Determination of multi-mycotoxin occurrence in cereals, nuts and their products in Cameroon by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)

The characteristics, occurrence, and toxicological effects of alternariol: a mycotoxin

Alternaria species are mycotoxin-producing fungi known to infect fresh produce and to cause their spoilage. Humans get exposed to fungal secondary metabolites known as mycotoxin via the ingestion of contaminated food. Alternariol (AOH) (C14H10O5) is an isocoumarins produced by different species of Alternaria including Alternaria alternata. AOH is often found in grain, fruits and fruits-based food products with high levels in legumes, nuts, and tomatoes. AOH was first discovered in 1953, and it is nowadays linked to esophagus cancer and endocrine disruption due to its similarity to estrogen. Although considered as an emerging mycotoxin with no regulated levels in food, AOH occurs in highly consumed dietary products and has been detected in various masked forms, which adds to its occurrence. Therefore, this comprehensive review was developed to give an overview on recent literature in the field of AOH. The current study summarizes published data on occurrence levels of AOH in different food products in the last ten years and evaluates those levels in comparison to recommended levels by the regulating entities. Such surveillance facilitates the work of health risk assessors and highlights commodities that are most in need of AOH levels regulation. In addition, the effects of AOH on cells and animal models were summarized in two tables; data include the last two-year literature studies. The review addresses also the main characteristics of AOH and the possible human exposure routes, the populations at risk, and the effect of anthropogenic activities on the widespread of the mycotoxin. The commonly used detection and control methods described in the latest literature are also discussed to guide future researchers to focus on mitigating mycotoxins contamination in the food industry. This review aims mainly to serve as a guideline on AOH for mycotoxin regulation developers and health risk assessors.

Postharvest Practices, Perceptions, and Knowledge of Mycotoxins among Groundnut Farmers in the Adamawa, Centre, and North Regions of Cameroon

In many parts of the world, including Cameroon, mycotoxin contamination of groundnuts remains a major constraint affecting their use as food. Understanding the contributing factors is an essential intervention to reduce contamination and people's exposure to these harmful toxins. The aim of this research was to identify the factors associated with the knowledge, perceptions, and postharvest practices of groundnut farmers in three production basins in Cameroon. Data were collected through surveys and analyzed using descriptive methods and logistic regression models. The results show that groundnut farmers are little aware of the existence of mycotoxins (12%) and totally unaware of the existence of aflatoxins (100%). Only 7.1% of these farmers are aware of the effects of mycotoxins on consumer health. After evaluation, the large majority of farmers scored poor marks for knowledge (86%) and practice (98.7%) in the management of mould and mycotoxins in groundnuts. Knowledge of mycotoxins was positively associated with the level of education [OR = 3.42; (95%-IC: 1.00-16.00); p < 0.05] and region [OR = 4.49; (95%-IC: 1.09-20.3); p < 0.05]. Farmers' good practices were linked to their production experience [OR = 6.06, (95% CI: 0.91-18.4), p = 0.035]. The use of mouldy groundnut for feed was associated with age [OR = 3.34, (95% CI: 1.14-10.2), p = 0.03], sex [OR = 0. 43, (IC-95%: 1.14-1.05), p = 0.026], marital status [OR = 0.35, (IC-95%: 0.14-0.79), p = 0.015], and production region [OR = 0.27, (IC-95%: 0.13-0.56)]. In conclusion, groundnut farmers had insufficient knowledge of mycotoxins, no knowledge of aflatoxins, and suboptimal handling and storage practices for this commodity. This contributes to increasing the risk of exposure for the population and requires mitigation measures, including awareness campaigns on mycotoxins, specifically aflatoxins, and capacity building for farmers in terms of storage and postharvest management of foodstuffs.

Incidence and health risk assessment of hydrogen cyanide and multi-mycotoxins in Nigerian garri

Garri is a granular, starchy food prepared by the fermentation of mashed cassava. Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and mycotoxins are contaminants in certain foods at different points along the food value chain. The incidence and contamination levels of HCN and multi-mycotoxins in garri from five agroecological zones of Nigeria were determined using a spectrophotometric method and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectroscopy (UHPLC-MS/MS), respectively. The health risk associated with the consumption of contaminated garri was assessed. The health risk assessment model was used to calculate the dietary exposure of humans to the mycotoxins in garri. This was done by estimating the daily intake (EDI), the percentage tolerable daily intake (%TDI), the annual hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cases attributable to exposure to aflatoxins (AFs) in garri, as well as the HCC risk. The average intake of garri was estimated at 0.303 kg/day for a Nigerian adult. The incidence of HCN was 98.3% (0.056-2.463 mg/kg), and fermentation reduced the HCN level in garri more than other processing steps. The twenty-one mycotoxins identified and quantified were all within maximum levels, as applicable to those that are regulated by the EU. The %TDI for the other mycotoxins, with the exception of AFs, showed no alarming health risk with garri consumption. Annual HCC cases resulting from AF in garri were estimated at 10-60 cases for HBsAg + ve individuals and 4-23 cases for HBsAg - ve individuals based on 8.1% hepatitis B virus (HBV) incidence. Results further revealed no interdependence between HCN levels and mycotoxin content. This work suggests an unlikely chance of acute toxicity from HCN and major mycotoxins from a garri-based diet in Nigeria. Hence, it is recommended that concerned regulatory bodies maintain the existing permissible limits for HCN in Garri.

Simultaneous detection of AFB1 and aflD gene by "Y" shaped aptamer fluorescent biosensor based on double quantum dots

The developed method for simultaneous detection of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and aflD genes can effectively monitor from the source and reduce the safety problems and economic losses caused by the production of aflatoxin, which can be of great significance for food safety regulations. In this paper, we constructed a sensitive and convenient fluorescent biosensor to detect AFB1 and aflD genes simultaneously based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between quantum dots (QDs) and a black hole quenching agent. A stable "Y" shaped aptasensor was employed as the detection platform and a double quantum dot labeled DNA fragment was utilized to be the sensing element in this work. When the targets of AFB1 and aflD genes were presented in the solution, the aptamer in the "Y" shaped probe is specifically recognized by the target. At this time, both Si-carbon quantum dots (Si-CDs) and CdTe QDs are far away from the BHQ1 and BHQ3 to recover the fluorescence. The linear range of the prepared fluorescence simultaneous detection method was as wide as 0.5-500 ng·mL-1 with detection lines of 0.64 ng·mL-1 for AFB1 and 0.5-500 nM with detection lines of 0.75 nM for aflD genes (3σ/k). This fabricated fluorescent biosensor was further validated in real rice flour and corn flour samples, which also achieved good results. The recoveries were calculated by comparing the known and found amounts of AFB1 which ranged from 88.4 to approximately 115.32% in the rice flour samples and 90.7 ~ 102.58% in the corn flour samples. The recoveries of aflD genes ranged from 84.32 to approximately 109.3% in the rice flour samples and 89.48 ~ 100.99% in the corn flour samples. Therefore, the proposed biosensor can significantly improve food safety and quality control through a simple, fast, and sensitive agricultural product monitoring and detection system.

