Preparation and characterization of clove essential oil-loaded liposomes

Antibacterial effect of protease-responsive cationic eugenol liposomes modified by gamma-polyglutamic acid against Staphylococcus aureus

Eugenol, as a natural antibacterial agent, has been widely studied for its inhibitory effect on the common food-borne pathogen Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). However, the widespread application of eugenol is still limited by its instability and volatility. Herein, γ-polyglutamic acid coated eugenol cationic liposomes (pGA-ECLPs) were successfully constructed by self-assembly with an average particle size of 170.7 nm and an encapsulation efficiency of 36.2%. The formation of pGA shell significantly improved the stability of liposomes, and the encapsulation efficiency of eugenol only decreased by 20.7% after 30 days of storage at 4 °C. On the other hand, the pGA layer can be hydrolyzed by S. aureus, achieving effective control of release through response to bacterial stimuli. The application experiments further confirmed that pGA-ECLPs effectively prolonged the antibacterial effect of eugenol in fresh chicken without causing obvious sensory effects on the food. The above results of this study provide an important reference for extending the action time of natural antibacterial substances and developing new stimuli-responsive antibacterial systems.

Phospholipids of inhaled liposomes determine the in vivo fate and therapeutic effects of salvianolic acid B on idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

Since phospholipids have an important effect on the size, surface potential and hardness of liposomes that decide their in vivo fate after inhalation, this research has systematically evaluated the effect of phospholipids on pulmonary drug delivery by liposomes. In this study, liposomes composed of neutral saturated/unsaturated phospholipids, anionic and cationic phospholipids were constructed to investigate how surface potential and the degree of saturation of fatty acid chains determined their mucus and epithelium permeability both in vitro and in vivo. Our results clearly indicated that liposomes composed of saturated neutral and anionic phospholipids possessed high stability and permeability, compared to that of liposomes composed of unsaturated phospholipids and cationic phospholipids. Furthermore, both in vivo imaging of fluorescence-labeled liposomes and biodistribution of salvianolic acid B (SAB) that encapsulated in liposomes were performed to estimate the effect of phospholipids on the lung exposure and retention of inhaled liposomes. Finally, inhaled SAB-loaded liposomes exhibited enhanced therapeutic effects in a bleomycin-induced idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis mice model via inhibition of inflammation and regulation on coagulation-fibrinolytic system. Such findings will be beneficial to the development of inhalable lipid-based nanodrug delivery systems for the treatment of respiratory diseases where inhalation is the preferred route of administration.

Liposomes as Carriers of Bioactive Compounds in Human Nutrition

This article provides an overview of the literature data on the role of liposomal structures and encapsulated substances in food technology and human nutrition. The paper briefly describes how liposomes are created and how they encapsulate food ingredients, which can either be individual compounds or plant extracts. Another very interesting application of liposomes is their use as antimicrobial carriers to protect food products from spoilage during storage. The encapsulation of food ingredients in liposomes can increase their bioavailability, which is particularly important for compounds with health-promoting properties but low bioavailability. Particular attention was paid to compounds such as phytosterols, which lower blood cholesterol levels but have very low absorption in the human body. In addition, consumer expectations and regulations for liposomes in food are discussed. To date, no in vivo human studies have been conducted to indicate which encapsulation methods give the best results for gastrointestinal effects and which food-added substances are most stable during food storage and processing. The paper identifies further lines of research that are needed before liposomes can be introduced into food.

Comparative study of a liposome and emulsion system with cinnamon essential oil on the quality and proteolysis of refrigerated minced pork

Essential oils have been recognized for their strong antibacterial property, making them an innovative approach for preserving meat. However, their chemical instability and direct impact on meat proteins limit their application. To overcome these limitations, various loading systems have been explored. This study aimed to compare the effect of cinnamon essential oil (CEO) loaded in a liposome and emulsion system on the proteolysis of minced pork and to evaluate the advantages of each delivery system in preventing microorganism-induced quality deterioration of meat. Minced pork treated with CEO-liposomes exhibited lower pH, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N), and total viable count (TVC) values than CEO-emulsions and provided better protection against microorganisms. SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) analysis confirmed that CEO-liposome was more effective in protecting proteins from degradation. Moreover, CEO-liposome produced lower amount of bitter amino acids and harmful biogenic amines. Antibacterial mechanisms indicated that CEO-liposome exhibited a stronger inhibitory effect against major spoilage bacteria in meat products by increasing cell membrane permeability. The membrane damage was further supported by an increase in conductivity and the leakage of nucleic acids. Compared to the CEO-emulsion system, CEO-liposome emerged as an effective preservative for minced pork. These results provided important theoretical support for using a bioactive compound delivery system to prevent microorganism-induced quality deterioration in meat.

Clove Essential Oil: Chemical Profile, Biological Activities, Encapsulation Strategies, and Food Applications

Plants have proven to be important sources for discovering new compounds that are useful in the treatment of various diseases due to their phytoconstituents. Clove (Syzygium aromaticum L.), an aromatic plant widely cultivated around the world, has been traditionally used for food preservation and medicinal purposes. In particular, clove essential oil (CEO) has attracted attention for containing various bioactive compounds, such as phenolics (eugenol and eugenol acetate), terpenes (β-caryophyllene and α-humulene), and hydrocarbons. These constituents have found applications in cosmetics, food, and medicine industries due to their bioactivity. Pharmacologically, CEO has been tested against a variety of parasites and pathogenic microorganisms, demonstrating antibacterial and antifungal properties. Additionally, many studies have also demonstrated the analgesic, antioxidant, anticancer, antiseptic, and anti-inflammatory effects of this essential oil. However, CEO could degrade for different reasons, impacting its quality and bioactivity. To address this challenge, encapsulation is viewed as a promising strategy that could prolong the shelf life of CEO, improving its physicochemical stability and application in various areas. This review examines the phytochemical composition and biological activities of CEO and its constituents, as well as extraction methods to obtain it. Moreover, encapsulation strategies for CEO and numerous applications in different food fields are also highlighted.

