Phytochemistry and biological properties of isoprenoid flavonoids from Sophora flavescens Ait

Unraveling the mechanisms of antitumor action of Sophora flavescens flavonoids via network pharmacology and molecular simulation

Cancer, particularly lung, liver, and other malignancies, remains a major global health challenge due to their high incidence, complex etiology, and resistance to conventional therapies. Flavonoids derived from Sophora flavescens (Kushen) have gained attention for their potential in cancer prevention and treatment. This study uses network pharmacology, based on Traditional Chinese Medicine's holistic approach, and molecular simulation techniques to explore the anticancer mechanisms of Sophora flavescens flavonoids, aiming to provide a theoretical basis for developing plant-based anticancer agents. Active compounds and their targets were identified through literature screening and target identification methods. A cancer-related protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed to identify key therapeutic targets, helping to understand how these flavonoids exert multitarget anticancer effects. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses elucidated mechanisms related to cancer cell proliferation inhibition, apoptosis induction, and signaling pathway regulation. Network pharmacology analysis identified TP53, ESR1, SRC, AKT1, and MAPK1 as key anticancer targets, involved in essential biological processes like phosphorylation and protein kinase activity. KEGG analysis showed that these flavonoids modulate critical pathways, particularly PI3K-Akt and RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK. Molecular docking revealed that rutin and luteolin-7-O-gentiobioside strongly bind to MAPK1, with interaction energies of 77.1466 kcal/mol and 79.2011 kcal/mol, respectively, indicating promising anticancer effects. Additionally, compounds with different substitution positions, such as those with glycosylation at the 7-OH position or isoprenyl groups at the C-8 positions, exhibited significantly higher interaction energies. Non-covalent interaction analysis further clarified how these flavonoids enhance anticancer effects through stable binding, with hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic contacts stabilizing interactions with MAPK1. Molecular dynamics simulations also confirmed the stability of these interactions, and binding free energy calculations revealed that luteolin-7-O-gentiobioside and rutin exhibited the lowest binding free energies (- 153.7841 kcal/mol and - 132.7434 kcal/mol, respectively), significantly outperforming the original ligand (- 57.7209 kcal/mol), further supporting the therapeutic potential of these compounds. To complement these findings, in silico ADMET (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion, and Toxicity) predictions were employed to evaluate the pharmacokinetic and safety profiles of rutin and luteolin-7-O-gentiobioside. The systematic analysis revealed critical issues in solubility, blood-brain barrier penetration, and hepatotoxicity, providing strategic guidance for structural optimization and formulation design. This study provides valuable insights into the multitarget anticancer mechanisms of Sophora flavescens flavonoids and supports their potential as plant-derived anticancer agents. However, further experimental and clinical studies, especially integrating TCM practice, are needed to validate these findings.

Graphical abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40203-025-00338-0.

Efficient and Selective Extraction of Prenylated Flavonoids from Sophora flavescens Using Ultrasound-Assisted Hydrophobic Ionic Liquid and Characterization of Extraction Mechanism

As a secondary metabolite with vigorous pharmacological activity (antitumor), prenylated flavonoids in Sophora flavescens (PFS) have great potential to be transformed into lead compounds. Its extraction has attracted more and more attention. Conventional organic solutions cannot selectively extract PFS and then need to carry out liquid-liquid extraction and multi-step column separation, which is time-consuming and pollutes the environment. This study found that [C8mim]BF4 had a high efficiency and selectivity for extracting PFS. Under the optimal extraction parameters, the yield of PFS was 7.38 mg/g. Based on UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap MS, 39 prenylated flavonoids were identified in PFS freeze-dried powder, which showed strong anti-tumor activity. In addition, the potential mechanism of selective extraction was analyzed in depth. [C8mim]BF4 synergy ultrasound destroys the cell wall structure, making the active components in the cell more easily exposed to the extraction solvent. The formation of more hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces between [C8mim]BF4 and PFS accelerates the dissolution of PFS.

Four new flavonoids from Sophora flavescens and their antibacterial activities

Three new flavanones sophoflavanone C (1), sophoflavanone D (2), sophoflavanone E (3), and one new flavanonol, sophoflavanone F (4), were isolated from the ethanol extract of the root bark of Sophora flavescens. The structures of these compounds were identified by UV spectroscopy, high-resolution electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (HRESIMS), nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), and comparison with previous reports. Additionally, the antibacterial activity of compounds 1-4 against eight bacterial strains, including four Gram-positive bacterial strains and four Gram-negative bacterial strains, was determined using the micro broth dilution method. Both isopentenyl flavones, sophoflavanone C (1) and sophoflavanone F (4) exhibited significant antibacterial activity against the Gram-positive bacterial strains.