Innovative approaches for mycotoxin detection in various food categories

Mycotoxins (MTs), produced by filamentous fungi, represent a severe hazard to the health of humans and food safety, affecting the quality of various agricultural products. They can contaminate a wide range of foods, during any processing phase before or after harvest. Animals and humans who consume MTs-contaminated food or feed may experience acute or chronic poisoning, which may result in serious pathological consequences. Accordingly, developing rapid, easy, and accurate methods of MTs detection in food becomes highly urgent and critical as a quality control and to guarantee food safety and lower health hazards. In this review, we highlighted and discussed innovative approaches like biosensors, fluorescent polarization, capillary electrophoresis, infrared spectroscopy, and electronic noses for MT identification pointing out current challenges and future directions. The limitations, current challenges, and future directions of conventional detection methods versus innovative methods have also been highlighted and discussed.

Assessment of dietary exposure and levels of mycotoxins in sorghum from Niger State of Nigeria

This study reports levels of mycotoxins in sorghum from Niger State, Nigeria, and provides a comprehensive assessment of their potential health risks by combining mycotoxin levels and dietary exposure assessment. A total of 240 samples of red and white sorghum were collected from both stores and markets across four microclimatic zones. Fungal species were identified using a dilution plate method. Aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, and ochratoxin (OTA) were quantified using HPLC, whereas cyclopiazonic acid, fumonisins (FUMs) and zearalenone were quantified using ELISA. A. flavus and A. fumigatus were dominant fungal species followed by F. verticilloides, A. oryzae and P. verrucosum. Aflatoxins (mean: 29.97 µg/kg) were detected in all samples, whereas OTA (mean: 37.5 µg/kg) and FUMs (mean: 3269.8 µg/kg) were detected in 72% and 50% of the samples, respectively. Mycotoxins frequently co-occurred in binary mixtures of AFs + OTA and AFs + FUMs. Dietary exposure estimates were highest for FUMs at 230% of TDI and margin of exposures (MOEs) for both AFs and OTA (<10,000) indicating a potential risk associated with combined exposure to AFs and OTA. The Risk of hepatocellular carcinoma cases (HCC/year) attributable to AFs and OTA exposure from sorghum was estimated to be 5.99 × 105 and 0.24 × 105 cases for HBsAg + individuals based on 13.6% HBV incidence. Similarly, the HCC/year for AFs and OTA were assessed to be 3.59 × 105 and 0.14 × 105 at an 8.1% prevalence rate. Therefore, the results of this study demonstrate the high prevalence and dietary exposure to mycotoxins through sorghum consumption, raising public health and trade concerns.

Recent Progress of Electrochemical Aptasensors toward AFB1 Detection (2018-2023)

Food contaminants represent possible threats to humans and animals as severe food safety hazards. Prolonged exposure to contaminated food often leads to chronic diseases such as cancer, kidney or liver failure, immunosuppression, or genotoxicity. Aflatoxins are naturally produced by strains of the fungi species Aspergillus, which is one of the most critical and poisonous food contaminants worldwide. Given the high percentage of contaminated food products, traditional detection methods often prove inadequate. Thus, it becomes imperative to develop fast, accurate, and easy-to-use analytical methods to enable safe food products and good practices policies. Focusing on the recent progress (2018-2023) of electrochemical aptasensors for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) detection in food and beverage samples, without pretending to be exhaustive, we present an overview of the most important label-free and labeled sensing strategies. Simultaneous and competitive aptamer-based strategies are also discussed. The aptasensors are summarized in tabular format according to the detection mode. Sample treatments performed prior analysis are discussed. Emphasis was placed on the nanomaterials used in the aptasensors' design for aptamer-tailored immobilization and/or signal amplification. The advantages and limitations of AFB1 electrochemical aptasensors for field detection are presented.

Advancing Mycotoxin Detection: Multivariate Rapid Analysis on Corn Using Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)

Mycotoxin contamination on food and feed can have deleterious effect on human and animal health. Agricultural crops may contain one or more mycotoxin compounds; therefore, a good multiplex detection method is desirable to ensure food safety. In this study, we developed a rapid method using label-free surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) to simultaneously detect three common types of mycotoxins found on corn, namely aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin A (OTA). The intrinsic chemical fingerprint from each mycotoxin was characterized by their unique Raman spectra, enabling clear discrimination between them. The limit of detection (LOD) of AFB1, ZEN, and OTA on corn were 10 ppb (32 nM), 20 ppb (64 nM), and 100 ppb (248 nM), respectively. Multivariate statistical analysis was used to predict concentrations of AFB1, ZEN, and OTA up to 1.5 ppm (4.8 µM) based on the SERS spectra of known concentrations, resulting in a correlation coefficient of 0.74, 0.89, and 0.72, respectively. The sampling time was less than 30 min per sample. The application of label-free SERS and multivariate analysis is a promising method for rapid and simultaneous detection of mycotoxins in corn and may be extended to other types of mycotoxins and crops.

The Occurrence of Non-Regulated Mycotoxins in Foods: A Systematic Review

The aim of this systematic review is to provide an update on the occurrence and co-occurrence of selected non-regulated mycotoxins and provide an overview of current regulations. Fifteen non-regulated mycotoxins were found in 19 food categories worldwide. On top of that, 38 different combinations of non-regulated mycotoxins were found, with mixtures varying from binary combinations up to 12 mycotoxins. Taking into consideration the amount of evidence regarding the prevalence and co-occurrence of non-regulated mycotoxins, future steps should be taken considering continuous monitoring, scientific exchange, and generation of high-quality data. To enhance data quality, guidelines outlining the minimum quality criteria for both occurrence data and metadata are needed. By doing so, we can effectively address concerns related to the toxicity of non-regulated mycotoxins. Furthermore, obtaining more data concerning the co-occurrence of both regulated and non-regulated mycotoxins could aid in supporting multiple chemical risk assessment methodologies. Implementing these steps could bolster food safety measures, promote evidence-based regulations, and ultimately safeguard public health from the potential adverse effects of non-regulated mycotoxins.