Formulation of Metoclopramide Hydrochloride-Loaded Lipid Carriers by QbD Approach for Combating Nausea: Safety and Bioavailability Evaluation in New Zealand Rabbit

The focus of the research was to overcome the limitations of metoclopramide (MTC) when administered intranasally. The aim was to improve its bioavailability, increase patient compliance, and prolong its residence time in the nasal cavity. MTC-loaded liposomes were prepared by applying the film hydration method. A study was conducted to determine how formulation variables affected encapsulation efficiency (EE %), mean particle size (MPS), and zeta potential (ZP). The MTC-liposomes were further loaded into the in situ gel (gellan gum) for longer residence times following intranasal administration. pH, gelling time, and in vitro release tests were conducted on the formulations produced. In vivo performance of the MTC-loaded in situ gels was appraised based on disparate parameters such as plasma peak concentration, plasma peak time, and elimination coefficient compared to intravenous administration. When the optimal liposome formulation contained 1.98% of SPC, 0.081% of cholesterol, 97.84% of chloroform, and 0.1% of MTC, the EE of MTC was 83.21%, PS was 107.3 nm. After 5 h, more than 80% of the drug was released from MTC-loaded liposome incorporated into gellan gum in situ gel formulation (Lip-GG), which exhibited improved absorption and higher bioavailability compared to MTC loaded into gellan gum in situ gel (MTC-GG). Acceptable cell viability was also achieved. It was found out that MTC-loaded liposomal in situ gel formulations administered through the nasal route could be a better choice than other options due to its ease of administration, accurate dosing, and higher bioavailability in comparison with MTC-GG.

Novel nano-encapsulated limonene: Utilization of drug-in-cyclodextrin-in-liposome formulation to improve the stability and enhance the antioxidant activity

Drug-in-cyclodextrin-in-liposome (DCL) combines advantages of cyclodextrin and liposome. Here, DCL formulation was successfully prepared to encapsulate limonene (Lim), whose characterization revealed that particle size was 147.5 ± 1.3 nm and zeta potential was -48.7 ± 0.8 mV. And the complexation mechanism of Lim/HP-β-CD inclusion complex (the intermediate of DCL) was analyzed by molecular dynamics simulation, showing that Lim was entrapped into the cavity of HP-β-CD through electrostatic and hydrophobic interaction with a molar ratio of 1:1. Notably, DCL formulation not only reduced Lim volatilization in 25℃, but also enhanced the free radical (DPPH· and ABTS·+) scavenging ability of Lim. In summary, Lim-DCL formulation improved the stability and enhanced the antioxidant activity of Lim. DCL nanocarrier system is suitable to preserve volatile and hydrophobic compounds, enlarging their application in pharmaceutics industries.

Preparation of pectin-coated and chitosan-coated phenylethanoside liposomes: Studies on characterization, stability, digestion and release behavior

In this paper, the effects of extrusion, ultrasound on physicochemical properties of liposomes were studied, and the liposomes were prepared by ethanol injection combined with extrusion-ultrasound. In addition, the quality of PhGs lips, pectin-coated PhGs lips (P-lips) and chitosan-coated PhGs lips (C-lips) was evaluated by the average particle size, encapsulation efficiency (EE) and other indicators, which indicated that the nanoparticles had been successfully prepared. Compared with extrusion or ultrasonic operation alone, the EEs of ethanol injection combined with extrusion-ultrasonic increased by 8 % and 18 % respectively. Subsequently, transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and DSC thermal analysis showed that PhGs in PhGs lips may produce hydrogen bonding forces with phospholipids, and pectin and chitosan in P-lips and C-lips were not only coated on the surface of PhGs lips, but also might have some interaction between them. Cell experiments showed that PhGs lips, P-lips and C-lips can effectively improve the bioavailability of PhGs. In addition, the storage stability of P-lips and C-lips was not significantly improved compared to PhGs lips, but their digestive stability was significantly improved, and the final retention rate in simulated intestinal fluid was about 25 % higher than that of PhGs lips.

Preparation, characterization, and release properties of Rosa roxburghii Tratt seed oil and β-carotene-coloaded proliposomes

Rosa roxburghii Tratt seed oil (RSO) and β-carotene (βC) were chosen to prepare proliposomes by the thin-film dispersion method. The characteristics of unloaded proliposome, RSO proliposome (L-R), βC proliposome (L-β), and RSO/βC proliposome (L-R-β) were analyzed, and their antioxidant activity, storage stability, and release properties were investigated. The proliposomes had an encapsulation efficiency (RSO, βC) higher than 83.10%, nanometer size, smooth surface, and irregular structure. L-R-β showed better dispersibility, stability, and antioxidant activity than L-R and L-β. Simultaneous encapsulation of RSO and βC reduced the phospholipid oxidation of proliposomes and improved the retention rate of RSO in storage environments of 4, 25, and 40°C. Moreover, the RSO and βC release kinetics of proliposomes in the simulated saliva fluid and gastric fluid phases can be described by the first-order model, and the Korsmeyr-Peppas method was applied to describe their release mechanism in the simulated intestinal fluid phase.

Enhancement of liposomal properties of thyme essential oil using lysozyme modification: Physicochemical, storage, and antibacterial properties

Thyme essential oil (TEO) is a natural food antimicrobial agent derived of spice, but suffers from volatility and poor water solubility, which problem can be effectively solved by the encapsulation of liposomes. On this basis, a safe and common natural antibacterial protein, LYZ was used to modify the TEO liposomes (TEO-lips) for gaining better properties. 2.5 mg/mL TEO and 0.05 % LYZ/S100 mass ratio were the best formula for the preparation of LYZ-TEO-lips. After LYZ modification, the particle size and PDI increased, and the zeta potential decreased slightly. The modification of LYZ not only improves the thermal stability of TEO-Lips, weakens the influence of acid and salt ions on liposomes, but also improves the antibacterial properties of TEO-Lips. In brief, LYZ has the potential to improve the overall properties of liposomes and can provide a reference for the development of antimicrobial liposomes.