Prenylated Dihydroflavonol from Sophora flavescens Regulate the Polarization and Phagocytosis of Macrophages In Vitro

As an important member of innate immunity, macrophages show remarkable plasticity and heterogeneity, and play an important role in immune regulation, tissue development, homeostasis of the internal environment and injury repair. However, the excessive activation of macrophages is closely related to the occurrence and development of many diseases. The prenylated flavonoid structure is one of the characteristic structures isolated from Sophora flavescens, with anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-allergy and other effects. In this study, the effects of (2R)-3β,7,4'-trihydroxy-5-methoxy-8-prenylflavanone (TMP), a prenylated dihydroflavonol, on the polarization and phagocytosis of macrophages were systematically studied. In LPS-induced M1-type macrophages, TMP dose-dependently inhibited the expression of COX-2, iNOS and the secretion of NO, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-18, showing an inhibitory effect on M1 polarization. Further experiments revealed that it was related to the inhibition of TLR4-related AKT/mTOR, MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways; in IL-4-induced M2-type macrophages, TMP down-regulated the expression of M2-related Arg1, IL-10, TGF-β, CD206 and CD163, as well as the phosphorylation levels of AKT1 and STAT6. For macrophages in a physiological state, it was very important for cells to return from a stress state to a phenotypic stability in the M0 state. These results indicated that TMP negatively regulated the M1/M2 polarization of macrophages, and made them tend to M0 homeostasis, which might provide new theoretical and data support for explaining the anti-inflammatory immunoregulatory activity of Sophora flavescens.

Sophoraflavanone G: A review of the phytochemistry and pharmacology

Bioactive compounds derived from natural sources have long been investigated for the prevention and treatment of human diseases. Sophoraflavanone G (SFG), a lavandulyl flavanone naturally occurring in several Sophora plant species, belongs to the group of prenylated flavonoids that have garnered significant interest in contemporary research. The natural molecule exhibits a wide range of pharmacological properties and shows remarkable efficacy. Its ability to effectively suppress a range of malignant tumor cells, such as leukemia, breast cancer, and lung cancer, is attributed to its multi-target, multi-pathway, and multi-faceted mechanisms of action. Simultaneously, it can also alleviate various inflammatory diseases by mediating inflammatory mediators and molecular pathways. Furthermore, it has the capability to combat antibiotic resistance, exhibit synergistic antibacterial properties with diverse antibiotics, and prevent and treat various agricultural pests. Theoretically, it can bring benefits to human health and has potential value as a drug. Nevertheless, the drawbacks of poor water solubility and inadequate targeting cannot be overlooked. To comprehensively assess the current research on SFG, leverage its structural advantages and pharmacological activity, overcome its low bioavailability limitations, expedite its progression into a novel therapeutic drug, and better serve the clinic, this article presents a overall retrospect of the current research status of SFG. The discussion includes an analysis of the structural characteristics, physicochemical properties, bioavailability, pharmacological activities, and structure-activity relationships of SFG, with the goal of offering valuable insights and guidance for future research endeavors in this field.

Calycosin inhibits the proliferation and metastasis of renal cell carcinoma through the MAZ/HAS2 signaling pathway

Calycosin (Caly), a flavonoid compound, demonstrates a variety of beneficial properties. However, the specific mechanisms behind Caly's anticancer effects remain largely unexplored. Network pharmacology was used to explore the potential targets of Caly in renal cancer. Additionally, RNA-seq sequencing was used to detect changes in genes in renal cancer cells after Caly treatment. Validation was carried out through quantitative reverse transcription-PCR and Western blot analysis. The luciferase reporter assay was applied to pinpoint the interaction site between MAZ and HAS2. Furthermore, the immunoprecipitation assay was utilized to examine the ubiquitination and degradation of MAZ. In vivo experiments using cell line-derived xenograft mouse models were performed to assess Calycosin's impact on cancer growth. Network pharmacology research suggests Caly plays a role in promoting apoptosis and inhibiting cell adhesion in renal cancer. In vitro, Caly has been observed to suppress proliferation, colony formation, and metastasis of renal cancer cells while also triggering apoptosis. Additionally, it appears to diminish hyaluronic acid synthesis by downregulating HAS2 expression. MAZ is identified as a transcriptional regulator of HAS2 expression. Calycosin further facilitates the degradation of MAZ via the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Notably, Caly demonstrates efficacy in reducing the growth of renal cell carcinoma xenograft tumors in vivo. Our findings indicate that Caly suppresses the proliferation, metastasis, and progression of renal cell carcinoma through its action on the MAZ/HAS2 signaling pathway. Thus, Caly represents a promising therapeutic candidate for the treatment of renal cell carcinoma.

Prenylated Flavonoids in Sophora flavescens: A Systematic Review of Their Phytochemistry and Pharmacology

Sophora flavescens has been widely used in traditional Chinese medicine for over 1700 years. This plant is known for its heat-clearing, damp-drying, insecticidal, and diuretic properties. Phytochemical research has identified prenylated flavonoids as a unique class of bioactive compounds in S. flavescens. Recent pharmacological studies reveal that the prenylated flavonoids from S. flavescens (PFS) exhibit potent antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and glycolipid metabolism-regulating activities, offering significant therapeutic benefits for various diseases. However, the pharmacokinetics and toxicological profiles of PFS have not been systematically studied. Despite the diverse biological effects of prenylated flavonoid compounds against similar diseases, their structure-activity relationship is not yet fully understood. This review aims to summarize the latest findings regarding the chemical composition, drug metabolism, pharmacological properties, toxicity, and structure-activity relationship of prenylated flavonoids from S. flavescens. It seeks to highlight their potential for clinical use and suggest directions for future related studies.