Determination of Multimycotoxin in Cereal-Based Products Sold in Open-Air Markets

In this study, a total of 140 cereal-based foods sold in temporary open-air markets were analyzed by LC-MS/MS for aflatoxin B₁, B₂, G₁, G₂, ochratoxin (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B₁, fumonisin B₂, citrinin (CIT), HT-2, and T-2 toxins. Breakfast cereals (n:27), cornmeal (n:41), extruded maize (n:32), and oatmeal (n:40) purchased from these alternative shopping areas created to meet the food needs of low-income people in the suburbs formed the sample set of the study. These foods, which are sold in areas that are out of legal control and greatly affected by external environmental conditions, are more open to health risks. Mycotoxins, chemicals of a biological origin, are some of the most important of these risks. In terms of public health, it is important to investigate the presence of mycotoxins in foods, which can cause acute and chronic diseases such as immunosuppression, genotoxic, estrogenic, teratogenic effect, cancer, and liver and kidney dysfunctions. Grain-based foods are often contaminated with a large number of mycotoxins, but legal regulations have not been prepared that consider the health risks associated with the co-existence of mycotoxins. Many of the studies have focused on the presence of a single mycotoxin and the risks it poses. As a result, aflatoxin B₁ levels in 28.57% of the samples and total aflatoxin (B₁ + B₂ + G₁ + G₂) levels in 26.43% of the samples were determined to exceed the limits defined in the "Turkish Food Codex Contaminants Regulation". Citrinin could not be detected in any of the samples. The rate of mycotoxin occurrences above the limit of detection (LOD) in grain-based food samples ranged from 22.86% to 99.29%. Total aflatoxin (TAF) + Total Fumonisin (FUM) were found in 83.57% of the samples; TAF + FUM + OTA in 82.14%; TAF + FUM + OTA + T-2 in 44.29%; TAF + FUM + OTA + DON + HT-2, TAF + FUM + OTA + DON + T-2, and TAF + FUM + OTA + DON + ZEN in 22.86% of the samples.

Occurrence and Dietary Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins in Most Consumed Foods in Cameroon: Exploring Current Data to Understand Futures Challenges

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxins that contaminate different crops and foodstuffs under certain circumstances during harvesting, handling, storage, and processing. Neither the dietary intake of mycotoxins in Cameroon is well characterized, nor its health effects on the consumers. This review is intended to be the first milestone towards national risk management of mycotoxins. It is noteworthy that mycotoxins contaminate the main staple foods of Cameroonian communities, which are also often used as complementary foods for infants, young children, and people with compromised immune systems (e.g., HIV/AIDS), thus calling for urgent intervention in primary and secondary prevention. Very few data exist on mycotoxin contamination in Cameroonian agricultural commodities and food items. Only 25 studies from 14 different authors have been published in the last decade. On the basis of available data in Cameroon, the Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) of major mycotoxins in foods for Aflatoxins was 0.0018-14.2 µg/kgbw/day in maize, 0.027-2.36 µg/kgbw/day in cassava, and 0.023-0.1 µg/kgbw/day in groundnuts. The estimated daily intake of fumonisins was 0.12-60.6 µg/kgbw/day in maize and 0.056-0.82 µg/kgbw/day in beans. Based on the estimated distribution of human exposure levels by food, maize and cassava are the major sources of exposure and should be prioritized, followed by beans and spices. This estimate will be updated along with improvements on the national database on mycotoxin contamination of Cameroonian foods.

Impact of Enniatin and Deoxynivalenol Co-Occurrence on Plant, Microbial, Insect, Animal and Human Systems: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives

Fusarium mycotoxins commonly contaminate agricultural products resulting in a serious threat to both animal and human health. The co-occurrence of different mycotoxins in the same cereal field is very common, so the risks as well as the functional and ecological effects of mycotoxins cannot always be predicted by focusing only on the effect of the single contaminants. Enniatins (ENNs) are among the most frequently detected emerging mycotoxins, while deoxynivalenol (DON) is probably the most common contaminant of cereal grains worldwide. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the simultaneous exposure to these mycotoxins, with emphasis on the combined effects in multiple organisms. Our literature analysis shows that just a few studies on ENN-DON toxicity are available, suggesting the complexity of mycotoxin interactions, which include synergistic, antagonistic, and additive effects. Both ENNs and DON modulate drug efflux transporters, therefore this specific ability deserves to be explored to better understand their complex biological role. Additionally, future studies should investigate the interaction mechanisms of mycotoxin co-occurrence on different model organisms, using concentrations closer to real exposures.

Current Developments of Analytical Methodologies for Aflatoxins' Determination in Food during the Last Decade (2013-2022), with a Particular Focus on Nuts and Nut Products

This review aims to provide a clear overview of the most important analytical development in aflatoxins analysis during the last decade (2013-2022) with a particular focus on nuts and nuts-related products. Aflatoxins (AFs), a group of mycotoxins produced mainly by certain strains of the genus Aspergillus fungi, are known to impose a serious threat to human health. Indeed, AFs are considered carcinogenic to humans, group 1, by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Since these toxins can be found in different food commodities, food control organizations worldwide impose maximum levels of AFs for commodities affected by this threat. Thus, they represent a cumbersome issue in terms of quality control, analytical result reliability, and economical losses. It is, therefore, mandatory for food industries to perform analysis on potentially contaminated commodities before the trade. A full perspective of the whole analytical workflow, considering each crucial step during AFs investigation, namely sampling, sample preparation, separation, and detection, will be presented to the reader, focusing on the main challenges related to the topic. A discussion will be primarily held regarding sample preparation methodologies such as partitioning, solid phase extraction (SPE), and immunoaffinity (IA) related methods. This will be followed by an overview of the leading analytical techniques for the detection of aflatoxins, in particular liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to a fluorescence detector (FLD) and/or mass spectrometry (MS). Moreover, the focus on the analytical procedure will not be specific only to traditional methodologies, such as LC, but also to new direct approaches based on imaging and the ability to detect AFs, reducing the need for sample preparation and separative techniques.

Type B Trichothecenes in Cereal Grains and Their Products: Recent Advances on Occurrence, Toxicology, Analysis and Post-Harvest Decontamination Strategies

Type B trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol) and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3G) are secondary toxic metabolites produced mainly by mycotoxigenic Fusarium fungi and have been recognized as natural contaminants in cereals and cereal-based foods. The latest studies have proven the various negative effects of type B trichothecenes on human health. Due to the widespread occurrence of Fusarium species, contamination by these mycotoxins has become an important aspect for public health and agro-food systems worldwide. Hence, their monitoring and surveillance in various foods have received a significant deal of attention in recent years. In this review, an up-to-date overview of the occurrence profile of major type B trichothecenes and DON-3G in cereal grains and their toxicological implications are outlined. Furthermore, current trends in analytical methodologies for their determination are overviewed. This review also covers the factors affecting the production of these mycotoxins, as well as the management strategies currently employed to mitigate their contamination in foods. Information presented in this review provides good insight into the progress that has been achieved in the last years for monitoring type B trichothecenes and DON-3G, and also would help the researchers in their further investigations on metabolic pathway analysis and toxicological studies of these Fusarium mycotoxins.

