Fungal and aflatoxin contamination of marketed spices

Screening of mycoflora and ochratoxin A on common culinary herbs and spices in Kenya

The study aimed to screen fungal diversity and ochratoxin A levels on culinary spice and herb samples sold in open-air markets and supermarkets in Nairobi County, Kenya. All herbs were grown in Kenya, while locally-produced and imported spices were purchased from both types of retail outlet. The results showed a high frequency of Aspergillus and Penicillium species contaminating the samples. The isolated species included Aspergillus ochraceous, Aspergillus nomiae, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus ustus, Aspergillus terrus, Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus clavutus, Penicillium crustosum, Penicillium expansum, Penicillium brevicompactum, Penicillium glabrum, Penicillium thomii, Penicillium citrinum, Penicillium polonicum, and Cladosporium cladosporioides. Total fungal count on spice and herb samples collected from various sources varied between 6 and 7 CFU/mL. Of imported spices, garlic had the highest fungal diversity, while cardamom had the least. For spices from both open market and supermarket outlets, cloves had the highest fungal diversity, while white pepper had the least. For the herbs sampled from the open markets, basil was the most contaminated, while sage was the least. In supermarket samples, parsley, sage, and mint had the highest fungal diversity, and bay had the least. The results indicate the contamination of spices and herbs with OTA at high concentrations. The calibration curve was saturated at 40 µg/kg; with samples of garlic, cinnamon, red chili, basil, thyme, mint, sage, and parsley having levels above this. Of the spices, imported ginger had the highest OTA levels (28.7 µg/kg), while turmeric from the open market had the least, 2.14 µg/kg. For herb samples, parsley from the open market had the highest OTA levels at 29.4 µg/kg, while marjoram from the open market had the lowest at 6.35 µg/kg. The results demonstrate the presence of mycotoxigenic fungi and OTA contamination of marketed culinary herbs and spices beyond acceptable limits. Hence, there is a need for informed and sustainable mitigation strategies aimed at reducing human exposure in Kenya to OTA mycotoxicosis through dietary intake of spices and herbs.

Monitoring of Aflatoxins B1, G1, B2, and G2 in Spices from Riyadh Markets by Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Tandem Mass Spectrometry

A total of 1053 samples of spices were collected from Riyadh markets during 2022. The contamination with aflatoxins (AF) B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), and G2 (AFG2) was determined via liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. AF extraction from spices was performed using an acetonitrile-formic acid mixture. The results obtained show that the highest value for AFB1 (3.865 μg/kg) was detected in the bay leaf sample, while the highest value for AFB2 (3.461 μg/kg) was found in red chili powder. The values of AFG1 and AFG2 did not exceed 2.59 μg/kg. The AF analysis shows that 24 out of 1053 samples (2.3%) contained one or more of these AFs. The highest percentage of contaminated samples was detected in black pepper. AFB1 was found in 21 samples of six types of spices, while AFG2 was detected in eight samples of four types of spices. Also, none of the samples exceeded the Saudi Food and Drug Authority and EU limits of 10 μg/kg. The present research is not a comprehensive study; however, it provides valuable information on AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 levels in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia spices.

Mycotoxin contamination in the Arab world: Highlighting the main knowledge gaps and the current legislation

Since the discovery of aflatoxins in the 1960s, knowledge in the mycotoxin research field has increased dramatically. Hundreds of review articles have been published summarizing many different aspects, including mycotoxin contamination per country or region. However, mycotoxin contamination in the Arab world, which includes 22 countries in Africa and Asia, has not yet been specifically reviewed. To this end, the contamination of mycotoxins in the Arab world was reviewed not only to profile the pervasiveness of the problem in this region but also to identify the main knowledge gaps imperiling the safety of food and feed in the future. To the best of our knowledge, 306 (non-)indexed publications in English, Arabic, or French were published from 1977 to 2021, focusing on the natural occurrence of mycotoxins in matrices of 14 different categories. Characteristic factors (e.g., detected mycotoxins, concentrations, and detection methods) were extracted, processed, and visualized. The main results are summarized as follows: (i) research on mycotoxin contamination has increased over the years. However, the accumulated data on their occurrences are scarce to non-existent in some countries; (ii) the state-of-the-art technologies on mycotoxin detection are not broadly implemented neither are contemporary multi-mycotoxin detection strategies, thus showing a need for capacity-building initiatives; and (iii) mycotoxin profiles differ among food and feed categories, as well as between human biofluids. Furthermore, the present work highlights contemporary legislation in the Arab countries and provides future perspectives to mitigate mycotoxins, enhance food and feed safety, and protect the consumer public. Concluding, research initiatives to boost mycotoxin research among Arab countries are strongly recommended.

Comparative evaluation of ethylene oxide, electron beam and gamma irradiation treatments on commonly cultivated red chilli cultivars (Kunri and Hybrid) of Sindh, Pakistan

Chillies are considered a universal ingredient for imparting flavor and pungency to foods. Pakistan stood in the top twenty countries worldwide by producing 82 thousand Tons of chillies during 2022-23. Chilli fungal contamination and aflatoxin production during drying is a common problem during post-harvest process. Gasses treatment and Ionizing radiations are efficient methods for reducing toxigenic and pathogenic microbial growth in food items. The current study was designed to compare the effects of ethylene oxide (ETO), gamma (GB) & electron beam (EB) treatments on two red chilli local cultivars (Kunri and Hybrid) of Pakistan. After treatment, the chilli samples were analyzed for aflatoxins, physicochemical, quality & safety attributes. All results were subjected to Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA), dendrogram and ANOVA to check the correlations, grouping and level of significance within the varieties and treatments. The results showed that moisture and water activity mainly designated PC-2 directions and are slightly positively correlated. Conversely, both fat and proteins have a negative correlation with moisture, ash and water activity. Besides, carotenoids and ABTS assay mainly designated PC-2 directions and are slightly positively correlated. Color, flavonoids and TPC also possess positive correlations among them. ETO depicts effectiveness in the reduction of E. coli but is not effective in saving antioxidant potential such as total flavonoids. Similarly, gamma irradiations showed strong reduction trends in fungal and pathogenic count, however same trend was observed in ascorbic acid too. Besides, the electron beam with dosage levels of 12 and 15 kGy has shown effectiveness against Aspergillus spp., aflatoxins and pathogenic microbial load in addition to saving antioxidant potential (phenolics and flavonoids), physicochemical parameters and color values compared to other applied methods especially in Kunri variety. It was evident from the research that varietal combination in addition to applied treatment must be specially considered while designing a treatment for chillies.