Treatment of neuropathic pain by traditional Chinese medicine: An updated review on their effect and putative mechanisms of action

Neuropathic pain (NP) is a common chronic pain with heterogeneous clinical features, and consequent lowering of quality of life. Currently, although conventional chemical drugs can effectively manage NP symptoms in the short term, their long-term efficacy is limited, and they come with significant side effects. In this regard, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) provides a promising avenue for treating NP. Numerous pharmacological and clinical studies have substantiated the effectiveness of TCM with multiple targets and mechanisms. We aimed to outline the characteristics of TCM, including compound prescriptions, single Chinese herbs, active ingredients, and TCM physical therapy, for NP treatment and discussed their efficacy by analyzing the pathogenesis of NP. Various databases, such as PubMed, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Wanfang database, were searched. We focused on recent research progress in NP treatment by TCM. Finally, we proposed the future challenges and emerging trends in the treatment of NP. TCM demonstrates significant clinical efficacy in NP treatment, employing multi-mechanisms. Drawing from the theory of syndrome differentiation, four types of dialectical treatments for NP by compound TCM prescriptions were introduced: promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; promoting blood circulation and promote Qi flow; warming Yang and benefiting Qi; soothing the liver and regulating Qi. Meanwhile, 33 single Chinese herbs and 25 active ingredients were included. In addition, TCM physical therapy (e.g., acupuncture, massage, acupoint injection, and fumigation) also showed good efficacy in NP treatment. TCM, particularly through the use of compound prescriptions and acupuncture, holds bright prospects in treating NP owing to its diverse holistic effects. Nonetheless, the multi-targets of TCM may result in possible disadvantages to NP treatment, and the pharmacological mechanisms of TCM need further evaluation. Here, we provide an overview of NP treatment via TCM, based on the pathogenesis and the potential therapeutic mechanisms, thus providing a reference for further studies.

Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Sophora flavescens Aiton and Protective Effects against Alcohol-Induced Liver Injury and Oxidative Stress in Mice

In this study, we investigated the hepatoprotective effects of an ethanol extract of Sophora flavescens Aiton (ESF) on an alcohol-induced liver disease mouse model. Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) was caused by the administration of ethanol to male C57/BL6 mice who were given a Lieber-DeCarli liquid diet, including ethanol. The alcoholic fatty liver disease mice were orally administered ESF (100 and 200 mg/kg bw/day) or silymarin (50 mg/kg bw/day), which served as a positive control every day for 16 days. The findings suggest that ESF enhances hepatoprotective benefits by significantly decreasing serum levels of aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT), markers for liver injury. Furthermore, ESF alleviated the accumulation of triglyceride (TG) and total cholesterol (TC), increased serum levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH), and improved serum alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) activity in the alcoholic fatty liver disease mice model. Cells and organisms rely on the Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1- Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Keap1-Nrf2) system as a critical defensive mechanism in response to oxidative stress. Therefore, Nrf2 plays an important role in ALD antioxidant responses, and its level is decreased by increased reactive oxidation stress (ROS) in the liver. ESF increased Nrf2, which was decreased in ethanol-damaged livers. Additionally, four polyphenol compounds were identified through a qualitative analysis of the ESF using LC-MS/MS. This study confirmed ESF's antioxidative and hangover-elimination effects and suggested the possibility of using Sophora flavescens Aiton (SF) to treat ALD.

The anti-inflammatory activity of flavonoids and alkaloids from Sophora flavescens alleviates psoriasiform lesions: Prenylation and methoxylation beneficially enhance bioactivity and skin targeting

The herb Sophora flavescens displays anti-inflammatory activity and can provide a source of antipsoriatic medications. We aimed to evaluate whether S. flavescens extracts and compounds can relieve psoriasiform inflammation. The ability of flavonoids (maackiain, sophoraflavanone G, leachianone A) and alkaloids (matrine, oxymatrine) isolated from S. flavescens to inhibit production of cytokine/chemokines was examined in keratinocytes and macrophages. Physicochemical properties and skin absorption were determined by in silico molecular modeling and the in vitro permeation test (IVPT) to establish the structure-permeation relationship (SPR). The ethyl acetate extract exhibited higher inhibition of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and CXCL1 production in tumor necrosis factor-α-stimulated keratinocytes compared to the ethanol and water extracts. The flavonoids demonstrated higher cytokine/chemokine inhibition than alkaloids, with the prenylated flavanones (sophoraflavanone G, leachianone A) led to the highest suppression. Flavonoids exerted anti-inflammatory effects via the extracellular signal-regulated kinase, p38, activator protein-1, and nuclear factor-κB signaling pathways. In the IVPT, prenylation of the flavanone skeleton significantly promoted skin absorption from 0.01 to 0.22 nmol/mg (sophoraflavanone G vs. eriodictyol). Further methoxylation of a prenylated flavanone (leachianone A) elevated skin absorption to 2.65 nmol/mg. Topical leachianone A reduced the epidermal thickness in IMQ-treated mice by 47%, and inhibited cutaneous scaling and cytokine/chemokine overexpression at comparable levels to a commercial betamethasone product. Thus, prenylation and methoxylation of S. flavescens flavanones may enable the design of novel antipsoriatic agents.

