited penetration and decomposes quickly. However, ozone treatment can be used as a safe and green technology for food preservation and control of contaminants.

Detoxification of aflatoxin B1 in corn by chlorine dioxide gas

Chlorine dioxide (ClO₂) gas was utilized for detoxifying aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) in corn for the first time. Four degradation compounds were identified by LC-MS as C₁₇H₁₃O₈, C₁₇H₁₅O₁₀, C₁₆H₁₅O₁₀, and C₁₅H₁₁O₈. Structurally, the biological activity of ClO₂-treated AFB₁ was removed due to the disappearance of C8-C9 double bond in the furan ring and the modification of cyclopentanone and methoxy after ClO₂ treatment. The cell viability assay on human embryo hepatocytes confirmed little toxicity of the degradation products. The degradation efficiency of AFB₁ on corn peaked near 90.0% under the optimized conditions and reached 79.6% for low initial contamination of AFB₁ at 5-20 μg/kg. Accordingly, ClO₂ has the potential to be developed into an effective, efficient, and economic approach to detoxify AFB₁ in grains.

Control of aflatoxin M1 in milk by novel methods: A review

Aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) in milk and milk products has been recognised as an issue for over 30 years. Controlling AFM₁ in milk is important to protect human health and trade. Preventing contamination by avoiding fungal contamination of cattle feed is the best method of control, however this is hard to avoid in some countries. Treating milk containing AFM₁ is an alternative control measure, however, there is no single approved method. The challenge is to select a treatment method that is effective but does not affect the organoleptic quality of milk. This study reviews the strategies for degrading AFM₁ in milk including yeast, lactic acid bacteria, enzyme, peroxide, ozone, UV light and cold plasma. This review compares the efficacy, influencing factors, (possible) mechanisms of activity, advantages, limitations and potential future trends of these methods and provides some recommendations for the treatment of milk to reduce the risk of AFM₁ contamination.

Effects of ozone processing on patulin, phenolic compounds and organic acids in apple juice

In this study, ozone processing was used to degrade patulin in apple juice, and the ozonolysis efficiency of patulin and its effects on phenolic compounds and organic acids in apple juice were investigated. Ozone processing was performed using a self-developed ozonolysis reactor at the ozone concentration of 12 mg/L and flow rate of 3 L/min for increasing ozonation times ranged from 0 to 30 min. Ozone processing significantly degraded patulin in apple juice, and decreased it from 201.06 to below 50 μg/L within 15 min, with a reduction of 75.36%. While major phenolic compounds and organic acids in apple juice were seriously destroyed by ozone processing compared with the control. Processors should consider the adverse effects of ozone processing on quality of apple juices and further studies are advised to optimize the ozone processing for remaining the phenols and organic acids in apple juices.

Cold Plasma for Effective Fungal and Mycotoxin Control in Foods: Mechanisms, Inactivation Effects, and Applications

Cold plasma treatment is a promising intervention in food processing to boost product safety and extend the shelf-life. The activated chemical species of cold plasma can act rapidly against micro-organisms at ambient temperatures without leaving any known chemical residues. This review presents an overview of the action of cold plasma against molds and mycotoxins, the underlying mechanisms, and applications for ensuring food safety and quality. The cold plasma species act on multiple sites of a fungal cell resulting in loss of function and structure, and ultimately cell death. Likewise, the species cause chemical breakdown of mycotoxins through various pathways resulting in degradation products that are known to be less toxic. We argue that the preliminary reports from cold plasma research point at good potential of plasma for shelf-life extension and quality retention of foods. Some of the notable food sectors which could benefit from antimycotic and antimycotoxin efficacy of cold plasma include, the fresh produce, food grains, nuts, spices, herbs, dried meat and fish industries.

Impact of a Single Oral Acute Dose of Aflatoxin B₁ on Liver Function/Cytokines and the Lymphoproliferative Response in C57Bl/6 Mice

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), a mycotoxin found in food and feed, exerts harmful effects on humans and animals. The liver is the earliest target of AFB₁, and its effects have been evaluated in animal models exposed to acute or chronic doses. Considering the possibility of sporadic ingestion of AFB₁-contaminated food, this study investigated the impact of a single oral dose of AFB₁ on liver function/cytokines and the lymphoproliferative response in mice. C57BL/6 mice were treated with a single oral AFB₁ dose (44, 442 or 663 μg AFB₁/kg of body weight) on the first day. Liver function (ALT, γ-GT, and total protein), cytokines (IL-4, IFN-γ, and IL-17), histopathology, and the spleen lymphoproliferative response to mitogens were evaluated on the 5th day. Although AFB₁ did not produce any significant changes in the biochemical parameters, 663 μg AFB₁/kg-induced hepatic upregulation of IL-4 and IFN-γ, along with liver tissue injury and suppression of the lymphoproliferative response to ConA (p < 0.05). In conclusion, a single oral dose of AFB₁ exposure can induce liver tissue lesions, liver cytokine modulation, and immune suppression in C57BL/6 mice.