Fungal microbiome related to mycotoxin contamination in medicinal and edible seed Semen Persicae

Medicinal and edible seed Semen Persicae is susceptible to mycotoxin and fungal contamination. However, the occurrence of mycotoxin contamination and fungal infection is still unclear. In this paper, ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem triple quadrupole mass spectrometry and high-throughput sequencing were conducted to determine the mycotoxin contents and fungal abundances of Semen Persicae. 42.86% of samples were positive for aflatoxin B1 (26.48-48.37 μg/kg) and 28.57% of samples were positive for aflatoxin B2 (1.47-4.82 μg/kg). Ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1 were only detected in one sample (91.02 and 34.61 μg/kg, respectively). Chao 1 and Shannon indices were significantly higher in the Dalian of Liaoning, Baotou of Innermongolia and Langfang of Hebei regions than in other groups. Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Wallemia, Candica, Saccharomyces and Aspergillus were the predominant fungi and they were significantly region-specific. Simultaneously, the diversity, composition and co-occurrence network complexity in the mycotoxin-free group were significantly higher than those in the mycotoxin-contaminated group. Spearman correlation analysis showed aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and fumonisins contents were positively and significantly correlated with the abundances of Aspergillus, Rhodotorula, Wallemia and Candida. In conclusion, this study reported the prevalence of mycotoxin contamination and the great diversity of fungi associated with Semen Persicae for the first time, providing an early warning for subsequent potential mycotoxin biosynthesis.

Probabilistic risk assessment of exposure to multiple mycotoxins in consumers of packaged and unpackaged spices in Iran

The current study assessed the risk posed to Iranian consumers by oral exposure to a mixture of ten mycotoxins in 138 packaged and unpackaged spices collected from the Iran market. Concentrations of mycotoxins in samples were quantified by liquid chromatography, tandem mass spectrometry with triple quadrupole, and ion trap. Probabilistic health risks of oral exposure to these mycotoxins for Iranians were assessed under percent tolerable daily intake (TDI) and cancer risk scenarios. Mean concentrations of mycotoxins in both packaged and unpackaged spice samples showed statistically significant variation among different spice samples. Based on a Monte Carlo simulation model, at the 50th, 80th, and 95th centiles, oral consumption of the analyzed samples poses no carcinogenic risk for exposure to aflatoxin. Moreover, in both packaged and unpackaged samples, while the percent TDIs for ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, patulin, fumonisin B1, and fumonisin B2 were below 1.0 at the 50th, 80th, and 95th centiles, the value was above 1.0 for aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, aflatoxin G1, and aflatoxin G2 at each of these centiles.

Optimization and Validation of Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction for Simultaneous Determination of Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 in Senna Leaves and Pods Using HPLC-FLD with Pre-Column Derivatization

Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) was optimized for the simultaneous extraction of aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2) from powdered senna leaves and pods. Detection was performed using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) and pre-column derivatization. The parameters affecting the DLLME extraction efficiency were evaluated. Chloroform (200 µL) was used as an extraction solvent, 500 µL of distilled water was used as a dispersive solvent, and the extraction was performed at pH 5.6 with no salt added. The optimized method was validated using leaves and pods according to the European Commission guidelines. The linear range for all aflatoxins was 2-50 µg/kg, with values for regression coefficients of determination exceeding 0.995. The recoveries of spiked senna leaves and pods were in the ranges of 91.77-108.71% and 83.50-102.73%, respectively. The RSD values for intra-day and inter-day precisions were in the ranges of 2.30-7.93% and 3.13-10.59%, respectively. The limits of detection and quantification varied in the ranges of 0.70-1.27 µg/kg and 2.13-3.84 µg/kg, respectively. The validated method was successfully applied for the quantification of aflatoxins in 60 real samples of dried senna leaves and pods.

Fluorine-Functionalized Triazine-Based Porous Organic Polymers for the Efficient Adsorption of Aflatoxins

Food safety issue caused by aflatoxins has aroused widespread concern in society. Herein, a novel fluorine-functionalized triazine-based porous organic polymer (F-POP) was developed for the first time by the simple condensation polymerization of 2,2'-bis(trifluoromethyl)benzidine and cyanuric chloride. With in-built fluorine functional group (F) and imine group (-NH-), F-POP displayed significantly superior adsorption ability for aflatoxins, outperforming fluorine-free POP due to the multiple interaction mechanisms of hydrogen bond, F-O interaction, π-π interaction, F-π interaction, and hydrophobic interaction. Thus, magnetic F-POP was prepared by introducing Fe₃O₄ into F-POP and then utilized as a magnetic sorbent for the extraction of trace aflatoxins in peanut and rice samples prior to high-performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection. Under the optimal conditions, the proposed method presented high sensitivity with the limit of detections at 0.005-0.15 ng g^-1. F-POP also exhibited outstanding adsorption capability for many other organic pollutants, revealing its great potential for analysis or adsorption applications.