Essential-Oils-Loaded Biopolymeric Nanoparticles as Strategies for Microbial and Biofilm Control: A Current Status

The emergence of bacterial strains displaying resistance to the currently available antibiotics is a critical global concern. These resilient bacteria can form biofilms that play a pivotal role in the failure of bacterial infection treatments as antibiotics struggle to penetrate all biofilm regions. Consequently, eradicating bacteria residing within biofilms becomes considerably more challenging than their planktonic counterparts, leading to persistent and chronic infections. Among various approaches explored, essential oils loaded in nanoparticles based on biopolymers have emerged, promising strategies that enhance bioavailability and biological activities, minimize side effects, and control release through regulated pharmacokinetics. Different available reviews analyze nanosystems and essential oils; however, usually, their main goal is the analysis of their antimicrobial properties, and progress in biofilm combat is rarely discussed, or it is not the primary objective. This review aims to provide a global vision of biofilm conformation and describes mechanisms of action attributed to each EO. Furthermore, we present a comprehensive overview of the latest developments in biopolymeric nanoparticles research, especially in chitosan- and zein-based nanosystems, targeting multidrug-resistant bacteria in both their sessile and biofilm forms, which will help to design precise strategies for combating biofilms.

Enhancing date seed phenolic bioaccessibility in soft cheese through a dehydrated liposome delivery system and its effect on testosterone-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia in rats

Introduction

The consumption of dairy products, including soft cheese, has been associated with numerous health benefits due to their high nutritional value. However, the phenolic compounds bioaccessibility present in soft cheese is limited due to their poor solubility and stability during digestion. So, this study aimed to develop an innovative soft cheese enriched with date seed phenolic compounds (DSP) extracted ultrasonically and incorporated into homogeneous liposomes and study its attenuation effect on testosterone-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) in rats.

Methods

Date seed phenolic compounds were extracted using 98 and 50% ethanol along with water as solvents, employing ultrasonication at 10, 20, and 30-min intervals. The primary and secondary DSP-liposomes were prepared and dehydrated. The particle size, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, and morphology were measured. Incorporating dehydrated liposomes (1-3% w/w) into soft cheese and their impact on BPH using male Sprague-Dawley rats was assessed. After inducing BPH, rats were fed a cheese diet with dehydrated DSP-liposomes. Over 8 weeks, parameters including nutrition parameters, prostate enlargement analysis, biochemical parameters, hormones level, oxidative stress, and cytokines were analyzed.

Results and Discussion

The results showed that ultrasound-assisted extraction effectively reduced the extraction time and 30 min extraction EtOH 50% was enough to extract high yield of phenolic compounds (558 mg GA/g) and flavonoids (55 mg qu/g) with high antioxidant activity (74%). The biological results indicate that prostate weight and prostate index% were diminished in the treatment groups (1 and 2) compared to the BPH control group. The high antioxidant content present in the DSP-liposomes acted as the catalyst for suppressing the responses of the inflammatory cytokines, inhibiting the anti-inflammatory IL-10 production, and suppressing the elevated levels of lipid peroxidation products compared to the BPH group.

Conclusion

The treatment group (2) supplemented with dehydrated secondary DSP-liposomes exhibited the most significant variance (p < 0.05) as opposed to the BPH group. Liposomal encapsulation was proved to be a feasible approach for administering DSP in soft cheese, thereby establishing new functional food category possessing prophylactic properties against the advancement of BPH in rats.

Nanofood Process Technology: Insights on How Sustainability Informs Process Design

Nanostructured products are an actively growing area for food research, but there is little information on the sustainability of processes used to make these products. In this Review, we advocate for selection of sustainable process technologies during initial stages of laboratory-scale developments of nanofoods. We show that selection is assisted by predictive sustainability assessment(s) based on conventional technologies, including exploratory ex ante and "anticipatory" life-cycle assessment. We demonstrate that sustainability assessments for conventional food process technologies can be leveraged to design nanofood process concepts and technologies. We critically review emerging nanostructured food products including encapsulated bioactive molecules and processes used to structure these foods at laboratory, pilot, and industrial scales. We apply a rational method via learning lessons from sustainability of unit operations in conventional food processing and critically apportioned lessons between emerging and conventional approaches. We conclude that this method provides a quantitative means to incorporate sustainability during process design for nanostructured foods. Findings will be of interest and benefit to a range of food researchers, engineers, and manufacturers of process equipment.

Encapsulation of Fragrances in Micro- and Nano-Capsules, Polymeric Micelles, and Polymersomes

Fragrances are ubiquitously and extensively used in everyday life and several industrial applications, including perfumes, textiles, laundry formulations, hygiene household products, and food products. However, the intrinsic volatility of these small organic molecules leaves them particularly susceptible to fast depletion from a product or from the surface they have been applied to. Encapsulation is a very effective method to limit the loss of fragrance during their use and to sustain their release. This review gives an overview of the different materials and techniques used for the encapsulation of fragrances, scents, and aromas, as well as the methods used to characterize the resulting encapsulation systems, with a particular focus on cyclodextrins, polymer microcapsules, inorganic microcapsules, block copolymer micelles, and polymersomes for fragrance encapsulation, sustained release, and controlled release.

Encapsulation of Hydrophobic Apigenin into Small Unilamellar Liposomes Coated with Chitosan Through Ethanol Injection and Spray Drying

Despite the multiple health benefits, natural flavonoid apigenin has poor aqueous solubility that restricts its delivery in foods. This study investigated the potential of spray-dried chitosan-coated liposomes prepared from scalable methods for the food industry as the delivery carriers for apigenin. Apigenin-loaded small unilamellar liposomes produced from ethanol injection had an encapsulation efficiency of 74.88 ± 5.31%. They were electrostatically stabilised via chitosan coating (0.25% w/v) and spray-dried. Spray-dried chitosan-coated apigenin liposomes (SCAL) exhibited the following powder characteristics: yield 66.62 ± 3.08%, moisture content 4.33 ± 0.56%, water activity 0.2242 ± 0.0548, particle size 10.97 ± 1.55 μm, nearly spherical morphology with wrinkles and dents under microscopic observation. Compared with the unencapsulated apigenin, SCAL demonstrated improved aqueous solubility (10.22 ± 0.18 mg/L), higher antioxidant capacity, and stability against simulated gastrointestinal digestion. The chitosan coating gave a slower in-vitro release of apigenin in SCAL (77.0 ± 6.2%) than that of uncoated apigenin liposomes (94.0 ± 5.3%) at 12 h. The apigenin release kinetics from SCAL could be represented by the Korsmeyer-Peppas model (R2 = 0.971). These findings suggest that SCAL could be a promising delivery system of apigenin for functional food applications.