Ultrasonic-assisted extraction, anti-biofilm activity, and mechanism of action of Ku Shen (Sophorae Flavescentis Radix) extracts against Vibrio parahaemolyticus

The objective of this study is to optimize the ultrasonic-assisted extraction process of Ku Shen (Sophorae Flavescentis Radix) extracts (KSE) against Vibrio parahaemolyticus and explore their anti-biofilm activity and mechanism of action. The ultrasonic-assisted extraction process of KSE optimized by single factor experiment, Box-Behnken design and response surface methodology was as follows: 93% ethanol as solvent, liquid/material ratio of 30 mL/g, ultrasonic power of 500 W, extraction temperature of 80°C and time of 30 min. Under these conditions, the diameter of inhibition circle of KSE was 15.60 ± 0.17 mm, which had no significant difference with the predicted value. The yield of dried KSE is 32.32 ± 0.57% and the content of total flavonoids in KSE was 57.02 ± 5.54%. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of KSE against V. parahaemolyticus were 0.25 and 0.5 mg/mL, respectively. Crystal violet staining, Congo red plate, spectrophotometry, CCK-8 and scanning electron microscopy were used to investigate the activity and mechanism of action of KSE against V. parahaemolyticus biofilm. The results showed that the sub-MIC of KSE could significantly inhibit biofilm formation, reduce the synthesis of polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA) and the secretion of extracellular DNA. In addition, the inhibition rate of biofilm formation and clearance rate of mature biofilm of 1.0 mg/mL KSE were 85.32 and 74.04%, and the reduction rate of metabolic activity of developing and mature biofilm were 77.98 and 74.46%, respectively. These results were confirmed by visual images obtained by scanning electron microscopy. Therefore, KSE has the potential to further isolate the anti-biofilm agent and evaluate it for the preservation process of aquatic products.

Estrogenic Prenylated Flavonoids in Sophora flavescens

Sophora flavescens is a medicinal herb distributed widely in Japan and it has been used to treat various diseases and symptoms. To explore its pharmacological use, we examined the estrogenic activity of four prenylated flavonoids, namely kurarinone, kushenols A and I, and sophoraflavanone G, which are characterized by the lavandulyl group at position 8 of ring A, but have variations in the hydroxyl group at positions 3 (ring C), 5 (ring A) and 4' (ring B). These prenylated flavonoids were examined via cell proliferation assays using sulforhodamine B, Western blotting, and RT-PCR, corresponding to cell, protein, and transcription assays, respectively, based on estrogen action mechanisms. All the assays employed here found weak but clear estrogenic activities for the prenylated flavonoids examined. Furthermore, the activities were inhibited by an estrogen receptor antagonist, suggesting that the activities were likely being mediated by the estrogen receptors. However, there were differences in the activity, attributable to the hydroxyl group at position 4', which is absent in kushenol A. While the estrogenic activity of kurarinone and sophoraflavanone G has been reported before, to the best of our knowledge, there are no such reports on kushenols A and I. Therefore, this study represents the first report of their estrogenic activity.

Six undescribed lavandulylated flavonoids with PTP1B inhibition from the roots of Sophora flavescens

Six undescribed lavandulylated flavonoids (1-6) were isolated from the roots of Sophora flavescens. Remarkably, compounds 1 and 2, which were composed of a flavane unit and a phloroglucinol unit, were the first reported dimers. Compounds 3 and 4 were the first reported neoflavonoids with lavandulyl units. Compounds 5 and 6 were chalcone with oxidized lavandulyl units. Their structures were fully characterized by cumulative analyses of UV, IR, HRESIMS, NMR and ECD spectroscopic data, along with computational calculations through density functional theory. Compounds 1 and 2 showed significant protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B inhibitory activities with IC50 values of 2.669 and 3.596 μM, respectively.

A new modified pterocarpan glycoside from Sophora flavescens

Sophora flavescens is a widely used traditional Chinese herbal medicine. In this work, a new pterocarpan glycoside, kurarinol C (1) together with six known compounds, sophoracarpan A (2), trifohrhizin-6'-monoacetate (3), trifohrhizin (4), maackiain (5), (6S,6aS,11aR）-6α-methoxy-pterocarpin (6), L-maackiain (7) were isolated from the roots of S. flavescens. Among them, compounds 2 and 6 were discovered from S. flavescens for the first time. Their chemical structures were elucidated on the basis of extensive NMR and MS analyses. Furthermore, the antioxidant activities of these compounds were evaluated by the ABTS and DPPH free radical scavenging assay. Three compounds (5, 6, 7) exhibited stronger antioxidant capacity against the ABTS enzyme at 20 µg/mL (scavenging rates > 55%).

A novel type lavandulyl flavonoid from Sophora flavescens as potential anti-hepatic injury agent that inhibit TLR2/NF-κB signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE

Sophora flavescens Aiton, was a crucial source of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) that has benefited human health for hundreds of years. Alkaloids and flavonoids were the major bioactive constituents from S. flavescens, which had been widely used for liver disease treatment in China. However, the liver-protective components of flavonoids from S. flavescens and their mechanism of action were not clear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This work aimed to evaluate the in vitro hepatoprotective activities of 35 flavonoids from S. flavescens and screen active compounds. Furthermore, it was conducted to demonstrate the hepatoprotective effects of a new active compound (kurarinol A, 1) was isolated by authors and the ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extract form S. flavescens against carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced hepatic injury in Kunming (KM) mice, meanwhile revealed the potential mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The 35 flavonoids from S. flavescens were co-incubated with HepG2 cells and treated with 0.35% CCl₄ for 6 h cell viability was measured by (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium, inner salt) (MTS) assay. Then, in vivo animal experiments, the activities of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) in the serum were analyzed, the degree of hepatic injury was examined using hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining, the mRNA expression of Superoxide Dismutase 2 (SOD2), Nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), Interleukin 6 (IL-6), Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and the protein levels of nuclear factor-kappa B p65/p-p65 (NF-κB p65/p-p65), toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), IL-1β and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2) in hepatic tissues were detected.