May phytophenolics alleviate aflatoxins-induced health challenges? A holistic insight on current landscape and future prospects

The future GCC-connected environmental risk factors expedited the progression of nCDs. Indeed, the emergence of AFs is becoming a global food security concern. AFs are lethal carcinogenic mycotoxins, causing damage to the liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal organs. Long-term exposure to AFs leads to liver cancer. Almost a variety of food commodities, crops, spices, herbaceous materials, nuts, and processed foods can be contaminated with AFs. In this regard, the primary sections of this review aim to cover influencing factors in the occurrence of AFs, the role of AFs in progression of nCDs, links between GCC/nCDs and exposure to AFs, frequency of AFs-based academic investigations, and world distribution of AFs. Next, the current trends in the application of PPs to alleviate AFs toxicity are discussed. Nearly, more than 20,000 published records indexed in scientific databases have been screened to find recent trends on AFs and application of PPs in AFs therapy. Accordingly, shifts in world climate, improper infrastructures for production/storage of food commodities, inconsistency of global polices on AFs permissible concentration in food/feed, and lack of the public awareness are accounting for a considerable proportion of AFs damages. AFs exhibited their toxic effects by triggering the progression of inflammation and oxidative/nitrosative stress, in turn, leading to the onset of nCDs. PPs could decrease AFs-associated oxidative stress, genotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic effects by improving cellular antioxidant balance, regulation of signaling pathways, alleviating inflammatory responses, and modification of gene expression profile in a dose/time-reliant fashion. The administration of PPs alone displayed lower biological properties compared to co-treatment of these metabolites with AFs. This issue might highlight the therapeutic application of PPs than their preventative content. Flavonoids such as quercetin and oxidized tea phenolics, curcumin and resveratrol were the most studied anti-AFs PPs. Our literature review clearly disclosed that considering PPs in antioxidant therapies to alleviate complications of AFs requires improvement in their bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, tissue clearance, and off-target mode of action. Due to the emergencies in the elimination of AFs in food/feedstuffs, further large-scale clinical assessment of PPs to decrease the consequences of AFs is highly required.

Seasonal Variation of Aflatoxin Levels in Selected Spices Available in Retail Markets: Estimation of Exposure and Risk Assessment

A total of 603 samples of selected spices from different seasons (winter and summer) were analyzed for the occurrence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), total AFs, and tocopherols. The findings revealed that 120 (38.7%) samples from the summer and 136 (46.4%) samples from the winter season were observed to be infected with AFB1 and a large amount of AFs. The highest means of both AFB1 and total Afs were observed in red pepper, i.e., 15.5 ± 3.90 µg/kg and 22.90 ± 4.10 µg/kg, respectively. The minimum averages of AFB1 and total AFs were observed in cloves of 6.32 ± 1.8 and 8.40 ± 1.60 µg/kg, respectively (from the winter season). The seasonal variations in the levels of the total AFs in selected spices were observed to be nonsignificant (p ≥ 0.05), except for the levels in red pepper and ginger samples, which showed significant differences (p ≤ 0.05). The maximum average of the dietary intake of Afs, 4.80 µg/day/kg, was found in ginger from the winter season in individual females. Furthermore, the findings document that the maximum level of total tocopherol, i.e., 44.8 ± 9.3 mg/100 g, was observed in black pepper from the winter season. A significant difference in the concentration of total tocopherols was observed in selected spices from the summer and the winter seasons (p ≤ 0.05).

Prevalence, Identification and Mycotoxigenic Potential of Fungi in Common Spices Used in Local Malaysian Cuisines

Spices are widely used in various cuisines in Malaysia to enhance the flavour and aroma. However, spices are susceptible to fungal infection, leading to mycotoxin contamination if the storage conditions are favourable for fungal growth. Thus, this study aimed to identify fungal species in spices commonly used in local Malaysian cuisines and determine their prevalence and mycotoxigenic potential. A total of 110 spice samples consisting of cumin, fennel, coriander, peppers (black pepper and white pepper), chillies (dried chilli, chilli paste and chilli powder), cinnamon, star anise, cloves, curry powder and korma powder were randomly purchased from retail markets in Penang. The samples were analysed for the total fungal count (ground spices) and the incidence of fungal infection (whole spices). The fungal species isolated from spices were identified based on morphological and molecular approaches, and the mycotoxigenic potential was determined using the Coconut Cream Agar method. The results showed that coriander seeds (ground) recorded the highest total fungal count (ADM 3.08 log CFU/g; DG18 3.14 log CFU/g), while black pepper (whole) recorded the highest incidence of fungal infection (94%). Interestingly, star anise and cloves were free from fungal contamination. The mycotoxigenic fungi of A. flavus and A. niger recorded the highest isolation frequency in ground and whole spices. These findings indicate the risk of mycotoxin exposure to consumers due to the high consumption of spices in local Malaysian cuisine.

Toxicogenic Fungi, Aflatoxins, and Antimicrobial Activities Associated with Some Spices and Herbs from Three Selected Markets in Ho Municipality, Ghana

Spices and herbs are widely used food ingredients that enhance most organoleptic features of prepared foods. They are also used for medicinal and preservative purposes. Spices and herbs are potential carriers of bacteria, yeasts, and molds due to the nature of cultivation, harvest methods, storage conditions, packaging procedures, distribution, sale, and general handling. Although some fungi have been identified to be associated with most spices and herbs elsewhere in the world, little has been done on the presence of fungi in spices and herbs in Ghana. This study sought to identify the toxicogenic fungal profiles, mycotoxins (aflatoxins) present in some herbs, bay leaf (Laurus nobilis) and garden egg leaves (“gboma”) (Solanum macrocarpon), and spices, ginger (Zingiber officinale) and “dawadawa”(Parkia biglobosa), as well as to investigate the antimicrobial properties of the selected herbs and spices. The decimal reduction technique was used to plate onto Dichloran Rose Bengal Chloramphenicol (DRBC) agar media plates for fungal growth. Aflatoxin detection was carried out with high-performance liquid chromatographer connected to a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD). Antimicrobial properties were carried out using the agar diffusion method on solidified, freshly prepared Mueller-Hinton agar. A total of 12 species belonging to 7 genera, Aspergillus (niger, flavus, fumigatus, and ochraceus), Fusarium (oxysporum, verticillioides), Mucor (racemosus), Penicillium (digitatum, expansum), Rhizopus (stolonifer), Rhodotorula sp., and Trichoderma harzianum, were identified as fungal contaminants. Fusarium oxysporum was the most predominant species identified. Fresh ginger recorded the greatest number of colony-forming units (3.71 log10 CFU/g) with bay leaves recording the least number of colony counts (2.36 log10 CFU/g). Mycotoxin concentration detected in gboma was $2.06\pm 0.07\mu \text{g}/\text{kg}$ and in dawadawa was $2.13\pm 0.09\mu \text{g}/\text{kg}$ ; however, mycotoxins were not detected in bay leaf and ginger. Ginger exhibited antibacterial activity against all bacteria ranging from $7.0\pm 0.0\text{mm}$ to $12.0\pm 5.66\text{mm}$ zones of inhibition. Ginger, bay leaf, and gboma extracts displayed fair antimicrobial activity against the bacteria investigated. On the other hand, dawadawa generally produced the least resistance against the five bacterial species but exhibited the highest zone of inhibition. All samples were slightly acidic with pH readings ranging from 5.81 to 6.76.