Nanoencapsulation of garlic essential oil using chitosan nanopolymer and its antifungal and anti-aflatoxin B1 efficacy in vitro and in situ

The present study investigated the comparative efficacy of garlic essential oil (GEO) and its nanoencapsulated within chitosan nanomatrix (GEO-CSNPs) as a novel preservative for the protection of stored food commodities from fungal infestations, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination and lipid peroxidation against a toxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus. GC-MS examination of GEO showed the presence of allyl methyl tri-sulfide (23.10 %) and diallyl sulfide (19.47 %) as the major components. GEO-CSNPs were characterized through TEM micrograph, DLS, XRD, and FTIR instrumentation. During the in-vitro investigation, GEO-CSNPs at 1.0 μL/mL dose completely inhibited the growth of A. flavus while preventing the synthesis of AFB₁ at 0.75 μL/mL compared to the pure GEO. The biochemical analysis reveals that A. flavus exposed to GEO-CSNPs significantly changed its ergosterol level, ions leakage, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and antioxidant system. Additionally, GEO-CSNPs exhibited enhanced antioxidant activity against DPPH compared with GEO. Likewise, during in-situ experiments on A. hypogea GEO-CSNPs MIC and 2 MIC concentration prohibited fungal development, AFB₁ synthesis, and lipid peroxidation or inflicting any negative impacts on germinating seeds. Overall, investigations concluded that GEO-CSNPs could be used as a novel preservative agent to improve the shelf life of stored food commodities.

Bacterial Inhibition Mechanism of Rhamnolipid-Modified β-Carotene/Rutinoside Complex Liposomes

In this study, a new cholesterol-free delivery system named RL-βC-Rts was developed using rhamnolipid (RL) as the surfactant and encapsulating both β-carotene (βC) and rutinoside (Rts). The purpose was to examine its antibacterial properties against four food-borne pathogenic microorganisms including Escherichia coli (E. coli), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), Listeria monocytogenes (L. m), and Salmonella typhimurium (S. typhimurium) and to investigate the mechanism behind the inhibition. Results from bacterial viability tests and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) showed RL-βC-Rts possessed antibacterial activity. Upon further examination of the cell membrane potential, it was observed that E. coli, S. aureus, L. m, and S. typhimurium exhibited a reduction in mean fluorescence intensity by 50.17%, 34.07%, 34.12%, and 47.05%, respectively. These decreases suggested damage to the structure of the cell membrane, which subsequently resulted in the discharge of proteins from the bacteria and the consequential impairment of crucial functions. This was supported by alterations in protein concentration. The results of the RT-qPCR showcased that the expression of genes associated with energy metabolism, tricarboxylic acid cycle, DNA metabolism, virulence factor formation and cell membrane formation could be suppressed by RL-βC-Rts.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12088-023-01077-6.

Preparation, characterization and safety evaluation of Ligusticum chuanxiong essential oils liposomes for treatment of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury

The essential oils of Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort. (CXEO) are considered to be important parts of the pharmacological action of Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort. CXEO have a wide range of applications in various fields. Despite the interesting properties of CXEO, the volatility and low solubility have limited the application. Liposomes are vesicles composed of concentric bilayer lipids arranged around the water environment. Therefore, this study aimed to prepare stable CXEO liposomes (CXEO-LP) to improve the properties. Then, CXEO-LP were prepared by thin film dispersion method and optimized. The results showed that CXEO-LP were well dispersed. Subsequently, in vitro release and antioxidant properties of CXEO-LP were researched. CXEO-LP had slow release effect and oxidation resistance, indicating CXEO-LP may be a potential drug for treating cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI). The nasal mucosa toxicity test and acute toxicity test showed that CXEO-LP had no obvious toxicity to nasal cavity, heart, liver, spleen, lung and kidney tissues. Pharmacodynamic studies found that CXEO-LP significantly improved neurological deficits and brain pathology in a mouse model of CIRI compared to CXEO after intranasal administration. In general, this study showed that CXEO-LP were easy to prepare and continuously released, and had an important development prospect in the treatment of CIRI.

Budesonide-Loaded Bilosomes as a Targeted Delivery Therapeutic Approach Against Acute Lung Injury in Rats

Budesonide (BUD), a glucocorticoids drug, inhibits all steps in the inflammatory response. It can reduce and treat inflammation and other symptoms associated with acute lung injury such as COVID-19. Loading BUD into bilosomes could boost its therapeutic activity, and lessen its frequent administration and side effects. Different bilosomal formulations were prepared where the independent variables were lipid type (Cholesterol, Phospholipon 80H, L-alpha phosphatidylcholine, and Lipoid S45), bile salt type (Na cholate and Na deoxycholate), and drug concentration (10, 20 mg). The measured responses were: vesicle size, entrapment efficiency, and release efficiency. One optimum formulation (composed of cholesterol, Na cholate, and 10 mg of BUD) was selected and investigated for its anti-inflammatory efficacy in vivo using Wistar albino male rats. Randomly allocated rats were distributed into four groups: The first: normal control group and received intranasal saline, the second one acted as the acute lung injury model received intranasal single dose of 2 mg/kg potassium dichromate (PD). Whereas the third and fourth groups received the market product (Pulmicort® nebulising suspension 0.5 mg/ml) and the optimized formulation (0.5 mg/kg; intranasal) for 7 days after PD instillation, respectively. Results showed that the optimized formulation decreased the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, and TGF-β contents as well as reduced PKC content in lung. These findings suggest the potentiality of BUD-loaded bilosomes for the treatment of acute lung injury with the ability of inhibiting the pro-inflammatory cytokines induced COVID-19.