RESULTS

The lavandulyl flavonoid (kurarinol A, 1) and the EtOAc extract from S. flavescens showed protective effects on CCl₄-injured HepG2 cells, increasing cell viability from 24.5% to 61.3% and 91.8%, respectively. What's more, we found that treatment with kurarinol A (1) and the EtOAc extract lead to a significant reduction in hepatotoxicity in response to acute CCl₄ exposure. Compared with the model group, experimental results exhibited kurarinol A (10 mg/kg, i.p.) and the EtOAc extract (300 mg/kg, i.p.) could decrease the levels of AST, ALT, ALP and tissue damage. Further mechanistic investigations revealed that up-regulated the mRNA expression of SOD2, Nrf2, OH-1 and down-regulated the IL-1β in liver tissues, respectively. Additionally, Western blot analyses elucidated that inhibition of IL-1β, TLR2, COX-2, NF-κB (p65/p-p65) via TLR2/NF-κB signaling pathway by kurarinol A and the EtOAc extract contribute to its hepatoprotective activity.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrated that the novel compound (kurarinol A, 1) possessed notable hepatoprotective activity against CCl₄. It was confirmed that kurarinol A had a certain effect on mice with liver damage induced by CCl₄, and its mechanism could be include inhibiting inflammation and reducing of oxidative stress reaction by regulating expression of related genes and proteins. Thus, kurarinol A could as a novel active agent that contributes to the hepatoprotective activity of S. flavescens for the treatment of live injury.

Novel Matrine Derivatives as Potential Larvicidal Agents against Aedes albopictus: Synthesis, Biological Evaluation, and Mechanistic Analysis

A large number of studies have shown that matrine (MA) possesses various pharmacological activities and is one of the few natural, plant-derived pesticides with the highest prospects for promotion and application. Fifty-eight MA derivatives were prepared, including 10 intermediates and 48 target compounds in 3 series, to develop novel mosquitocidal agents. Compounds 4b, 4e, 4f, 4m, 4n, 6e, 6k, 6m, and 6o showed good larvicidal activity against Aedes albopictus, which is both a highly aggressive mosquito and an important viral vector that can transmit a wide range of pathogens. Dipping methods and a bottle bioassay were used for insecticidal activity evaluation. The LC50 values of 4e, 4m, and 6m reached 147.65, 140.08, and 205.79 μg/mL, respectively, whereas the LC50 value of MA was 659.34 μg/mL. Structure–activity relationship analysis demonstrated that larvicidal activity could be improved by the unsaturated heterocyclic groups introduced into the carboxyl group after opening the D ring. The MA derivatives with oxidized N-1 lost their mosquitocidal activities, indicating that the bareness of N-1 is crucial to maintain their anti-mosquito activity. However, the activity was not greatly influenced by introducing a cyan group at C-6 or a benzene sulfonyl group at N-16. Additionally, compounds 4e and 4m exhibited good inhibitory activities against acetylcholinesterase with inhibitory rates of 59.12% and 54.30%, respectively, at a concentration of 250 μg/mL, whereas the inhibitory rate of MA was 9.88%. Therefore, the structural modification and mosquitocidal activity of MA and its derivatives obtained here pave the way for those seeking strong mosquitocidal agents of plant origin.

Flavonoids from the Roots of Sophora flavescens and Their Potential Anti-Inflammatory and Antiproliferative Activities

The phytochemical investigation of the roots of the traditional Chinese medicinal plant Sophora flavescens led to the isolation of two novel prenylflavonoids with an unusual cyclohexyl substituent instead of the common aromatic ring B, named 4',4'-dimethoxy-sophvein (17) and sophvein-4'-one (18), and 34 known compounds (1-16, 19-36). The structures of these chemical compounds were determined by spectroscopic techniques, including 1D-, 2D-NMR, and HRESIMS data. Furthermore, evaluations of nitric oxide (NO) production inhibitory activity against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW264.7 cells indicated that some compounds exhibited obvious inhibition effects, with IC₅₀ ranged from 4.6 ± 1.1 to 14.4 ± 0.4 μM. Moreover, additional research demonstrated that some compounds inhibited the growth of HepG2 cells, with an IC₅₀ ranging from 0.46 ± 0.1 to 48.6 ± 0.8 μM. These results suggest that flavonoid derivatives from the roots of S. flavescens can be used as a latent source of antiproliferative or anti-inflammatory agents.