Substantive Morphological Descriptions, Phylogenetic Analysis and Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms of Aspergillus Species From Foeniculum vulgare

Ascomycetous fungi are found associated with a wide variety of substrates which range from fresh water to marine ecosystems, tropical to temperate forest soils and deserts, throughout the world over. These demystifying fungi exist as endophytes, pathogens and saprobes. They have been studied due to their ability to contaminate foods and feedstuffs, causing an elaboration of mycotoxins. The objectives of the study included extensive analyses of the morphological features of fungi, especially Aspergilli, which have been presented while studying them on specific mycological media. It is also an elaborate compilation of substantive macro- and micro-morphological characterization of different Aspergilli isolated from the spice Foeniculum vulgare used in India and other countries in the world. Further, a first of its kind attempt has been made to study their relative abundance and frequency of occurrence, molecular phylogeny and genetic relatedness to characterize the Aspergilli into specific sections, groups and clades. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis was carried out to evaluate the functional consequences of nucleotide variations, synonymous and non-synonymous mutations in the protein structure. The study resulted in a total of 3,506 Aspergillus isolates, which were obtained from seventy (70) fennel samples, representing 14 Aspergillus species. The two most frequently found species were A. niger and A. flavus with a relative abundance of 32.24 and 11.63%, respectively. The taxonomy and current placements have been reappraised with suggestions and prospects for future research from six sections namely Terrei, Flavi, Fumigati, Nidulantes, Nigri, and Versicolores. In addition, a total number of 27 isolates were studied and deposited at the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) and five Aspergillus species have been identified and are being reported for the first time from the fennel seeds, based on partial sequence analysis of the official fungal barcode namely, Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) and a functional gene, beta tubulin gene locus, coupled with phenotypic characterization. SNPs for specific DNA regions have been used to identify variants in Aspergilli obtained from Indian fennel seeds for the first time. The need for a polyphasic approach of morphological identification and genetic characterization of Aspergilli from Foeniculum vulgare is addressed and presented here in adequate detail. Our current work makes extensive use of partial beta-tubulin gene sequences analyses to evaluate the association between SNPs in five Aspergillus species sections.

Interactive Inhibition of Aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus and Ochratoxigenic Aspergillus carbonarius by Aspergillus oryzae under Fluctuating Temperatures

This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of A. oryzae in inhibiting aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) production by A. flavus and A. carbonarius, respectively, under shifting temperatures. A. oryzae was tested on different agar, namely coconut cream agar (CCA) and chili-based agar to figure out the variation in the effectiveness of A. oryzae on the most appropriate medium for A. flavus and A. carbonarius to produce mycotoxin and under natural condition where they are predominantly found. On CCA, the temperatures applied were 20, 30, 35, 40, 20/30, 20/35, and 20/40 °C, while on chili-based agar, the temperatures imposed were 20, 40, and 20/40 °C, at varied water activity of 0.92 and 0.97aw. The findings indicated that A. oryzae was much more effective in inhibiting the growth of A. flavus rather than A. carbonarius, yet it was able to inhibit higher OTA concentration than AFB1 at fluctuating temperatures on CCA as the most appropriate medium for A. flavus and A. carbonarius. A. oryzae effectively inhibited AFB1 and OTA at static temperature of 20 °C and water activity of 0.97aw on chili-based agar. Under fluctuating temperatures (20/40 °C), A. oryzae was also able to control mycotoxin, particularly OTA at high water activity (0.97aw).

Isolation and Characterization of Contaminant Mycoflora from Stored Red Peppers

Red pepper is a spice vulnerable to fungal growth and mycotoxin contamination while in the field and post-harvest during storage. Storage fungi are omnipresent and colonize fast when moisture levels go up, ultimately leading to mycotoxin production. Stored samples of the whole, crushed and ground red pepper in the Southern Indian States and Maharashtra, India were examined to isolate and characterize the prevalent contaminant fungal species. The average moisture content was below 10% for all the red pepper samples and the average total fungal load was less than 1×104 CFU/g. Crushed red pepper showed higher fungal counts than ground and whole red pepper. The identified contaminant mycoflora belonged to the group; Aspergillus, Eurotium sp., Cladosporium sp., Eupenicillium sp., Penicillium sp., Miscellaneous fungi, Neosartorya sp., Curvularia sp., and Hyphopichia sp. Aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus was present only in 8.3% of the crushed and 2.54% of whole red pepper samples stored for more than two months.