Mycotoxin levels and characterization of natural anti-fungal phytochemicals in pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) from Nigeria's six agroecological zones

This study reports levels of multiple mycotoxins across Nigeria's six agro-ecological zones and corresponding levels of natural anti-fungal phytochemicals present in pearl millet (PM). 220 representative composite samples of PM were collected for mycotoxin analysis using ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS), and 24 were randomly selected for determination of metabolites using gas chromatography-high resolution time of flight-mass spectrometry (GC-HRTOF-MS). In total, 15 mycotoxins were detected, all with levels below the European Union (EU) permissible limits and level of aflatoxins only up to 1.34 µg/kg. This is in sharp contrast to high levels of mycotoxins reported in maize samples from the same agroecological zones. Phytochemical analysis of the same samples identified a total of 88 metabolites, 30 of which are known anti-fungal properties from other previously published studies. The most common of these include methyl ester, bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, and ç-tocopherol. The number of anti-fungal metabolites recovered from each sample ranged from 3 to 17 and varied widely in both number and composition across the agroecological zones. The anti-fungal metabolites may probably make PM less susceptible to fungal proliferation compared to other grains. Hence, it is worth exploring for possible sources of biological control products from PM.

Six Main Contributing Factors to High Levels of Mycotoxin Contamination in African Foods

Africa is one of the regions with high mycotoxin contamination of foods and continues to record high incidences of liver cancers globally. The agricultural sector of most African countries depends largely on climate variables for crop production. Production of mycotoxins is climate-sensitive. Most stakeholders in the food production chain in Africa are not aware of the health and economic effects of consuming contaminated foods. The aim of this review is to evaluate the main factors and their degree of contribution to the high levels of mycotoxins in African foods. Thus, knowledge of the contributions of different factors responsible for high levels of these toxins will be a good starting point for the effective mitigation of mycotoxins in Africa. Google Scholar was used to conduct a systemic search. Six factors were found to be linked to high levels of mycotoxins in African foods, in varying degrees. Climate change remains the main driving factor in the production of mycotoxins. The other factors are partly man-made and can be manipulated to become a more profitable or less climate-sensitive response. Awareness of the existence of these mycotoxins and their economic as well as health consequences remains paramount. The degree of management of these factors regarding mycotoxins varies from one region of the world to another.

Quality control and mycotoxin levels in food in the Palestinian market

A total of 51 food samples (18 rice, 17 wheat flour, and 16 nuts) were randomly collected from different shops and analysed for the presence of total aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and fumonisins, using a lateral flow competitive immunochromatographic assay method. Mycological contamination (total aerobic and fungi count), colour index (L*a*b*) and moisture content were also evaluated. Sensory characteristics for mycotoxins contaminated and uncontaminated samples of rice and wheat flour were evaluated by 40 panellists. Forty-five per cent of all samples were positive for aflatoxins as the most occurred mycotoxins, with a range of 2-8.1 μg/kg. Fungal counts were not significantly different between contaminated and uncontaminated rice and wheat flour samples. In addition, panellists were able to discriminate between contaminated and uncontaminated rice samples by detection of mouldy flavour, spoilage symptoms, earthy flavour, and the degree of freshness.

Evaluating the Performance of Lateral Flow Devices for Total Aflatoxins with Special Emphasis on Their Robustness under Sub-Saharan Conditions

As aflatoxins are a global risk for humans and animals, testing methods for rapid on-site screening are increasingly needed alongside the standard analytical laboratory tools. In the presented study, lateral flow devices (LFDs) for rapid total aflatoxin screening were thoroughly investigated with respect to their matrix effects, cross-reactivity, their performance under harsh conditions in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), and their stability, as well as when compared with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). To analyze the matrix effects, qualitative test kits offering a certain cutoff level were used to screen different nut samples. In addition, these tests were challenged on their cross-reactivity with 230 fungal toxins and metabolites. Furthermore, the resulting measurements performed under harsh tropical conditions (up to 38.4 °C and 91% relative humidity) in SSA, specifically Burkina Faso and Mozambique, were compared with the results from a well-established and validated LC-MS/MS-based reference method. The comparison of the on-site LFD results with the reference method showed a good agreement: 86.4% agreement, 11.8% non-agreement, and 1.8% invalid test results. To test the robustness of the cutoff tests, short- and long-term stability testing was carried out in Mozambique and Nigeria. For both experiments, no loss of test performance could be determined. Finally, a subset of African corn samples was shipped to Austria and analyzed under laboratory conditions using semiquantitative aflatoxin tests. A good correlation was found between the rapid strip tests and the LC-MS/MS reference method. Overall, the evaluated LFDs showed satisfying results regarding their cross-reactivity, matrix effects, stability, and robustness.

Dietary Risk Assessment and Consumer Awareness of Mycotoxins among Household Consumers of Cereals, Nuts and Legumes in North-Central Nigeria

This study characterized the health risks due to the consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated foods and assessed the consumer awareness level of mycotoxins in households in two north-central Nigerian states during the harvest and storage seasons of 2018. Twenty-six mycotoxins and 121 other microbial and plant metabolites were quantified by LC-MS/MS in 250 samples of cereals, nuts and legumes. Aflatoxins were detected in all food types (cowpea, maize, peanut and sorghum) except in millet. Aflatoxin B₁ was the most prevalent mycotoxin in peanut (64%) and rice (57%), while fumonisin B₁ occurred most in maize (93%) and beauvericin in sorghum (71%). The total aflatoxin concentration was highest in peanut (max: 8422 µg/kg; mean: 1281 µg/kg) and rice (max: 955 µg/kg; mean: 94 µg/kg), whereas the totals of the B-type fumonisins and citrinin were highest in maize (max: 68,204 µg/kg; mean: 2988 µg/kg) and sorghum (max: 1335 µg/kg; mean: 186 µg/kg), respectively. Citrinin levels also reached 51,195 µg/kg (mean: 2343 µg/kg) in maize. Aflatoxin and citrinin concentrations in maize were significantly (p < 0.05) higher during storage than at harvest. The estimated chronic exposures to aflatoxins, citrinin and fumonisins were high, resulting in as much as 247 new liver cancer cases/year/100,000 population and risks of nephrotoxicity and esophageal cancer, respectively. Children who consumed the foods were the most vulnerable. Mycotoxin co-occurrence was evident, which could increase the health risk of the outcomes. Awareness of mycotoxin issues was generally low among the households.

Emerging mycotoxins in infant and children foods: A review

A proper nutrition is crucial for children's healthy development. Regardless of the usual recommendations to follow a varied diet, some foods can be a source of toxic natural contaminants such as mycotoxins, potent secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi. In addition to the most well-known mycotoxins, many of which are subject to tight regulation regarding the maximum levels allowed in different types of food, there is a large group of mycotoxins, the so-called emerging mycotoxins, about which less knowledge has already been acquired, which have gradually been the target of interest from the scientific community due to their prevalence in most foodstuffs, particularly in cereals and cereal-based products. Alternariol and his metabolite alternariol mono-methyl ether, beauvericin, citrinin, culmorin, enniatins, ergot alkaloids, fusaproliferin, kojic acid, moniliformin, sterigmatocystin, tentoxin and tenuazonic acid are the most representative of them. The current review gathered the information of the last ten years that have been published on the levels of emerging mycotoxins in food products dedicated for infants and children. European Union countries are responsible for most of the reported studies, which showed levels that can reach hundreds of mg/kg.