Systematic elucidation of the bioactive alkaloids and potential mechanism from Sophora flavescens for the treatment of eczema via network pharmacology

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE

Sophora flavescens is a frequently used traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for the treatment of skin disorders, diarrhea, vaginal itching and inflammatory diseases. In particular, the root of S. flavescens combination with other herbs mainly treat eczema ailment in the clinical applications. However, a holistic network pharmacology approach to understanding the mechanism by which alkaloids in S. flavescens treat eczema has not been pursued.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To examine the network pharmacological potential effect of S. flavescens on eczema, we studied the alkaloids, performed protein targets prediction and investigated interacting signal pathways. Furthermore, animal experiment was carried out to evaluate its efficacy and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reactions (RT-qPCR) analysis was explored the mechanism of action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The detail information on alkaloids from S. flavescens were obtained from a handful of public databases on the basis of oral bioavailability (OB ≥ 30%) and drug-likeness (DL ≥ 0.18). Then, correlations between compounds and protein targets were linked using the STRING database, and targets associated with eczema were gathered by the GeneCards database. Human genes were identified and subjected to Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis and Gene Ontology (GO) functional enrichment analysis. Particularly, matrine, the crucial alkaloid from S. flavescens, was estimated using a 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-induced eczema Kunming (KM) mice model, administered (50 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg) to mice for 22 days. On the last day, the activities of serum tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin-4 (IL-4) and histopathologic examinations were determined. For further to elucidate the mechanisms, the mRNA levels of TNF-α, STAT3, TP53, AKT1, IL-6, JUN and EGFR in dorsal skin tissues were also tested.

RESULTS

Network analysis collected and identified 35 alkaloids from S. flavescens. Among them, in total 10 dominating alkaloids, including matrine, oxymatrine, sophoridine, sophocarpine, oxysophocarpine, allomatrine, sophoramine, anagyrine, cytisine and N-methylcytisine. And 71 related targets were provided of alkaloids for the treatment of eczema from S. flavescens. Furthermore, matrine dose-dependently (50 or 10 mg/kg, 22 days, apply to dorsal skin) remarkable decreased the serum levels of TNF-α and IL-4, and significantly alleviated the skin lesions. The effects of 50 mg/kg of matrine were almost identical to those of 200 mg/kg of the positive drug dexamethasone (DXM). The further RT-qPCR analyses could reveal that matrine down-regulate TNF-α, STAT3 and TP53 at transcriptional level in dorsal skin tissues.

CONCLUSION

Pharmacological network analysis can utilize to illuminate the pharmacodynamic substances and the potential molecular mechanism of S. flavescens for treating eczema. Matrine, as the crucial alkaloid from S. flavescens, could be a promising drug candidate for the treatment of eczema ailment.

The exploration of the potential mechanism of oxymatrine-mediated antipruritic effect based on network pharmacology and weighted gene co-expression network analysis

The treatment of chronic itch is considered to be a challenge for its non-histamine dependence and the search for alternative medicine is still striving. The pathology of the chronic itch is closely related to immune system regulation and inflammatory response. Oxymatrine (OMT) is a traditional Chinese medicine ingredient extracted from the roots of Sophora flavescens Aiton with significant antitumor, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory effects. However, the underlying mechanism of OMT on chronic itch is obscure, which limits clinical application. Hence, this study is aimed to clarify the pruritus alleviation mechanism of OMT by combining network pharmacology analysis, weighted gene co-expression analysis (WGCNA), and molecular docking. We screened 125 common targets of OMT regulating inflammation and pruritus with pharmacology technology, the GO enrichment function analysis and KEGG signaling pathway analysis to demonstrate the close relation to the signaling pathways regulating inflammation such as MAPK signaling pathway and PI3K-AKT signaling pathway. We adopted the most relevant templates for pruritus diseases, combined with network pharmacology to preliminarily screen out 3 OMT functions and regulatory targets, exerting a good connection and correlation with the target at the screened disease targets. Further experiments were conducted to explore the potential mechanism of OMT using the LPS-induced RAW264.7 cell inflammation model. The results showed that pretreatment with different concentrations of OMT (25 μM, 50 μM, and 100 μM) for 24 h, inhibited expression of IL-6, iNOS TLR4 and TGFR-1 as well as apoptosis of Raw264.7 cells induced by LPS. Moreover, OMT effectively inhibited LPS-induced MAPK pathway activation and the expression of related sites MAP2K1, MAPK8 MAP2K4, and MAPKAP-K2 in RAW 264.7 cells. The OMT also reduced the phosphorylation of p-38, associated with site in the activation of MAPK signaling pathway. These results could contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying how OMT alleviates inflammation to treat chronic pruritic diseases and provide a potential drug for the treatment of chronic itch.

Sophoraflavanone G from Sophora flavescens Ameliorates Allergic Airway Inflammation by Suppressing Th2 Response and Oxidative Stress in a Murine Asthma Model

Sophoraflavanone G (SG), isolated from Sophora flavescens, has anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor bioactive properties. We previously showed that SG promotes apoptosis in human breast cancer cells and leukemia cells and reduces the inflammatory response in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages. We investigated whether SG attenuates airway hyper-responsiveness (AHR) and airway inflammation in asthmatic mice. We also assessed its effects on the anti-inflammatory response in human tracheal epithelial cells. Female BALB/c mice were sensitized with ovalbumin, and asthmatic mice were treated with SG by intraperitoneal injection. We also exposed human bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells to different concentrations of SG to evaluate its effects on inflammatory cytokine levels. SG treatment significantly reduced AHR, eosinophil infiltration, goblet cell hyperplasia, and airway inflammation in the lungs of asthmatic mice. In the lungs of ovalbumin-sensitized mice, SG significantly promoted superoxide dismutase and glutathione expression and attenuated malondialdehyde levels. SG also suppressed levels of Th2 cytokines and chemokines in lung and bronchoalveolar lavage samples. In addition, we confirmed that SG decreased pro-inflammatory cytokine, chemokine, and eotaxin expression in inflammatory BEAS-2B cells. Taken together, our data demonstrate that SG shows potential as an immunomodulator that can improve asthma symptoms by decreasing airway-inflammation-related oxidative stress.