Survey of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A contamination in spices by HPLC-based method in Shiraz, Southern of Iran

Among food and agricultural products, spices play important roles in the diets of millions of people worldwide. These products may be colonized by fungi genus and subsequently mycotoxin production. Due to the large demand and supply of spice for cooking, preservative effects, or medicine purpose, it is essential that further investigation is designed to examine mycotoxins in spice. In the present study, the possible contamination of spices by aflatoxins (AFTs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) were analyzed. A total of 80 spice samples (curry, sumac, ginger, and saffron) were purchased and cultured on appropriate medium. Simultaneously mycotoxins from spices were extracted with immunoaffinity columns (IAC), and the occurrence of AFTs (B1 + B2 + G1 + G2) and OTA was then determined using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a fluorescence detector (FD). The results depicted that 62 (77.5%) and 58 (72.5%) spice samples were contaminated with AFTs and OTA, respectively. Out of the 80 analyzed spices samples, the mean concentration of AFTs and OTA was higher in the curry samples. Among spices that contaminated with mycotoxins, 5 (6.25%) and 2 (10%) of the samples were above the acceptable limit of AFTs (≥ 10 μg/kg) and OTA (≥ 15 μg/kg), respectively. Aspergillus species were the predominant species isolated, followed by Penicillium, and finally Mucor species.Among the examined samples, only few curry samples were contaminated with mycotoxins above acceptable limit. Despite this low level of contamination, this spice is used daily in the cuisine of this region of the world, and consequently, even the small amount of these heat stable toxins for a long time may cause many adverse effects. Hence, it is recommended to monitor the toxicogenous fungi contamination and level of mycotoxins in the spices.

Detection of Aflatoxin and Ochratoxin A in Spices by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

Background. Spices are one of the flavoring components of food in the cooking recipes of different nations that are used daily. However, these ingredients may be contaminated by toxicogenic fungi and subsequent production of mycotoxins that cannot be neutralized through cooking. In the present study, the possible contamination of spices by aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) was investigated from Shiraz, the south part of Iran. Materials and Methods. A total of 80 spice samples including turmeric (n = 20), red pepper (n = 20), black pepper (n = 20), and cinnamon (n = 20) were purchased from markets and cultured on appropriate medium. The isolated fungi were identified. Simultaneously, mycotoxins from spices were extracted with immunoaffinity columns (IAC) and the occurrence of AFs (B1 + B2 + G1 + G2) and OTA was then determined using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a fluorescence detector (FD). Result. The results depicted that 40 spice samples were contaminated with AFs and 48 samples with OTA. The highest rate of AFs contamination was related to red pepper, in 80% of which the amount of contamination was excessive than the standard level (>10 μg/kg). All black pepper samples were determined to be contaminated with OTA at over legislation limits of >15 μg/kg. Aspergillus species were the predominant isolated fungi, followed by Penicillium, and Mucor species. Discussion. Regarding the high mycotoxins contamination in spices in the current study, regular effective surveillance and quality control procedures are highly recommended. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to empower food-related laboratories with precise methods of isolation and detection of mycotoxins.

Mycobiota in Chilean chilli Capsicum annuum L. used for production of Merkén

This work aims to provide the first study on the mycobiota present in Chilean pepper Capsicum annuum L. cv. "Cacho de Cabra" throughout the early production stages. Two hundred and forty berry fruits were sampled: 1) at the ripe fruits harvest day; 2) during drying; and 3) smoking processes. A total of 192 strains, encompassing 11 genera and 44 species, were identified through analysis of β-tubulin (benA) gene and internal transcribed spacer of ribosomal DNA (ITS) region. All collection points showed samples with high fungal contamination, but the mycobiota composition varied as a result of different environmental conditions. Alternaria spp. and Fusarium spp. were predominantly isolated from fresh fruits of C. annuum. Penicillium spp. was the most frequent genus in all analysed points. Penicillium brevicompactum and P. crustosum were the most abundant species. Among Aspergillus, A. niger and A. flavus were dominant after the drying phase. In our study, none of the analysed strains of Penicillium (113) and Aspergillus (35) produced Ochratoxin A at detectable levels. The broad characterization of the fungal community of C. annuum carried out in this study, could be a guideline for future mycotoxin analyses performed directly on the pod. Understanding the role and dynamics of mycobiota and its relationship with the toxins present in this substrate, will be useful to establish and improve control measures considering the specificities of each point in the C. annuum production chain.

Agri-Food Markets in Qatar: Drivers, Trends, and Policy Responses

Agri-food markets are vital in achieving food security, especially for resource-poor, food-importing countries such as Qatar. The paper provides an overview of the evolution of agri-food markets in Qatar and explores the implications of past and ongoing changes in terms of food security and food system sustainability. In particular, the review analyzes drivers of changes, trends, and challenges as well as policy responses to address the emerging challenges while ensuring the country’s food security. It draws upon a systematic review of scholarly literature indexed in the Web of Science as well as data from gray literature (e.g., reports) and databases (e.g., FAOSTAT). Different drivers (e.g., population growth with huge expatriate inflow, urbanization, income increase) affected the functioning of agri-food markets as well as the structure of the food chain (viz. production, processing, distribution, consumption) in Qatar. In addition to drivers, the food-related trends were also shaped by numerous environmental (e.g., land/water scarcity), economic, health, and trade challenges. To ensure long-term food and nutrition security for its population, Qatar implemented various policies and strategies (e.g., National Food Security Strategy 2018–2023). In this context, agri-food markets, as functional links between production and consumption, can foster transition towards sustainable food consumption and production patterns in Qatar.

Mitigation of aflatoxin B1- and sodium arsenite-induced cytotoxicities in HUC-PC urinary bladder cells by curcumin and Khaya senegalensis