Luminescence method for detection of aflatoxin B1 using ATP-releasing nucleotides

Determination of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is still a big issue in food safety. In this paper, we developed a luminescence AFB1 detection method combined with ATP-releasing nucleotides (ARNs) and AFB1 aptamer. Firstly, using a new coupling method, we synthesized two ARNs (dTP₄A and dGP₄A) in a yield of 67% and 58%, respectively. The newly prepared ARNs show a much lower background. Then, we developed a new isothermal polymerase amplification method. In this method, two DNA hairpins were used to substitute the circle DNA template in rolling circle amplification. Using this amplification method and combined with AFB1 aptamer, a new AFB1 detection method is developed. A detection limit as low as 0.3 pM is achieved. This method is simple and efficient, and will have a great potential to be used for food safety and public health.

Schematic illustration of a luminescence short DNA sequence detection method using ATP-releasing nucleotides. Combined with AFB1 aptamer, this method is used to detect AFB1.

Assessment of Mycotoxin Exposure in a Rural County of Chile by Urinary Biomarker Determination

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), and deoxynivalenol (DON) are frequent mycotoxins that may cause carcinogenic, mutagenic, estrogenic, or gastrointestinal effects. The aim of this study was to assess the exposure to and risk from AFB1, OTA, ZEN, and DON in 172 participants of the Maule Cohort (MAUCO) by a biomarker analysis in urine and to associate their exposure with food consumption and occupation. Mycotoxins in the first morning urine were analyzed by solid-phase extraction and quantified by Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with a mass-mass detector. Participants' information regarding food consumption, occupation, and other characteristics was obtained from a baseline and 2-year follow-up survey of the cohort. The prevalence and mean levels of mycotoxins in the urine were as follows: DON 63%, 60.7 (±78.7) ng/mL; AFB1 8%, 0.3 (±0.3) ng/mL; α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) 4.1%, 41.8 (±115) ng/mL; β-ZEL 3.5%, 17.4 (±16.1) ng/mL; AFM1 2%, 1.8 (±1.0) ng/mL; OTA 0.6% (1/172), 1.3 ng/mL; and ZEN 0.6%, 1.1 ng/mL. These results were translated into exposures of DON, ZEN, and aflatoxins of public health concern. Participants who consumed coffee and pepper the day before had a significantly greater presence of DON (OR: 2.3, CI95 1.17-4.96) and total ZEL (OR: 14.7, CI95 3.1-81.0), respectively, in their urine. Additionally, we observed associations between the habitual consumption of beer and DON (OR: 2.89, CI95 1.39-6.42). Regarding the levels of mycotoxins and the amount of food consumed, we found correlations between DON and nuts (p = 0.003), total ZEL and cereals (p = 0.01), and aflatoxins with capsicum powder (p = 0.03) and walnuts (p = 0.03). Occupation did not show an association with the presence of mycotoxins in urine.

Physicochemical Changes Occurring during Long-Time Fermentation of the Indigenous Alcoholic Sorghum-Based Beverages Brewed in Northern Cameroon

In Cameroon, alcoholic beverages represent one of the main consumed drinks. In northern regions, indigenous sorghum beers are very popular and widely consumed in an actively fermenting state by people. In this study, some physicochemical parameters of alcoholic sorghum beverages and correlations between them were evaluated during fermentation for 10 days. The indigenous white and red beers were produced at the laboratory scale assisted by experimental producers and some parameters (pH, total acidity, alcohol, sugars, density, total solids, temperature, and conductivity) were measured on the wort and fermented beverages. The pH decreased from 3.2 to 2.4 and 3.11 to 2.41; total acidity increased from 1.07 to 5.1 g/L and 0.5 to 4.6 g/L; alcohol was enhanced from 0 to 9.5% and 0 to 6.8% (v/v); total solids dropped from 13.6 to 5°P and 12.2 to 3.3°P, respectively, in the white and red sorghum beers. The multivariate analysis showed a good correlation between consumption of sugar, the decrease in total solids and density with the decrease in pH. Additionally, it was shown that a perfect link exists between the production of alcohol and organic acids. The hierarchical analysis showed that indigenous red beer samples fermented for one and two days and those fermented for four to 10 days were related and could be separate in two distinct groups, whereas white turbid beer samples were separated in three different groups, those fermented for one to four days, five to six days, and seven to 10 days. The results obtained could serve as a guide to better understand the fermentation process of indigenous alcoholic sorghum-based beverages.

Toxigenic mycoflora, aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination of poultry feeds in Ghana

The study was undertaken to identify the major mycotoxigenic fungi, aflatoxin and fumonisin levels in prepared poultry feeds in Ghana. Three hundred and fifty (350) prepared feed samples were randomly collected from 133 commercial poultry farms, 76 feed processors and eight (8) feed vendors in three major poultry producing regions of Ghana over two seasons. Fungi were isolated using the serial dilution method on potato dextrose agar and identified using standard methods of identification. Total aflatoxin and fumonisin levels were quantified using AgraStrip® Total Aflatoxin and Fumonisin Quantitative test Watex® from RomerLab, USA. Eight (8) different fungi were isolated from the feed samples with isolation frequency as follows: Aspergillus flavus (47%), A. niger (24%), A. fumigatus (17%), A. oryzae (3%), A. tamarii (2%), Penicillium sp. (3%), Colletotrichum sp. (4%) and Rhizopus sp. (0.1%). Feed samples collected during the rainy season recorded higher mean colony counts (3.39 ± 0.29) than that of the dry season (1.10 ± 0.18). Total aflatoxin and fumonisin levels ranged from 0 to 118 ppb with a mean of 57.25 ± 2.55 ppb, and 0.28-15 ppm with a mean of 1.54 ± 0.12 ppm, respectively. The study revealed co-occurrence of aflatoxin and fumonisin in all the feed samples. Significant correlations (r = 0.298, r = 0.694) (p < 0.05) were observed among the aflatoxin and fumonisin levels and the fungi isolated. Seventy-four percent (74%) of all the feed samples exceeded the 15 ppb Ghana Standards Authority threshold, the EU regulatory limit of 20 ppb and the FAO/WHO recommended maximum permissible limit of 30 ppb for poultry feeds. Although fumonisin levels were less than the EU guidance values of 20 ppm for poultry feeds, 20% of the samples were higher than the FAO/WHO maximum tolerable daily intake limit of 2 ppm. Proper handling of prepared feeds and ingredients could prevent or minimize toxigenic fungi contamination and lower the likelihood of mycotoxin development in poultry feeds.