Flavonoids: Antiplatelet Effect as Inhibitors of COX-1

Flavonoids are compounds with a benzopyranic structure that exhibits multiple pharmacological activities. They are known for their venotonic activity, but their mechanism of action remains unclear. It is thought that, as this mechanism is mediated by prostaglandins, these compounds may interfere with the arachidonic acid (AA) cascade. These assays are designed to measure the antiplatelet aggregation capacity of quercetin, rutin, diosmetin, diosmin, and hidrosmin, as well as to evaluate a potential structure−activity ratio. In this paper, several studies on platelet aggregation at different concentrations (from 0.33 mM to 1.5 mM) of different flavone compounds are conducted, measuring platelet aggregation by impedance aggregometry, and the cyclooxygenase (COX) activity by metabolites generated, including the activity of the pure recombinant enzyme in the presence of these polyphenols. The results obtained showed that quercetin and diosmetin aglycones have a greater antiplatelet effect and inhibit the COX enzyme activity to a greater extent than their heterosides; however, the fact that greater inhibition of the pure recombinant enzyme was achieved by heterosides suggests that these compounds may have difficulty in crossing biological membranes. In any case, in view of the results obtained, it can be concluded that flavonoids could be useful as coadjuvants in the treatment of cardiovascular pathologies.

Sophora flavescens Alkaloids and Corticosteroid Synergistically Augment IL-10/IL-5 Ratio with Foxp3-Gene-Epigenetic Modification in Asthma PBMCs

Background

It has been demonstrated that ASHMI (antiasthma-simplified herbal medicine intervention) can improve airway function and reduce inflammation in human asthmatic patients with high safety and tolerability. In addition, ASHMI significantly suppresses Th2 cytokine production and increases Th1 cytokine production in treating asthma.

Objective

Allergic asthma is associated with dysregulation of cytokines. We focused on IL-5 and IL-10 as signature Th2 and Treg cytokines to characterize ASHMI immunomodulatory components.

Methods

The effects of ASHMI and individual herbal constituents on IL-5 and IL-10 production by PBMCs from asthmatic subjects were determined ex vivo. Sophora flavescens (SF)-F2, containing alkaloid compounds, effects on PBMC IL-10 and IL-5 production in the presence or absence of dexamethasone (Dex), and on DNA methylation levels at the foxp3 gene promoter were determined.

Results

The ratio of anti-CD3/CD28 stimulated IL-10/IL-5 production by PBMCs from asthmatic subjects was significantly reduced compared to healthy subjects. In PBMCs from asthmatic subjects, ASHMI significantly reduced IL-5 production and increased IL-10 secretion in a dose-dependent manner (p < 0.05–0.01). SF-F2 was most effective in increasing IL-10, whereas SF-F4 (flavonoid compounds) was most effective in suppressing IL-5 production. Dex-treated PBMCs from asthma subjects showed a trend of increasing ratio of IL-10/IL-5 while demonstrating reduced levels in both IL-5 and IL-10 (p < 0.05). Co-culture with Dex and SF-F2 significantly prevented Dex suppression of IL-10, while retained Dex-suppression of IL-5 production, and increased IL-10/IL-5 ratio by Dex. Co-culture with SF-F2 and Dex significantly reduced DNA methylation levels at the foxp3 gene promoter at CpG⁻¹²⁶.

Conclusion

The SF alkaloid-rich fraction may be responsible for ASHMI induction of IL-10 production by PBMCs and plays a synergistic effect with Dex for augmenting IL-10/IL-5 ratio.

Treatment and bioresources utilization of traditional Chinese medicinal herb residues: Recent technological advances and industrial prospect

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has wide application and important functions in curing many diseases, but a great number of herb residues are usually generated after its manufacture and usage. Without proper and timely treatment, these traditional Chinese medicinal herb (TCMH) residues will cause some environmental pollution. In addition to treatment, bioresources utilization of TCMH residues is also important for its great potential as a suitable feedstock for the production of energy, materials, and chemicals. In this situation, advanced and well-designed solid waste management is important to make the TCM industry environmentally friendly and economically attractive. In this review article, the recent progress focusing on various methods for TCMH residues treatment and bioresources utilization are introduced in detail. In particular, the technologies for thermochemical conversion and biochemical conversion of TCMH residues are mainly focused on in order to show how to fulfill effective and efficient bioresources utilization. Besides, some other technologies which are suitable for the treatment and bioresources utilization of TCMH residues are presented as well. Finally, some industrial prospects are given from the economic, operational, and environmental aspects for the further development of treatment and bioresources utilization of TCMH residues. Overall, this work can provide some systematical and comprehensive information for the development of technologies that help sustainably manage the herb residues generated in the TCM industry.