Preparation and characterization of zein-lecithin-total flavonoids from Smilax glabra complex nanoparticles and the study of their antioxidant activity on HepG2 cells

Total flavonoids from Smilax glabra (TFSG) exhibit several biological activities; however, their poor stability limits their application. In this work, zein-lecithin-TFSG complex nanoparticles (Z-L-TFSG NPs) were prepared using the anti-solvent coprecipitation technique. The prepared Z-L-TFSG NPs were spherical with an encapsulation efficiency of 98.0%. Differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and morphology tests revealed that the TFSG were successfully encapsulated by Z-L NPs. Z-L-TFSG NPs showed superior stability and better controlled release characteristics in simulated gastrointestinal digestion. The encapsulation of TFSG by Z-L NPs could improve their antioxidant capacity in vitro. Moreover, Z-L-TFSG NPs could enhance the protective effects of TFSG against H₂O₂-induced oxidative damage to HepG2 cells. The results indicated that the Z-L self-assembled NPs could serve as a promising drug delivery system through the integrated encapsulation of multiple flavonoids.

A Full Factorial Design to Optimize Aminexil Nano Lipid Formulation to Improve Skin Permeation and Efficacy Against Alopecia

Aminexil (AMX) is considered to be one of the most widely used hair growth promoters. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) are employed to increase the permeation of both lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs. Aminexil nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) designed by pre-emulsion/ultrasonication method was utilized for alopecia treatment. For selecting optimum excipients, a solubility study was executed in liquid lipids, solid lipids, surfactants, and co-surfactants. A 2³ full factorial design was utilized for NLC optimization. Characterization of the developed formulas was performed. The penetration of the optimized formula across cuticle tissues was studied using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). AMX showed high solubility in glyceryl monostearate (GMS) and stearic acid, 28.87 ± 2.17 and 58.06 ± 2.227 mg/g, respectively. The results of physicochemical characterization showed that formula A7 was the optimized one. It is composed of GMS (solid lipid), oleic acid:garlic oil (1:1 v/v) (liquid lipid), and a surfactant/co-surfactant mixture (Cremophor EL/Transcutol HP). The particle size (PS) was 238.0 ± 2.13 nm, entrapment efficiency (EE) 100.535 ± 6.73%, and zeta potential (ZP) - 29.3 ± 0.93 mv. Ex vivo permeation study demonstrates the potential of AMX-NLC (formula A7) as a delivery system for AMX. The CLSM highly proved AMX-loaded NLC penetration through the skin. The histological study clearly demonstrated that AMX-loaded NLC promoted hair growth more effectively than the market product in chemotherapy-induced alopecia rats. The acquired findings revealed that targeting of AMX-loaded NLC into hair follicles was improved.

Nano-vesicular carriers for bioactive compounds and their applications in food formulations

The most commonly used vesicular systems in the food industry include liposomes, niosomes, phytosomes, or transfersomes. This review focuses on showing how nano-vesicular carriers (NVCs) amend the properties of bioactive compounds (bioactives), making them suitable for food applications, especially functional foods. In this research, we elaborate on the question of whether bioactive-loaded NVCs affect various food aspects such as their antioxidant capacity, or sensory properties. This review also shows how NVCs improve the long-term release profile of bioactives during storage and at different pH values. Besides, the refinement of digestibility and bioaccessibility of diverse bioactives through NVCs in the gastrointestinal tract is elucidated. NVCs allow for stable vesicle formation (e.g. from anthocyanins) which reduces their cytotoxicity and proliferation of cancer cells, prolongs the release bioactives (e.g. d-limonene) with no critical burst, reduces the biofilm formation capacity of both Gram-positive/negative strains and their biofilm gene expression is down-regulated (in the case of tannic acid), low oxidation (e.g. iron) is endured when exposed to simulated gastric fluid, and unpleasant smell and taste are masked (in case of omega-3 fatty acids). After the incorporation of bioactive-loaded NVCs into food products, their antioxidant capacity is enhanced, maintaining high encapsulation efficiency and enduring pasteurization conditions, and they are not distinguished from control samples in sensory evaluation despite the reverse situation about free bioactives.

A comprehensive and systematic review on potential anticancer activities of eugenol: From pre-clinical evidence to molecular mechanisms of action

BACKGROUND

Eugenol (1-allyl-4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzene) is an important simple phenolic compound mainly derived from Syzygium aromaticum and many other plants. It is traditionally used in ayurveda and aromatherapy for the healing of many health problems. It also has significant applications in dentistry, agriculture, and flavour industry. This simple phenol has an eclectic range of pharmacological properties, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities. It is regarded as safe by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations due to its non-carcinogenic and non-mutagenic properties.

PURPOSE

The aim of this comprehensive review is to present a critical and systematic assessment of the antitumor ability of eugenol and its associated molecular targets in various cancers.

METHODS

It was carried out following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis guidelines. Risk of bias assessment was performed using the SYstematic review centre for laboratory animal experimentation guidelines. The literature search was performed in standard databases such as Science Direct, PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science using the keywords 'eugenol' or 'eugenol essential oil' and 'anti-cancer properties of eugenol'.

RESULTS

The scientific information from fifty-three studies was encompassed in the present review work. Eugenol exhibits significant anticancer effects in a variety of biological pathways, namely apoptosis, autophagy, cell cycle progression, inflammation, invasion, and metastasis. Eugenol-induced apoptosis has been noticed in osteosarcoma, skin tumors, melanoma, leukemia, gastric and mast cells. It decreases the expression of cyclin D1, cyclin B, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, nuclear factor-ƙB, inhibitor of nuclear factor ƙB, and B-cell lymphoma-2. Eugenol increases the expression of B-cell lymphoma-2 (BCL-2) associated X, BH3-interacting domain death agonist, BCL-2 associated agonist of cell death, apoptotic protease activating factor 1, cytochrome c, p21, and p53.

CONCLUSION

The anticancer potential exhibited by eugenol is mainly attributed to its anti-metastatic, anti-proliferative, anti-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory, cell cycle arrest, apoptotic, and autophagic effects. Hence, the use of eugenol alone or along with other chemotherapeutic anticancer agents is found to be very effective in cancer therapy.