Versicolorin A enhances the genotoxicity of aflatoxin B1 in human liver cells by inducing the transactivation of the Ah-receptor

Aflatoxins are a group of mycotoxins that have major adverse effects on human health. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most important aflatoxin and a potent carcinogen once converted into a DNA-reactive form by cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP450). AFB1 biosynthesis involves the formation of Versicolorin A (VerA) which shares structural similarities with AFB1 and can be found in contaminated commodities, often co-occurring with AFB1. This study investigated and compared the toxicity of VerA and AFB1, alone or in combination, in HepG2 human liver cells. Our results show that both toxins have similar cytotoxic effects and are genotoxic although, unlike AFB1, the main genotoxic mechanism of VerA does not involve the formation of DNA double-strand breaks. Additionally, we show that VerA activates the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and significantly induce the expression of the CYP450-1A1 (CYP1A1) while AFB1 did not induce AhR-dependent CYP1A1 activation. Combination of VerA with AFB1 resulted in enhanced genotoxic effects, suggesting that AhR-activation by VerA influences AFB1 genotoxicity by promoting its bioactivation by CYP450s to a highly DNA-reactive metabolite. Our results emphasize the need for expanding the toxicological knowledge regarding mycotoxin biosynthetic precursors to identify those who may pose, directly or indirectly, a threat to human health.

Biomonitoring of Multiple Mycotoxins in Urine by GC-MS/MS: A Pilot Study on Patients with Esophageal Cancer in Golestan Province, Northeastern Iran

A pilot study to investigate the occurrence of 10 mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, DON; 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 3-ADON; 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-ADON; fusarenon-X, FUS-X; diacetoxyscirpenol, DAS; nivalenol, NIV; neosolaniol, NEO; zearalenone, ZON; zearalanone, ZAN; T-2 toxin, T-2; and HT-2 toxin, HT-2) in esophageal cancer patients was performed with the urinary biomarkers approach in Golestan, Iran. Urine multimycotoxin analysis was performed by dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction and gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (GC–MS/MS) analysis, and values were normalized with urinary creatinine (μg/g). Four mycotoxins, namely NEO (40%), HT-2 (17.6%), DON (10%), and HT-2 (5.8%), were detected in the analyzed urine samples. DON was only detected in the control group (5.09 μg/g creatinine), while T-2 (44.70 μg/g creatinine) was only present in the esophageal cancer group. NEO and HT-2 were quantified in both control and case groups, showing average of positive samples of 9.09 and 10.45 μg/g creatinine for NEO and 16.81 and 29.09 μg/g creatinine for HT-2, respectively. Mycotoxin co-occurrence was observed in three samples as binary (NEO/HT-2 and T-2/HT-2) and ternary (DON/NEO/HT-2) combinations, reaching total concentrations of 44.58, 79.13, and 30.04 µg/g creatinine, respectively. Further investigations are needed to explore a causal association between mycotoxin contamination and esophageal cancer. For this pilot study in Golestan, the low sample size was a very limiting factor.

The aflatoxin situation in Africa: Systematic literature review

Contamination of African staple foods is a major issue for human and animal health, nutrition, and trade. This review aimed to collect and synthesize the available evidence on geographical spread, scale of contamination, disease burden, economic impact, and mitigation measures for aflatoxins in Africa by way of a systematic literature review. This knowledge can enhance management strategies for the major challenges to combat aflatoxins. The search was conducted by applying a predefined search strategy, using bibliographic databases and websites, covering the period 2010 to 2018. Results showed that maize, peanuts, and animal feeds were the most studied commodities. For maize, all studies indicated mean AFB₁ to exceed the European Union legal limit. From studies on contamination levels and biomarkers, it is clear that overall exposure is high, leading to a substantial increase in long-term disease burden. In addition, concentrations in food occasionally can reach very high levels, causing acute aflatoxicoses. The trade-related impact of aflatoxin contamination was mainly evaluated from the standpoint of aflatoxin regulation affecting products imported from Africa. There was a limited number of studies on health-related economic impacts, pointing out a gap in peer-reviewed literature. A number of mitigation measures have been developed, but proof of cost-effectiveness or even costs alone of the practices is often lacking. We recommend more emphasis to be put in peer-reviewed studies on evidence-based cost-effective mitigation strategies for aflatoxins, on the scale and spread of the problem and its impacts on public health and economics for use in evidence-based policies.

Mycotoxins in artisanal beers: An overview of relevant aspects of the raw material, manufacturing steps and regulatory issues involved

The consumption of artisanal beer has increased worldwide. Artisanal beers can include malted or unmalted wheat, maize, rice and sorghum, in addition to the basic ingredients. These grains can be infected by toxigenic fungi in the field or during storage and mycotoxins can be produced if they find favorable conditions. Mycotoxins may not be eliminated throughout the beer brewing and be detected in the final product. In addition, modified mycotoxins may also be formed during beer brewing. This review compiles relevant information about mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium in raw material of artisanal beer, as well as updates information about the production and fate of mycotoxins during the beer brewing process. Findings highlight that malting conditions favor the production of mycotoxins by the fungi contaminating cereals. Therefore, good agricultural and postharvest mitigation strategies are the most effective options for preventing the growth of toxigenic fungi and the production of mycotoxins in cereals. However, the final concentration of mycotoxin in artisanal beer is difficult to predict as it depends on the initial concentration contained in the raw material and the processing conditions. The current lack of limits of mycotoxins in artisanal beer underestimates possible risks to human health. In addition, modified mycotoxins, not detected by conventional methods, may be formed in artisanal beers. Maximum tolerated limits for these contaminants must be urgently established based on scientific data about transfer of mycotoxins throughout the artisanal beer brewery process.

Fungal diversity of "solom" a Ghanaian traditional beverage of millet (Pennisetum glaucum)

The association of cereals with fungi cannot be disregarded as their manifestation in our foods poses serious health risks. The aim of this study was to investigate the mycofloral (fungal) and chemical (pH) qualities of the "solom" (beverage of millet) available for consumption from their respective sales points in Ho. "Solom" a cereal beverage of millet was sampled from ten (10) different locations in the Ho Municipality of Ghana and evaluated for their pH, fungal counts, and species diversity. Mycological analyses were done on Oxytetracycline Glucose Yeast Extract (OGYE) and Dichloran Rose Bengal Chloramphenicol (DRBC) media from three (3) points per location using serial dilution. A total of fourteen (14) fungal species belonging to eight (8) genera were isolated on both media; Aspergillus (A. niger, A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. parasiticus, A. alutaceaus, A. terreus), Rhizopus (R. stolonifer), Mucor (M. racemosus), Fusarium (F. oxysporum), Penicillium (P. digitatum, P. verucosum), Cladosporium (C. cladosporoides), Curvularia (C. lunata), and Rhodotorula sp. were recorded. Fungal counts on both media ranged between 1.68 ± 0.8 and 4.11 ± 0.9 log10 CFU/ml. There were statistically significant (p < .05) differences observed in the samples from different locations. The values of pH recorded were in the range of 3.03 ± 0.09-4.03 ± 0.23 and showed no significant differences (p > .05) among them. All samples were found to be in the acceptable range of values prescribed by the International Commission for Microbiological Specification of Foods (ICMSF, 1998). Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and Good Hygiene Practices (GHP) should be employed to enhance food safety.