Two New Isoprenoid Flavonoids from Sophora flavescens with Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activities

Sophora flavescens is a regularly used traditional Chinese medicine. In an attempt to discover adequate active agents, the isoprenoid flavonoids from S. flavescens were further investigated. In this work, two new compounds (1-2, kurarinol A-B) together with 26 known ones (3-28) were isolated and elucidated on the basis of extensive NMR, UV and MS analyses. Furthermore, the antioxidant activity of all constituents was assessed through ABTS, PTIO and DPPH methodologies and also were evaluated for cytotoxic activity by three tumor cell lines (HepG2, A549 and MCF7) and one human normal cell line (LO2 cells). As a result, a multitude of components revealed significant inhibitory activity. In particular, compound 1-2 (kurarinol A-B), two new flavanonols derivatives, exhibited the most potent ABTS inhibitory activity with IC50 of 1.21 µg/mL and 1.81 µg/mL, respectively. Meanwhile, the new compound 1 demonstrated remarkable cytotoxicity against three cancer cells lines with IC50 values ranging from 7.50-10.55 μM but showed little effect on the normal cell. The two new isoprenoid flavonoids could be promising antioxidant and anti-tumor nature agents.

Genus Sophora: a comprehensive review on secondary chemical metabolites and their biological aspects from past achievements to future perspectives

Sophora is deemed as one of the most remarkable genera of Fabaceae, and the third largest family of flowering plants. The genus Sophora comprises approximately 52 species, 19 varieties, and 7 forms that are widely distributed in Asia and mildly in Africa. Sophora species are recognized to be substantial sources of broad spectrum biopertinent secondary metabolites namely flavonoids, isoflavonoids, chalcones, chromones, pterocarpans, coumarins, benzofuran derivatives, sterols, saponins (mainly triterpene glycosides), oligostilbenes, and mainly alkaloids. Meanwhile, extracts and isolated compounds from Sophora have been identified to possess several health-promising effects including anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, antiplatelets, antipyretic, anticancer, antiviral, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-osteoporosis, anti-ulcerative colitis, antidiabetic, anti-obesity, antidiarrheal, and insecticidal activities. Herein, the present review aims to provide comprehensive details about the phytochemicals and biological effects of Sophora species. The review spotlighted on the promising phytonutrients extracted from Sophora and their plethora of bioactivities. The review also clarifies the remaining gaps and thus qualifies and supplies a platform for further investigations of these compounds.

Sophoraflavanone M, a prenylated flavonoid from Sophora flavescens Ait., suppresses pro-inflammatory mediators through both NF-κB and JNK/AP-1 signaling pathways in LPS-primed macrophages

(2R)-3α,7,4'-trihydroxy-5-methoxy-8-(γ,γ-dimethylallyl)-flavanone is a prenylated flavonoid isolated from the anti-inflammatory herb Sophora flavescens Ait. We firstly named it sophoraflavanone M (SFM) in accordance with trivial names of related constitutes from this plant. Although various studies investigated the anti-inflammatory properties of prenylated flavonoids from Sophora flavescens Ait., that of SFM remains unclear and is yet to be determined. In the current study, we assessed the anti-inflammatory effects of SFM in LPS-induced in vivo and in vitro models. In the serum of endotoxemia mice, SFM significantly suppressed LPS-elevated inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, at nontoxic concentrations, SFM reduced LPS-induced production of inflammatory mediators NO, IL-6, TNF-α, and MCP-1 in mouse primary peritoneal macrophages. Accordingly, in LPS-primed RAW264.7 cell line, it also inhibited these mediators' expression at both transcriptional and translational levels without cytotoxicity. Mechanistically, SFM is found to concurrently inhibit two important inflammatory signaling pathways, NF-κB and JNK/AP-1. SFM restrained phosphorylation and degradation of IκBα as well as the subsequent p65 translocation to dampen NF-κB activity. Meanwhile, it also suppressed JNK phosphorylation to inhibit the transcriptional activity of AP-1. These results provide material basis for traditional application of the anti-inflammatory herb Sophora flavescens Ait. and suggest SFM is a promising natural candidate for alleviating inflammatory conditions.

Seven new prenylated flavanones from the roots of Sophora flavescens and their anti-proliferative activities

Aiming to discover potent anti-proliferative agents from the roots of Sophora flavescens, seven new prenylated flavanones were isolated, along with 16 known compounds. Their structures were elucidated by interpretation of their spectroscopic data (1D and 2D NMR, UV, IR, CD, and HRESIMS) and comparison to literature data. In the in vitro assay, 21 showed anti-proliferative activity against human hepatoma cells (HepG2). Studies of its mechanism revealed that 21 could significantly activate autophagic flux and trigger ROS release in HepG2 cells. Western blot experiments demonstrated that 21 could activate the key signaling protein of autophagy and ROS, while it does not affect the main protein of the apoptosis signaling pathway. These results suggested that 21 mediates its anti-proliferative effects through autophagic cell death, which is apoptosis-independent.

The Potential Anticancer Activity of Phytoconstituents against Gastric Cancer-A Review on In Vitro, In Vivo, and Clinical Studies

Gastric cancer belongs to the heterogeneous malignancies and, according to the World Health Organization, it is the fifth most commonly diagnosed cancer in men. The aim of this review is to provide an overview on the role of natural products of plant origin in the therapy of gastric cancer and to present the potentially active metabolites which can be used in the natural therapeutical strategies as the support to the conventional treatment. Many of the naturally spread secondary metabolites have been proved to exhibit chemopreventive properties when tested on the cell lines or in vivo. This manuscript aims to discuss the pharmacological significance of both the total extracts and the single isolated metabolites in the stomach cancer prevention and to focus on their mechanisms of action. A wide variety of plant-derived anticancer metabolites from different groups presented in the manuscript that include polyphenols, terpenes, alkaloids, or sulphur-containing compounds, underlines the multidirectional nature of natural products.