A comprehensive review on clove (Caryophyllus aromaticus L.) essential oil and its significance in the formulation of edible coatings for potential food applications

Many studies have demonstrated the use of synthetic preservatives and chemical additives in food is causing poisoning, cancer, and other degenerative disorders. New solutions for food preservation with quality maintenance are currently emerging. As a result, public concern has grown, as they desire to eat healthier products that use natural preservatives and compounds rather than synthetic ones. Clove is a highly prized spice used as a food preservative and for a variety of therapeutic reasons. Clove essential oil and its principal active component, eugenol, indicate antibacterial and antifungal action, aromaticity, and safety as promising and valuable antiseptics in the food sector. Clove essential oil and eugenol are found to have strong inhibition effects on a variety of food-source bacteria, and the mechanisms are linked to lowering migration and adhesion, as well as blocking the creation of biofilm and various virulence factors. This review emphasizes the importance of CEO (clove essential oil) in the food industry and how it can be explored with edible coatings to deliver its functional properties in food preservation.

Nano-Size Characterization and Antifungal Evaluation of Essential Oil Molecules-Loaded Nanoliposomes

Nanoliposomes, bilayer vesicles at the nanoscale, are becoming popular because of their safety, patient compliance, high entrapment efficiency, and prompt action. Several notable biological activities of natural essential oils (EOs), including fungal inhibition, are of supreme interest. As developed, multi-compositional nanoliposomes loaded with various concentrations of clove essential oil (CEO) and tea tree oil (TTO) were thoroughly characterized to gain insight into their nano-size distribution. The present work also aimed to reconnoiter the sustainable synthesis conditions to estimate the efficacy of EOs in bulk and EO-loaded nanoliposomes with multi-functional entities. Following a detailed nano-size characterization of in-house fabricated EO-loaded nanoliposomes, the antifungal efficacy was tested by executing the mycelial growth inhibition (MGI) test using Trichophyton rubrum fungi as a test model. The dynamic light scattering (DLS) profile of as-fabricated EO-loaded nanoliposomes revealed the mean size, polydispersity index (PdI), and zeta potential values as 37.12 ± 1.23 nm, 0.377 ± 0.007, and −36.94 ± 0.36 mV, respectively. The sphere-shaped morphology of CEO and TTO-loaded nanoliposomes was confirmed by a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The existence of characteristic functional bands in all tested counterparts was demonstrated by attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy. Compared to TTO-loaded nanoliposomes, the CEO-loaded nanoliposomes exhibited a maximum entrapment efficacy of 91.57 ± 2.5%. The CEO-loaded nanoliposome fraction, prepared using 1.5 µL/mL concentration, showed the highest MGI of 98.4 ± 0.87% tested against T. rubrum strains compared to the rest of the formulations.

Chitosan Nanoparticle Encapsulation of Antibacterial Essential Oils

Chitosan is the most suitable encapsulation polymer because of its natural abundance, biodegradability, and surface functional groups in the form of free NH₂ groups. The presence of NH₂ groups allows for the facile grafting of functionalized molecules onto the chitosan surface, resulting in multifunctional materialistic applications. Quaternization of chitosan's free amino is one of the typical chemical modifications commonly achieved under acidic conditions. This quaternization improves its ionic character, making it ready for ionic-ionic surface modification. Although the cationic nature of chitosan alone exhibits antibacterial activity because of its interaction with negatively-charged bacterial membranes, the nanoscale size of chitosan further amplifies its antibiofilm activity. Additionally, the researcher used chitosan nanoparticles as polymeric materials to encapsulate antibiofilm agents (such as antibiotics and natural phytochemicals), serving as an excellent strategy to combat biofilm-based secondary infections. This paper provided a summary of available carbohydrate-based biopolymers as antibiofilm materials. Furthermore, the paper focuses on chitosan nanoparticle-based encapsulation of basil essential oil (Ocimum basilicum), mandarin essential oil (Citrus reticulata), Carum copticum essential oil ("Ajwain"), dill plant seed essential oil (Anethum graveolens), peppermint oil (Mentha piperita), green tea oil (Camellia sinensis), cardamom essential oil, clove essential oil (Eugenia caryophyllata), cumin seed essential oil (Cuminum cyminum), lemongrass essential oil (Cymbopogon commutatus), summer savory essential oil (Satureja hortensis), thyme essential oil, cinnamomum essential oil (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), and nettle essential oil (Urtica dioica). Additionally, chitosan nanoparticles are used for the encapsulation of the major essential components carvacrol and cinnamaldehyde, the encapsulation of an oil-in-water nanoemulsion of eucalyptus oil (Eucalyptus globulus), the encapsulation of a mandarin essential oil nanoemulsion, and the electrospinning nanofiber of collagen hydrolysate-chitosan with lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) and dill (Anethum graveolens) essential oil.

Preparation of an eco-friendly antibacterial agent for food packaging containing Houttuynia cordata Thunb. extract

This study aims to develop an antibacterial agent that can be used for food packaging. Essential oils of Houttuynia cordata Thunb., a well-known medical herb, were extracted by two methods: multi-solvent consecutive extraction method and single ethanol extraction with a pre-heating method. Consequently, the extract obtained by the single ethanol extraction with a pre-heating method was more satisfactory from the operational and economic aspects. Afterwards, one of the encapsulation techniques: co-precipitation method using β-cyclodextrins as wall materials, was applied to form capsules for the protection of the obtained extract. After the capsule synthesis, the results of scanning electron micrographs and X-ray diffraction showed β-cyclodextrin crystallites in the form of thinner plates became oriented upon co-precipitation. Combining the results of Fourier transform-infrared spectra and an antibacterial assay using Bacillus subtilis as an object microorganism, the extract was confirmed to be successfully encapsulated within hollow cavities of β-cyclodextrins. A significant inhibitory activity on the growth and breeding of Bacillus subtilis was observed after the addition of fabricated capsules, which suggests the capsules containing the Houttuynia cordata Thunb. extract can be used as eco-friendly antibacterial agents for food packaging.

This study developed an eco-friendly antibacterial agent for food packaging containing Houttuynia cordata Thunb. extract via encapsulation technology.