Mycotoxins Analysis in Cereals and Related Foodstuffs by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Techniques

In the entire world, cereals and related foodstuffs are used as an important source of energy, minerals, and vitamins. Nevertheless, their contamination with mycotoxins kept special attention due to harmful effects on human health. The present paper was conducted to evaluate published studies regarding the identification and characterization of mycotoxins in cereals and related foodstuffs by liquid chromatography coupled to (tandem) mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) techniques. For sample preparation, published studies based on the development of extraction and clean-up strategies including solid-phase extraction, solid-liquid extraction, and immunoaffinity columns, as well as on methods based on minimum clean-up (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS)) technology, are examined. LC-MS/MS has become the golden method for the simultaneous multimycotoxin analysis, with different sample preparation approaches, due to the range of different physicochemical properties of these toxic products. Therefore, this new strategy can be an alternative for fast, simple, and accurate determination of multiclass mycotoxins in complex cereal samples.

Quantification of multi-mycotoxin in cereals (maize, maize porridge, sorghum and wheat) from Limpopo province of South Africa

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites that are produced by filamentous mycotoxigenic fungi belonging to the Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium genera amongst others. Multi-class mycotoxins were extracted from 55 cereal samples and analysed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The adopted extraction method for maize, maize porridge, sorghum and wheat was comprehensively validated. This method was further tested to determine the natural occurrence of mycotoxins in foodstuffs. Twelve (12) out of 22 mycotoxins were detected in maize, maize porridge, sorghum and wheat, including α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) (89%), fumonisin B₃ (FB₃) (84%), fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) (80%), tenuazonic acid (TeA) (78%), ochratoxin B (42%), deoxynivalenol (DON) (12%), ochratoxin A (11%), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (7%), sterigmatocystin (STG) (6%), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (2%), cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) (2%) and aflatoxin B₂ (2%). The data revealed high incidence rate of α-ZEL (range: 6.5-70.5 µg kg^-1) in all matrices. Maize samples had high mycotoxin co-occurrence compared to other matrices. All recovered mycotoxins in food commodities were within the maximum regulatory limits, with the exception of fumonisins (FB₁ and FB₃) exceeded the South African and European Commission regulation, and the highest concentration was 2153 µg kg^-1 in maize. It is essential to monitor the level of emerging mycotoxins in food commodities from rural areas as trace amount of CPA (< limit of quantification), STG (range: 0.30-0.74 µg kg^-1) were detected and high concentration of TeA (292.7 µg kg^-1) was detected in sorghum. The occurrence of these mycotoxins further encourages frequent analyses, their co-occurrence in the samples poses a significant threat to public health and more emphasis should thus be placed on reducing the contamination levels of these toxins in staples.

Determination of deoxynivalenol and its major conjugates in cereals using an organic solvent-free extraction and IAC clean-up coupled in-line with HPLC-PCD-FLD

A method for the determination of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its major conjugates in cereals was developed including an immunoaffinity column (IAC) clean-up coupled in-line with high-performance liquid chromatography, post-column derivatisation and fluorescence detection. An IAC for DON with cross-reactivity to 15-AcDON, 3-AcDON and DON-3-G enabled this approach. The isolated analytes were introduced into the chromatographic system without aliquotation employing the hot water elution technique, resulting in the desired low LOQ values for monitoring these analytes in cereals. The absence of any organic solvent during sample preparation in combination with an in-line IAC clean-up renders the method simple, fast, and environmentally friendly. Special attention was paid to inherent IACs properties such as cross-reactivity, analytes' competition and capacity. The method was applied to determine DON and its major conjugates in barley, wheat and maize in the range of 10-1000 µg kg^-1 of DON, 10-300 µg kg^-1 of DON-3-G and 15-AcDON and 10-100 µg kg^-1 of 3-AcDON. The apparent recoveries varied from 87% to 110% (average of 98%) and the intermediate precision was below 13.5% RSD (except for DON-3-G in wheat). Fifteen maize, wheat and barley samples were analysed revealing levels of DON conjugates that accounted from 9% to 60% of the "total DON" content (m/m). In general, the frequency and the measured mass fractions decreased in the following order: DON>DON-3-G>15-AcDON>3-AcDON.

Suppression of Trichothecene-Mediated Immune Response by the Fusarium Secondary Metabolite Butenolide in Human Colon Epithelial Cells

Butenolide (BUT, 4-acetamido-4-hydroxy-2-butenoic acid gamma-lactone) is a secondary metabolite produced by several Fusarium species and is co-produced with the major trichothecene mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) on cereal grains throughout the world. BUT has low acute toxicity and only very limited occurrence and exposure data are available. The intestinal epithelium represents the first physiological barrier against food contaminants. We aimed to elucidate the intestinal inflammatory response of the human, non-cancer epithelial HCEC-1CT cells to BUT and to characterize potential combinatory interactions with co-occurring trichothecenes, such as DON and NX-3. Using a reporter gene approach, BUT (≥5 μM, 20 h) was found to decrease lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 10 ng/mL) induced nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation in a dose-dependent manner, and in combinatory treatments BUT represses trichothecene-induced enhancement of this important inflammatory pathway. Analysis of transcription and secretion levels of NF-κB-dependent, pro-inflammatory cytokines, revealed a significant down-regulation of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in IL-1β-stimulated (25 ng/mL) HCEC-1CT cells after BUT exposure (10 μM). Trichothecene-induced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines by the presence of 1 μM DON or NX-3 was substantially suppressed in the presence of 10 μM BUT. The emerging mycotoxin BUT has the ability to suppress NF-κB-induced intestinal inflammatory response mechanisms and to modulate substantially the immune responsiveness of HCEC-1CT cells after trichothecene treatment. Our results suggest that BUT, present in naturally occurring mixtures of Fusarium fungal metabolites, should be increasingly monitored, and the mechanism of inhibition of NF-κB that might affect the pathogenesis or progression of intestinal inflammatory disorders, should be further investigated.

Assessment of Deoxynivalenol in Wheat, Corn and Its Products and Estimation of Dietary Intake

The main goal of the present research was to explore the seasonal variation of deoxynivalenol (DON) in wheat, corn, and their products, collected during 2018-2019. Samples of 449 of wheat and products and 270 samples of corn and their products were examined using reverse-phase liquid chromatography with a UV detector. The findings of the present work showed that 104 (44.8%) samples of wheat and products from the summer season, and 91 (41.9%) samples from winter season were contaminated with DON (concentration limit of detections (LOD) to 2145 µg/kg and LOD to 2050 µg/kg), from summer and winter seasons, respectively. In corn and products, 87 (61.2%) samples from summer and 57 (44.5%) samples from winter season were polluted with DON with levels ranging from LOD to 2967 µg/kg and LOD to 2490 µg/kg, from the summer and winter season, respectively. The highest dietary intake of DON was determined in wheat flour 8.84 µg/kg body weight/day from the summer season, and 7.21 µg/kg body weight/day from the winter season. The findings of the work argued the need to implement stringent guidelines and create awareness among farmers, stakeholders, and traders of the harmful effect of DON. It is mostly observed that cereal crops are transported and stockpiled in jute bags, which may absorb moisture from the environment and produce favorable conditions for fungal growth. Therefore, these crops must store in polyethylene bags during transportation and storage, and moisture should be controlled. It is highly desirable to use those varieties that are more resistant to fungi attack. Humidity and moisture levels need to be controlled during storage and transportation.

Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy-based fast versicolorin A detection in maize for early aflatoxin warning and safety sorting

Aflatoxins (AFs) are potent carcinogens present in numerous crops. Access to accurate methods for evaluating contamination is a critical factor in aflatoxin risk assessment. Versicolorin A (Ver A), a precursor of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), can be used as an indicator for the presence of AFB₁, even when the AF is not yet detectable. Currently employed Ver A detection methods are expensive, time consuming, and difficult to apply to numerous samples. Herein, Ver A was detected via near-infrared spectroscopy. Both quantitative and two-grade sorting methods were set-up using the extreme gradient boosting algorithm coupled with a support vector machine. This two-tiered method obtained a root-mean-square error of prediction value of 3.57 μg/kg for the quantitative model, and an accuracy rate of 90.32% for the sorting approach. This novel method is rapid, accurate, solvent free, requires no sample pretreatment, and detects Ver A in maize, making it convenient for practical use.

Parallel validation of a green-solvent extraction method and quantitative estimation of multi-mycotoxins in staple cereals using LC-MS/MS

In this study, 15 different mycotoxins were estimated in three staple cereals from selected agro-ecological regions in Nigeria using a 'novel' green extraction method, pressurized hot water extraction (PHWE) in comparison to a conventional solvent extraction method. Discrimination of the results of PHWE and solvent extraction using principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal projection to latent structures discriminate analysis (OPLS-DA) did not yield any differential clustering patterns. All maize samples (n = 16), 32% (n = 38) of sorghum and 35% (n = 37) of millet samples were positive for at least one of the 15 tested mycotoxins. Contamination levels for the cereals were higher in the warm humid rain forest region and gradually decreased towards the hot and arid region in the north of the country. The results demonstrate the applicability of PHWE as a possible alternative extraction method to conventional methods of extraction, which are solvent based.

Fusarium Mycotoxins Enniatins: An Updated Review of Their Occurrence, the Producing Fusarium Species, and the Abiotic Determinants of Their Accumulation in Crop Harvests

Cereal grains and their processed food products are frequently contaminated with mycotoxins produced by the Fusarium genus. Enniatins (ENNs), which belong to the so-called "emerging mycotoxins" family, are among the most frequently found in small grain cereals. Health hazards induced by a chronic exposure to ENNs or an association of ENNs with other major mycotoxins is a risk that cannot be excluded given the current toxicological data. Thus, efforts must be pursued to define efficient control strategies to mitigate their presence in cereal grains. A key condition for achieving this aim is to gain deep and comprehensive knowledge of the factors promoting the appearance of ENNs in crop harvests. After an update of ENN occurrence data, this review surveys the scientific literature on the Fusarium species responsible for ENN contamination and covers the recent advances concerning the abiotic determinants and the genetic regulation of ENN biosynthesis.

Aptamer-Based Biosensor for Detection of Mycotoxins

Mycotoxins are a large type of secondary metabolites produced by fungi that pose a great hazard to and cause toxic reactions in humans and animals. A majority of countries and regulators, such as the European Union, have established a series of requirements for their use, and they have also set maximum tolerance levels. The development of high sensitivity and a specific analytical platform for mycotoxins is much in demand to address new challenges for food safety worldwide. Due to the superiority of simple, rapid, and low-cost characteristics, aptamer-based biosensors have successfully been developed for the detection of various mycotoxins with high sensitivity and selectivity compared with traditional instrumental methods and immunological approaches. In this article, we discuss and analyze the development of aptasensors for mycotoxins determination in food and agricultural products over the last 11 years and cover the literatures from the first report in 2008 until the present time. In addition, challenges and future trends for the selection of aptamers toward various mycotoxins and aptasensors for multi-mycotoxins analyses are summarized. Given the promising development and potential application of aptasensors, future research studies made will witness the great practicality of using aptamer-based biosensors within the field of food safety.

Fungal Diversity and Mycotoxins in Low Moisture Content Ready-To-Eat Foods in Nigeria

Low moisture content ready-to-eat foods vended in Nigerian markets could be pre-packaged or packaged at point of sale. These foods are widely and frequently consumed across Nigeria as quick foods. Despite their importance in the daily diets of Nigerians, a comprehensive study on the diversity of fungi, fungal metabolite production potential, and mycotoxin contamination in the foods has not yet been reported. Therefore, this study assessed the diversity of fungi in 70 samples of low moisture content ready-to-eat foods [cheese balls, garri (cassava-based), granola (a mix of cereals and nuts) and popcorn] in Nigeria by applying a polyphasic approach including morphological examination, genera/species-specific gene marker sequencing and secondary metabolite profiling of fungal cultures. Additionally, mycotoxin levels in the foods were determined by LC-MS/MS. Fungal strains (n = 148) were recovered only from garri. Molecular analysis of 107 representative isolates revealed 27 species belonging to 12 genera: Acremonium, Allophoma, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Microdochium, Penicillium, Sarocladium, Talaromyces, and Tolypocladium in the Ascomycota, and Fomitopsis and Trametes in the Basidiomycota. To the best of our knowledge Allophoma, Fomitopsis, Microdochium, Tolypocladium, and Trametes are reported in African food for the first time. A total of 21 uncommon metabolites were found in cultures of the following species: andrastin A and sporogen AO1 in Aspergillus flavus; paspalin in A. brunneoviolaceus; lecanoic acid and rugulusovin in A. sydowii; sclerotin A in P. citrinum and Talaromyces siamensis; barceloneic acid, festuclavine, fumigaclavine, isochromophilons (IV, VI, and IX), ochrephilone, sclerotioramin, and sclerotiorin in P. sclerotium; epoxyagroclavine, infectopyron, methylorsellinic acid and trichodermamide C in P. steckii; moniliformin and sporogen AO1 in P. copticola; and aminodimethyloctadecanol in Tolypocladium. Twenty-four mycotoxins in addition to other 73 fungal and plant toxins were quantified in the foods. In garri, cheeseballs, popcorn and granola were 1, 6, 12, and 23 mycotoxins detected, respectively. Deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, moniliformin, aflatoxins and citrinin contaminated 37, 31, 31, 20, and 14% of all food samples, respectively. Overall, citrinin had the highest mean concentration of 1481 μg/kg in the foods, suggesting high citrinin exposures in the Nigerian populace. Fungal and mycotoxin contamination of the foods depend on pre-food and post-food processing practices.