Background Concomitant exposure to environmental/occupational toxicants such as aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and arsenic in some regions of the world has been well reported. Therefore, this calls for the assessment of the efficacy of agents such as phytochemicals, which are already known for their ethno-medicinal uses in prophylaxis/remediation. We investigated the possible cytotoxic bio-interactions between AFB1 and sodium arsenite (SA) in urinary bladder cells. We also assessed the cytoprotective effects of curcumin and the ethanol stem bark extract of Khaya senegalensis (K2S). Methods The cells were exposed to graded levels of AFB1, SA, curcumin, and K2S for 24, 48, and 72 h. Subsequently, using optimum toxic concentrations of AFB1 and SA, respectively, the influence of non-toxic levels of curcumin and/or K2S was tested on exposure of the cells to AFB1 and/or SA. Hoechst 33342/propidium iodide staining technique was used to determine the end-points due to cytotoxicity with changes in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels determined using Promega's CellTiter-Glo luminescent assay. Results Co-treatment of the cells with AFB1 and SA resulted in synergy in cytotoxic effects. Cytotoxicity was reduced by 3.5- and 2.9-fold by pre-treatment of the cells with curcumin and K2S before treatment with AFB1, while post-treatment resulted in 1.1- and 2.6-fold reduction, respectively. Pre-exposure of the cells with curcumin and K2S before treatment with SA ameliorated cytotoxicity by 3.8- and 3.0-fold, but post-treatment caused a 1.2- and 1.3-fold reduction, respectively. Conclusions Pre-treatment of the cells with either curcumin or K2S exhibited cytoprotective effects by ameliorating AFB1- and SA-induced cytotoxicity with inferred tendencies to prevent carcinogenesis.

Assessment of Microbiological Quality and Mycotoxin in Dried Chili by Morphological Identification, Molecular Detection, and Chromatography Analysis

The growing interest in spicy foods leads to the global demand for spices, particularly dried chili. This study aimed to assay both aflatoxin (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination using an integrative method of morphological identification, molecular detection, and chromatography analysis on dried chili provided from traditional and modern markets in Indonesia. The results showed that total fungal infection ranged from 1-408 × 10³ CFU/g. Eighty percent of the chili obtained from both the traditional and the modern markets were infected by Aspergillus spp., in which 50% of the infections were identified as A. parasiticus and A. flavus. A complete set of targeted genes involved in AF production and OTA were detected in two isolates of A. flavus and one isolate of A. carbonarius, respectively. The levels of AFs B₁, B₂, and OTA in the contaminated dried chilies were in the range of 39.3-139.5 µg/kg, 2.6-33.3 µg/kg, and 23.7-84.6 µg/kg, respectively. In contrast, no AFs G₁ and G₂ were detected. This study showed that the fungal infection of Indonesian dried chili occurs both in the field and during storage; thus, it is suggested to implement good agricultural and handling processes.

Determination of multiple mycotoxins in Qatari population serum samples by LC-MS/MS

Human exposure to mycotoxins is almost inevitable as mycotoxins are naturally occurring contaminants of large portion of food and feed. Depending on the type of mycotoxins, inter-individual mycotoxin adsorption, bioaccumulation, distribution, metabolism and excretion, can cause serious adverse health effects. Therefore, continuous biomonitoring studies of population exposure to mycotoxins are needed. Here we describe a multi-analyte approach for the detection and quantification of 20 mycotoxins in human serum using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray/tandem mass spectrometry operated in targeted multiple reaction monitoring mode. The validated method was used to assess occurrence of mycotoxins in serum samples of 46 residents of Qatar. Mycotoxins that were detected with high incidence were HT-2 toxin (13.0%), sterigmatocystin (10.9%) and 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (6.5%). Also, co-exposure to several mycotoxins was noticed in the analysed samples. Our results show that strict food quality control is needed to remove mycotoxin contaminated food from the market in order to minimise human exposure to mycotoxins.

Dietary determinants of aflatoxin B1-lysine adduct in pregnant women consuming a rice-dominated diet in Nepal

Background

Aflatoxins are found in diverse foods widely consumed worldwide. This study investigated the association between aflatoxin exposure and (a) consumption of specific foods, (b) dietary diversity (DD), and (c) seasonality.

Methods

Women enrolled in the AflaCohort Study in Banke, Nepal (n = 1648) were asked how often they ate certain food items in the past 7 days and 24 h. Serum aflatoxin B₁-lysine (AFB₁-lys) adduct levels, measured during pregnancy, were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography. Multivariable ordinary least squares and quantile regression models were used to examine incremental increases in AFB₁-lys adduct levels per frequency of food consumption and the relationship between DD, seasonality, and increases in AFB₁-lys adduct.

Results

Roughly 94% of women were exposed to aflatoxin (geometric mean 1.37 pg/mg). Women in the 30th, 50th, and 70th quantiles of aflatoxin exposure who reported one more occasion of maize consumption in the past week showed increases in AFB₁-lys adduct levels: 0.094, 0.112, and 0.109 pg/mg (p < 0.05, all). Women in the 30th, 50th, 70th, and 90th quantiles of exposure who reported one more occasion of groundnut consumption in the past week also showed increases in AFB₁-lys adduct levels: 0.058 (p < 0.001), 0.085 (p < 0.01), 0.133 (p < 0.001), and 0.133 (p < 0.001) pg/mg. Winter month recruitment was positively associated with AFB₁-lys adduct levels at all quantiles of aflatoxin exposure (range: 0.313–1.101 pg/mg, p < 0.001). DD was not predictive of aflatoxin exposure.

Conclusions

Our findings justify integrated approaches to aflatoxin reduction, including regulatory, agricultural, and food safety interventions across the value chain and at the household level.

Mycotoxin contamination of food and feed in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries and its detection

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by different fungal spices and are found in diverse agricultural crops worldwide; they pose a severe threat to public health. Mycotoxins can cause either acute or chronic symptoms, depending on the type and dose of mycotoxin one has been exposed to. Thus, a continuous monitoring of mycotoxins is needed. Since the discovery of mycotoxins, numerous countries, including the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, have established mycotoxin-specific regulations for feed and food. Although a number of studies in GCC countries have investigated the presence of mycotoxins, till date, there are no reviews focusing on the mycotoxin contamination of the food and feed from this region. This review is the first study to present an up-to-date overview of the occurrence of mycotoxins in feed and food in the GCC countries and to discuss the techniques used for mycotoxin analysis.