Innovative technologies to manage aflatoxins in foods and feeds and the profitability of application - A review

Aflatoxins are mainly produced by certain strains of Aspergillus flavus, which are found in diverse agricultural crops. In many lower-income countries, aflatoxins pose serious public health issues since the occurrence of these toxins can be considerably common and even extreme. Aflatoxins can negatively affect health of livestock and poultry due to contaminated feeds. Additionally, they significantly limit the development of international trade as a result of strict regulation in high-value markets. Due to their high stability, aflatoxins are not only a problem during cropping, but also during storage, transport, processing, and handling steps. Consequently, innovative evidence-based technologies are urgently required to minimize aflatoxin exposure. Thus far, biological control has been developed as the most innovative potential technology of controlling aflatoxin contamination in crops, which uses competitive exclusion of toxigenic strains by non-toxigenic ones. This technology is commercially applied in groundnuts maize, cottonseed, and pistachios during pre-harvest stages. Some other effective technologies such as irradiation, ozone fumigation, chemical and biological control agents, and improved packaging materials can also minimize post-harvest aflatoxins contamination in agricultural products. However, integrated adoption of these pre- and post-harvest technologies is still required for sustainable solutions to reduce aflatoxins contamination, which enhances food security, alleviates malnutrition, and strengthens economic sustainability.

Mycotoxin Decontamination of Food: Cold Atmospheric Pressure Plasma versus "Classic" Decontamination

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by several filamentous fungi, which frequently contaminate our food, and can result in human diseases affecting vital systems such as the nervous and immune systems. They can also trigger various forms of cancer. Intensive food production is contributing to incorrect handling, transport and storage of the food, resulting in increased levels of mycotoxin contamination. Mycotoxins are structurally very diverse molecules necessitating versatile food decontamination approaches, which are grouped into physical, chemical and biological techniques. In this review, a new and promising approach involving the use of cold atmospheric pressure plasma is considered, which may overcome multiple weaknesses associated with the classical methods. In addition to its mycotoxin destruction efficiency, cold atmospheric pressure plasma is cost effective, ecologically neutral and has a negligible effect on the quality of food products following treatment in comparison to classical methods.

Effects of Electron Beam Irradiation on Zearalenone and Ochratoxin A in Naturally Contaminated Corn and Corn Quality Parameters

Zearalenone (ZEN) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are secondary toxic metabolites widely present in grains and grain products. In this study, the effects of electron beam irradiation (EBI) on ZEN and OTA in corn and the quality of irradiated corn were investigated. Results indicated that EBI significantly affected ZEN and OTA. The degradation rates of ZEN and OTA at 10 kGy in solution were 65.6% and 75.2%, respectively. The initial amounts significantly affected the degradation rate. ZEN and OTA in corn were decreased by the irradiation dose, and their degradation rates at 50 kGy were 71.1% and 67.9%, respectively. ZEN and OTA were more easily degraded in corn kernel than in corn flour. Moisture content (MC) played a vital role in ZEN and OTA degradation. High MC was attributed to high ZEN and OTA degradation. The quality of irradiated corn was evaluated on the basis of irradiation dose. L* value changed, but this change was not significant (p > 0.05). By contrast, a* and b* decreased significantly (p < 0.05) with irradiation dose. The fatty acid value increased significantly. The pasting properties, including peak, trough, breakdown, and final and setback viscosities, were also reduced significantly (p < 0.05) by irradiation. Our study verified that EBI could effectively degrade ZEN and OTA in corn. Irradiation could also affect corn quality.

Efficacy of Ozonation Treatments of Smoked Fish for Reducing Its Benzo[a]pyrene Concentration and Toxicity

Ozone is widely used in food processing, for example, to decompose mycotoxins or pesticide residues, to extend the shelf life of products, and for sanitation. The objective of this study was to assess the possibility of expanding the application of ozone for oxidative degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The evaluation was conducted by ozonation of a benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) standard solution and smoked fish (sprats) contaminated with PAHs. The effect of ozonation was immediate in the BaP solution; 89% of this toxic compound was decomposed after only 1 min of treatment. However, the impact of ozonation on the smoked sprats was less pronounced, even after prolonged treatment. The final reduction in benzo[b]fluoranthene and BaP concentrations in smoked sprats contaminated with PAHs was 34 and 46%, respectively, after 60 min of ozonation, but no significant decrease of benzo[a]anthracene and chrysene concentrations was observed. To evaluate the safety of ozonation, the toxicity of the ozone-treated BaP standard solution was investigated. In vitro toxicity was evaluated using human hepatocellular carcinoma and mouse embryonic fibroblast cell lines as models. The cytotoxicity of the BaP standard solution significantly increased after ozonation, indicating a pronounced negative effect in terms of food safety.