Host-Guest Inclusion Complexes of Natural Products and Nanosystems: Applications in the Development of Repellents

Repellents are compounds that prevent direct contact between the hosts and the arthropods that are vectors of diseases. Several studies have described the repellent activities of natural compounds obtained from essential oils. In addition, these chemical constituents have been pointed out as alternatives to conventional synthetic repellents due to their interesting residual protection and low toxicity to the environment. However, these compounds have been reported with short shelf life, in part, due to their volatile nature. Nanoencapsulation provides protection, stability, conservation, and controlled release for several compounds. Here, we review the most commonly used polymeric/lipid nanosystems applied in the encapsulation of small organic molecules obtained from essential oils that possess repellent activity, and we also explore the theoretical aspects related to the intermolecular interactions, thermal stability, and controlled release of the nanoencapsulated bioactive compounds.

Naturally-Sourced Antibacterial Polymeric Nanomaterials with Special Reference to Modified Polymer Variants

Despite the recent advancements in treating bacterial infections, antibiotic resistance (AR) is still an emerging issue. However, polymeric nanocarriers have offered unconventional solutions owing to their capability of exposing more functional groups, high encapsulation efficiency (EE) and having sustained delivery. Natural polymeric nanomaterials (NMs) are contemplated one of the most powerful strategies in drug delivery (DD) in terms of their safety, biodegradability with almost no side effects. Every nanostructure is tailored to enhance the system functionality. For example, cost-effective copper NPs could be generated in situ in cellulose sheets, demonstrating powerful antibacterial prospects for food safety sector. Dendrimers also have the capacity for peptide encapsulation, protecting them from proteolytic digestion for prolonged half life span. On the other hand, the demerits of naturally sourced polymers still stand against their capacities in DD. Hence, Post-synthetic modification of natural polymers could play a provital role in yielding new hybrids while retaining their biodegradability, which could be suitable for building novel super structures for DD platforms. This is the first review presenting the contribution of natural polymers in the fabrication of eight polymeric NMs including particulate nanodelivery and nanofabrics with antibacterial and antibiofilm prospects, referring to modified polymer derivatives to explore their full potential for obtaining sustainable DD products.

Nanodelivery of essential oils as efficient tools against antimicrobial resistance: a review of the type and physical-chemical properties of the delivery systems and applications

This review provides a synthesis of the last ten years of research on nanodelivery systems used for the delivery of essential oils (EOs), as well as their potential as a viable alternative to antibiotics in human and veterinary therapy. The use of essential oils alone in therapy is not always possible due to several limitations but nanodelivery systems seem to be able to overcome these issues. The choice of the essential oil, as well as the choice of the nanodelivery system influences the therapeutic efficacy obtained. While several studies on the characterization of EOs exist, this review assesses the characteristics of the nanomaterials used for the delivery of essential oils, as well as impact on the functionality of nanodelivered essential oils, and successful applications. Two classes of delivery systems stand out: polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) including chitosan, cellulose, zein, sodium alginate, and poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA), and lipidic NPs including nanostructured lipid carriers, solid lipid NPs, nanoemulsions, liposomes, and niosomes. While the advantages and disadvantages of these delivery systems and information on stability, release, and efficacy of the nanodelivered EOs are covered in the literature as presented in this review, essential information, such as the speed of emergence of a potential bacteria resistance to these new systems, or dosages for each type of infection and for each animal species or humans is still missing today. Therefore, more quantitative and in vivo studies should be conducted before the adoption of EOs loaded NPs as an alternative to antibiotics, where appropriate.

Laurus nobilis L. Essential Oil-Loaded PLGA as a Nanoformulation Candidate for Cancer Treatment

The aim of this study was to obtain essential oil (LNEO) from the Laurus nobilis L. plant, and to prepare LNEO-loaded poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) as an approach in cancer treatment. The components of the obtained LNEO were analyzed using GC-MS. The LNEO-NPs were synthesized by the single-emulsion method. The LNEO-NPs were characterized using UV-Vis spectrometry, Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and a DNA binding assay, which was performed via the UV-Vis titration method. According to the results, the LNEO-NPs had a 211.4 ± 4.031 nm average particle size, 0.068 ± 0.016 PdI, and −7.87 ± 1.15 mV zeta potential. The encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity were calculated as 59.25% and 25.65%, respectively, and the in vitro drug release study showed an LNEO release of 93.97 ± 3.78% over the 72 h period. Moreover, the LNEO was intercalatively bound to CT-DNA. In addition, the mechanism of action of LNEO on a dual PI3K/mTOR inhibitor was predicted, and its antiproliferative activity and mechanism were determined using molecular docking analysis. It was concluded that LNEO-loaded PLGA NPs may be used for cancer treatment as a novel phytotherapeutic agent-based controlled-release system.

Mouthwash Formulation Co-Delivering Quercetin and Mint Oil in Liposomes Improved with Glycol and Ethanol and Tailored for Protecting and Tackling Oral Cavity

The aim of this work was the simultaneous loading of quercetin and mint essential oil (mint oil) in phospholipid vesicles specifically tailored to obtain an antibacterial and antioxidant mouthwash. The vesicles were prepared using soy lecithin and Tween 80 as bilayer components, and a mixture of phosphate buffer solution (33%), propylene glycol (33%) and ethanol (33%) as dispersing phase. The formation of regularly shaped, spherical and unilamellar vesicles was confirmed by cryogenic transmission electron microscopy analyses. Similarly, light scattering results disclosed that the size of the vesicles increased by increasing the concentration of mint oil, but at the same time the high amount of mint oil ensured high stability, as the size of these vesicles remained unchanged during 12 months of storage. All tested formulations were highly biocompatible towards epithelial cells and capable of counteracting oxidative cell damages caused by hydrogen peroxide. Moreover, the vesicles prepared with the highest concentration of mint oil inhibited the proliferation of the cariogenic Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans) and Lactobacillus acidophilus (L. acidophilus).