Dietary exposure of the Qatari population to food mycotoxins and reflections on the regulation limits

The article estimates the exposure of the population of Qatar to aflatoxins, fumonisins and ochratoxins, measured in food samples collected from the markets of Doha. The mycotoxin extractions were performed using the "Quick Easy Cheap Effective Rugged Safe" Method (QuEChERS) and the extract measured with LC-MS/MS. High contamination with aflatoxins was detected in Nuts and Spices (e.g. 534.15 ng/g and 371.6 ng/g respectively). The estimated daily intake (EDI) level was estimated using statistical data on average Qatari population. Additionally, the probability to exceed TDI was calculated for fumonisins and ochratoxins. The results indicate high exposure to aflatoxins (with alarming values of margin of exposure, i.e. MoE). The article points to the necessity of a regular assessment and reevaluation of the concentration limits allowed in food products accounting for statistics on the population (i.e. food consumption), economic growth of the country, and monitoring of mycotoxin contamination of food as much as technological, financial and human resources of a country allows.

Effects of gamma ray, electron beam, and X-ray on the reduction of Aspergillus flavus on red pepper powder (Capsicum annuum L.) and gochujang (red pepper paste)

Aspergillus flavus is the potential pathogenic mold in red pepper powder ( Capsicum annuum L.) and gochujang (red pepper paste), which can produce mycotoxins. This study investigated the effects of gamma ray, e-beam, and X-ray irradiation on the reduction of A. flavus on red pepper powder and gochujang and physicochemical and sensory quality changes. Gamma ray and e-beam at 3.5 kGy reduced A. flavus effectively (>4 log), without deteriorating the physicochemical quality. Same dose of X-ray did not cause any deterioration of the physicochemical quality. However, reduction effect of A. flavus in red pepper powder and gochujang by 3.5 kGy X-ray was under 2 log. Further, sensory quality analysis showed no significant difference in color, appearance, texture, and overall acceptability after three irradiations. However, flavor changes of red pepper powder and gochujang after three irradiations were mentioned by panelists. In this study, gamma ray and e-beam irradiation were effective in eliminating A. flavus present in red pepper powder and gochujang, but X-ray irradiation was not effective. The results indicate gamma ray and e-beam are effective in controlling microorganisms present in powdery or paste foods, but the X-ray was not effective.

Development of an Antifungal and Antimycotoxigenic Device Containing Allyl Isothiocyanate for Silo Fumigation

The aims of this study were to evaluate the antifungal activity of the bioactive compound allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) against Aspergillus flavus (8111 ISPA) aflatoxins (AFs) producer and Penicillium verrucosum (D-01847 VTT) ochratoxin A (OTA) producer on corn, barley, and wheat. The experiments were carried out initially in a simulated silo system for laboratory scale composed of glass jars (1 L). Barley and wheat were contaminated with P. verrucosum and corn with A. flavus. The cereals were treated with a hydroxyethylcellulose gel disk to which 500 µL/L of AITC were added; the silo system was closed and incubated for 30 days at 21 °C. After that, simulated silos of 100 L capacity were used. Barley, wheat, and corn were contaminated under the same conditions as the previous trial and treated with disks with 5 mL of AITC, closed and incubated for 90 days at 21 °C. In both cases, the control test did not receive any antifungal treatment. The growth of the inoculated fungi and the reduction in the formation of AFs and OTA were determined. In the lab scale silo system, complete inhibition of fungal growth at 30 days has been observed. In corn, the reduction of aflatoxin B1 (AFB₁) was 98.5%. In the 100 L plastic drums, a significant reduction in the growth of A. flavus was observed, as well as the OTA formation in wheat (99.5%) and barley (92.0%).

Overview of Fungi and Mycotoxin Contamination in Capsicum Pepper and in Its Derivatives

Capsicum products are widely commercialised and consumed worldwide. These substrates present unusual nutritional characteristics for microbial growth. Despite this, the presence of spoilage fungi and the co-occurrence of mycotoxins in the pepper production chain have been commonly detected. The main aim of this work was to review the critical control points, with a focus on mycotoxin contamination, during the production, storage and distribution of Capsicum products from a safety perspective; outlining the important role of ecophysiological factors in stimulating or inhibiting mycotoxin biosynthesis in these food commodities. Moreover, the human health risks caused by the ingestion of peppers contaminated with mycotoxins were also reviewed. Overall, Capsicum and its derivative-products are highly susceptible to contamination by mycotoxins. Pepper crop production and further transportation, processing and storage are crucial for production of safe food.

Microbial Evaluation of Spices in Ethiopia

Introduction:

Since spices are taken as ready-to-eat products, they are not subjected to heat treatment. The use of spices contaminated with pathogens can lead to morbidity and mortality.

Materials and Methods:

The study was conducted on 162 samples of 25 spices collected from retail and production sites in different regions of Ethiopia between January 2010 to December 2017 to determine the concentrations of heterotrophic plate count and Staphylococcus aureus by pour plate method; for coliforms using NMKL Method No. 44; for mould and yeast enumeration using spread method and for Salmonella using ES ISO 6579. The data was analysed using SPSS version 20.0.

Results:

Moulds, yeasts, total coliforms, heterotrophic plate count, total coliforms, thermotolerant coliforms, E. coli and S. aureus above the acceptable limits were observed in 5 (3%), 7 (4.3%), 2 (1.2%), 20 (12.3%), 10 (6.2%), 9 (5.6%) and 19 (11.7%) samples respectively. Salmonella species was not noticed in any of the samples tested. No bacterial and fungal contaminations were observed in 11 of 25 spices.

Conclusions:

Few spices samples had 1.2 to 12.3% of the microbiological indicators, spoilages or pathogens exceeded the ICMFS guidelines. The use of these contaminated spices may pose risk to human health.