Tools for Defusing a Major Global Food and Feed Safety Risk: Nonbiological Postharvest Procedures To Decontaminate Mycotoxins in Foods and Feeds

Mycotoxin contamination of foods and animal feeds is a worldwide problem for human and animal health. Controlling mycotoxin contamination has drawn the attention of scientists and other food and feed stakeholders all over the world. Despite best efforts targeting field and storage preventive measures, environmental conditions can still lead to mycotoxin contamination. This raises a need for developing decontamination methods to inactivate or remove the toxins from contaminated products. At present, decontamination methods applied include an array of both biological and nonbiological methods. The targeted use of nonbiological methods spans from the latter half of last century, when ammoniation and ozonation were first used to inactivate mycotoxins in animal feeds, to the novel techniques being developed today such as photosensitization. Effectiveness and drawbacks of different nonbiological methods have been reported in the literature, and this review examines the utility of these methods in addressing food safety. Particular consideration is given to the application of such methods in the developing world, where mycotoxin contamination is a serious food safety issue in staple crops such as maize and rice.

Detoxification and safety evaluation of aflatoxin B1 in peanut oil using alkali refining

BACKGROUND

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ) is often detected in peanut oil, which comes from contaminated peanuts. AFB1 in peanut oil seriously threatens the health of consumers. However, there are few methods to effectively remove AFB1 in peanut oil. This study aimed to use an alkali-refining method to degrade AFB1 in peanut oil efficiently without increasing the equipment of oil and fat refining.

RESULTS

The optimum detoxifying conditions of AFB1 in peanut oil with alkali refining were established using response surface methodology (RSM), and the safety of peanut oil after being refined with alkali was evaluated based on the Ames tests and HepG2 cell viability. The results showed that AFB1 in peanut oil was decreased from 34.78 to 0.37 µg kg(-1) (98.94% reduction) under the optimum detoxifying conditions, i.e. when the initial temperature of alkali refining was 43.51 °C, the amount of excess alkali was 0.30%, the content of alkali solution was 23.42% and the end temperature of alkali refining was 77.07 °C. The acid value and color of peanut oil refined by alkali were improved significantly, while the peroxide value was increased within an acceptable level. The safety of peanut oil contaminated by AFB1 was improved significantly after being refined with alkali.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that alkali refining is an effective method for removing AFB1 in peanut oil. The optimum detoxifying conditions of AFB1 in peanut oil with alkali refining could be used to guide the production of oil companies for ensuring food safety. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

Pharmacological and safety evaluation of fibrous root of Rhizoma Coptidis

The aim of this study was to investigated the pharmacological activities and safety of fibrous root of Rhizoma Coptidis (FRC). FRC not only protected Kunming mice from the minimal lethal dose of Escherichia coli, but also protected rabbits from hyperpyrexia induced by lipopolysaccharid (LPS). The acute toxicity study showed that oral medial lethal dose (LD50) of FRC was greater than 7000mg/kg body weight in Kunming mice. The sub-chronic toxicity study showed that the no-observed-adverse effect level (NOAEL) of FRC was 1.88g/kg body weight in Sprague-Dawley rats, whereas FRC at higher dose (3.76g/kg body weight) resulted in damage to liver and lung. Negative results were present in Ames test, mouse micronucleus test and mouse sperm abnormality test. These finding support the use of FRC in veterinary medicine.

Detoxification of aflatoxin in corn flour by ozone

BACKGROUND

Corn, which is one of most important agricultural products worldwide, is prone to pollution by aflatoxins (AFs) in many areas, thus seriously jeopardizing human health and threatening economic growth. This study evaluated the effects of ozone on the detoxification of AFs in corn flour (CF) and the moisture content (MC) thereof.

RESULTS

The detoxifying effects of ozone on CF became more obvious as the ozone concentration and exposure time increased. After CF was treated with 75 mg L(-1) ozone for 60 min, the contents of AFB1 , AFG1 and AFB2 decreased from 53.60, 12.08 and 2.42 µg kg(-1) to 11.38, 3.37 and 0.71 µg kg(-1) , respectively, which are lower than the maximum limits of AFB1 , AFG1 , AFB2 and total AFs (20 µg kg(-1) ) for CF regulated by the Chinese government. Ozonation significantly affected the MC of CF, and ozone at a higher concentration decreased the MC more drastically. After CF was exposed to 15, 30, 45 and 75 mg L(-1) ozone for 60 min, the MC of CF decreased from 17.4% to below 15%, fulfilling the long-period storage requirements for CF.

CONCLUSION

Ozone is potentially applicable in effectively degrading the AFs in CF and in greatly decreasing the MC of CF.

A recent review of non-biological remediation of aflatoxin-contaminated crops

Aflatoxins are highly toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic compounds produced predominantly as secondary metabolites by certain species of fungi belonging to the Aspergillus genus. Owing to the significant health risks and economic impacts associated with the presence of aflatoxins in agricultural commodities, a considerable amount of research has been directed at finding methods to prevent toxicity. This review compiles the recent literature of methods for the detoxification and management of aflatoxin in post-harvest agricultural crops using non-biological remediation.