The relationship between the structure and functionality of essential PUFA delivery systems based on sodium caseinate with phosphatidylcholine liposomes without and with a plant antioxidant: an in vitro and in vivo study

The aim of this work was to establish the main relationship between the structure and functionality of supramolecular complexes formed by sodium caseinate (SC) with phosphatidylcholine (PC) liposomes filled with fish oil (FO) to an equal mass ratio of n-3 to n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the absence and presence of one of the most effective plant antioxidants, namely the essential oil of clove buds (EOC). The functionality of the supramolecular complexes (SC-PC-FO and SC-PC-FO-EOC) was considered from the point of view of the possibility of their use as effective delivery systems for long-chain n-3 PUFAs (eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids from FO). The laser light scattering method was used in the static, dynamic and electrophoretic modes to characterize the structure and thermodynamic parameters of the supramolecular complexes in an aqueous medium. It was found that the SC-PC-FO and SC-PC-FO-EOC complex particles had the following similar properties: nanosize; a spherical shape; 100% solubility in an aqueous medium (pH 7.0, ionic strength = 0.001 M); a high encapsulating ability of SC (up to 70%) in relation to the studied liposomes; and a high protective ability relative to lipid autooxidation (up to 96% on the 20th day of storage at room temperature in light). In addition, a sequential transformation of both the structural and thermodynamic parameters has been observed for the complex particles under in vitro simulated gastrointestinal (GI) conditions in accordance with the INFOGEST protocol. A greater release of the encapsulated lipids from the enzymatically hydrolyzed complex particles was observed at the small intestine stage compared to their release at the gastric stage. These data were in good agreement with those on the assessment of the bioavailability of the target PUFAs in in vivo experiments based on the chronic intake of aqueous solutions of the complexes (both SC-PC-FO and SC-PC-FO-EOC) by experimental mice for 92 days. Liver lipid profiles of the mice, obtained by gas-liquid chromatography, showed the following: (i) an almost twofold increase in the DHA content as compared with that of the control; (ii) an almost threefold decrease in the mass ratio of arachidonic acid (AA) (C20:4 n-6) to DHA (C22:6 n-3) compared to that of the control due to both a significant decrease in the AA content and a simultaneous pronounced increase in the DHA content; and (iii) an almost twofold decrease in the mass ratio of the total amounts of n-6 to n-3 PUFAs compared to that of the control.

The Effect of the Liposomal Encapsulated Saffron Extract on the Physicochemical Properties of a Functional Ricotta Cheese

In this study, the encapsulation of saffron extract (SE) was examined at four various concentrations of soy lecithin (0.5%–4% w/v) and constant concentration of SE (0.25% w/v). Particle size and zeta potential of liposomes were in the range of 155.9–208.1 nm and −34.6–43.4 mV, respectively. Encapsulation efficiency was in the range of 50.73%–67.02%, with the stability of nanoliposomes in all treatments being >90%. Encapsulated SE (2% lecithin) was added to ricotta cheese at different concentrations (0%, 0.125%, 1%, and 2% w/v), and physicochemical and textural properties of the cheese were examined. Lecithin concentration significantly (p ≤ 0.05) affected the particle size, zeta potential, stability, and encapsulation efficiency of the manufactured liposomes. In terms of chemical composition and color of the functional cheese, the highest difference was observed between the control cheese and the cheese enriched with 2% liposomal encapsulated SE. Hardness and chewiness increased significantly (p ≤ 0.05) in the cheeses containing encapsulated SE compared to the control cheese. However, there was no significant difference in the case of adhesiveness, cohesiveness, and gumminess among different cheeses. Overall, based on the findings of this research, liposomal encapsulation was an efficient method for the delivery of SE in ricotta cheese as a novel functional food.

Encapsulation of volatile compounds in liquid media: Fragrances, flavors, and essential oils in commercial formulations

The first marketed example of the application of microcapsules dates back to 1957. Since then, microencapsulation techniques and knowledge have progressed in a plethora of technological fields, and efforts have been directed toward the design of progressively more efficient carriers. The protection of payloads from the exposure to unfavorable environments indeed grants enhanced efficacy, safety, and stability of encapsulated species while allowing for a fine tuning of their release profile and longer lasting beneficial effects. Perfumes or, more generally, active-loaded microcapsules are nowadays present in a very large number of consumer products. Commercial products currently make use of rigid, stable polymer-based microcapsules with excellent release properties. However, this type of microcapsules does not meet certain sustainability requirements such as biocompatibility and biodegradability: the leaking via wastewater contributes to the alarming phenomenon of microplastic pollution with about 4% of total microplastic in the environment. Therefore, there is a need to address new issues which have been emerging in relation to the poor environmental profile of such materials. The progresses in some of the main application fields of microencapsulation, such as household care, toiletries, cosmetics, food, and pesticides are reviewed herein. The main technologies employed in microcapsules production and the mechanisms underlying the release of actives are also discussed. Both the advantages and disadvantages of every technique have been considered to allow a careful choice of the most suitable technique for a specific target application and prepare the ground for novel ideas and approaches for encapsulation strategies that we expect to be proposed within the next years.

Encapsulation of α-Pinene in Delivery Systems Based on Liposomes and Cyclodextrins

The essential oil component α-pinene has multiple biological activities. However, its application is limited owing to its volatility, low aqueous solubility, and chemical instability. For the aim of improving its physicochemical properties, α-pinene was encapsulated in conventional liposomes (CLs) and drug-in-cyclodextrin-in-liposomes (DCLs). Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin/α-pinene (HP-β-CD/α-pinene) inclusion complexes were prepared in aqueous solution, and the optimal solubilization of α-pinene occurred at HP-β-CD:α-pinene molar ratio of 7.5:1. The ethanol-injection method was applied to produce different formulations using saturated (Phospholipon 90H) or unsaturated (Lipoid S100) phospholipids in combination with cholesterol. The size, the phospholipid and cholesterol incorporation rates, the encapsulation efficiency (EE), and the loading rate (LR) of α-pinene were determined, and the storage stability of liposomes was assessed. The results showed that α-pinene was efficiently entrapped in CLs and DCLs with high EE values. Moreover, Lipoid S100 CLs displayed the highest LR (22.9 ± 2.2%) of α-pinene compared to the other formulations. Both carrier systems HP-β-CD/α-pinene inclusion complex and Lipoid S100 CLs presented a gradual release of α-pinene. Furthermore, the DPPH radical scavenging activity of α-pinene was maintained upon encapsulation in Lipoid S100 CLs. Finally, it was found that all formulations were stable after three months of storage at 4 °C.