Alternative Splicing of the Aflatoxin-Associated Baeyer⁻Villiger Monooxygenase from Aspergillus flavus: Characterisation of MoxY Isoforms

Aflatoxins are carcinogenic mycotoxins that are produced by the filamentous fungus Aspergillus flavus, a contaminant of numerous food crops. Aflatoxins are synthesised via the aflatoxin biosynthesis pathway, with the enzymes involved encoded by the aflatoxin biosynthesis gene cluster. MoxY is a type I Baeyer–Villiger monooxygenase (BVMO), responsible for the conversion of hydroxyversicolorone (HVN) and versicolorone (VN) to versiconal hemiacetal acetate (VHA) and versiconol acetate (VOAc), respectively. Using mRNA data, an intron near the C-terminus was identified that is alternatively spliced, creating two possible MoxY isoforms which exist in vivo, while analysis of the genomic DNA suggests an alternative start codon leading to possible elongation of the N-terminus. These four variants of the moxY gene were recombinantly expressed in Escherichia coli, and their activity evaluated with respect to their natural substrates HVN and VN, as well as surrogate ketone substrates. Activity of the enzyme is absolutely dependent on the additional 22 amino acid residues at the N-terminus. Two MoxY isoforms with alternative C-termini, MoxYAltN and MoxYAltNC, converted HVN and VN, in addition to a range of ketone substrates. Stability and flavin-binding data suggest that MoxYAltN is, most likely, the dominant isoform. MoxYAltNC is generated by intron splicing, in contrast to intron retention, which is the most prevalent type of alternative splicing in ascomycetes. The alternative C-termini did not alter the substrate acceptance profile, or regio- or enantioselectivity of the enzyme, but did significantly affect the solubility and stability.

Sterigmatocystin in foodstuffs and feed: aspects to consider

Sterigmatocystin (STC) is a possible human carcinogen (2B) according to International Agency for Research on Cancer classification and has been associated with immunotoxic and immunomodulatory activity, together with mutagenic effects. It might be found in numerous substrates, from foods and feeds to chronically damp building materials and indoor dust. Although European Food Safety Authority concluded that the exposure to STC to be of low concern for public health, reinforces the need of data concerning exposure of European citizens. Climate change can represent an increased risk of exposure to STC since it is a crucial factor for agro-ecosystem powering fungal colonisation and mycotoxin production This aspect can represent an increased risk for European countries with temperate climates and it was already reported by the scientific community.

Sea salts as a potential source of food spoilage fungi

Production of sea salt begins with evaporation of sea water in shallow pools called salterns, and ends with the harvest and packing of salts. This process provides many opportunities for fungal contamination. This study aimed to determine whether finished salts contain viable fungi that have the potential to cause spoilage when sea salt is used as a food ingredient by isolating fungi on a medium that simulated salted food with a lowered water activity (0.95 a_w). The viable filamentous fungi from seven commercial salts were quantified and identified by DNA sequencing, and the fungal communities in different salts were compared. Every sea salt tested contained viable fungi, in concentrations ranging from 0.07 to 1.71 colony-forming units per gram of salt. In total, 85 fungi were isolated representing seven genera. One or more species of the most abundant genera, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, and Penicillium was found in every salt. Many species found in this study have been previously isolated from low water activity environments, including salterns and foods. We conclude that sea salts contain many fungi that have potential to cause food spoilage as well as some that may be mycotoxigenic.

Kinetics of aflatoxin degradation during peanut roasting

This study investigated aflatoxin degradation during peanut roasting. First, peanuts contaminated with three initial aflatoxin concentrations (35, 332 and 695μg/kg) were roasted at 180°C for up to 20min. The percentage of aflatoxin degradation after 20min were 55, 64 and 81% for peanuts contaminated with aflatoxin at 35, 332 and 695μg/kg, respectively. This difference was statistically significant (p<0.05), showing that initial concentration influences aflatoxin reduction. Thereafter, peanut samples contaminated with an initial aflatoxin concentration of 85μg/kg were roasted at 160, 180 and 200°C for 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25min, then residual concentrations of aflatoxin were determined. Roasting at 160, 180 and 200°C resulted in an aflatoxin reduction of 61.6, 83.6 and 89.7%, respectively. This study has provided quantitative data reinforcing the fact that roasting alone is not enough to control aflatoxins in peanuts.

Occurrence of Toxigenic Fungi and Aflatoxin Potential of Aspergillus spp. Strains Associated with Subsistence Farmed Crops in Haiti

Subsistence farming and poor storage facilities favor toxigenic fungal contamination and mycotoxin accumulation in staple foods from tropical countries such as Haiti. The present preliminary study was designed to evaluate the occurrence of toxigenic fungi in Haitian foodstuffs to define the mycotoxin risk associated with Haitian crops. The objectives of this research were to determine the distribution of toxigenic fungi in the Haitian crops maize, moringa, and peanut seeds and to screen Aspergillus section Flavi (ASF) isolates for production of aflatoxins B₁ and G₁ in vitro. Maize, moringa, and peanut samples were contaminated by potential toxigenic fungal taxa, mainly ASF and Fusarium spp. The isolation frequency of Aspergillus spp. and Fusarium spp. was influenced by locality and thus by farming systems, storage systems, and weather conditions. Particularly for ASF in peanut and maize samples, isolation frequencies were directly related to the growing season length. The present study represents the first report of contamination by toxigenic fungi and aflatoxin in moringa seeds, posing concerns about the safety of these seeds, which people in Haiti commonly consume. Most (80%) of the Haitian ASF strains were capable of producing aflatoxins, indicating that Haitian conditions clearly favor the colonization of toxigenic ASF strains over atoxigenic strains. ASF strains producing both aflatoxins B₁ and G₁ were found. Understanding the distribution of toxigenic ASF in Haitian crops and foodstuffs is important for determining accurate toxicological risks because the toxic profile of ASF is species specific. The occurrence of toxigenic fungi and the profiles of the ASF found in various crops highlight the need to prevent formation of aflatoxins in Haitian crops. This study provides relevant preliminary baseline data for guiding the development of legislation regulating the quality and safety of crops in this low-income country.

Genomic insight into pathogenicity of dematiaceous fungus Corynespora cassiicola

Corynespora cassiicola is a common plant pathogen that causes leaf spot disease in a broad range of crop, and it heavily affect rubber trees in Malaysia (Hsueh, 2011; Nghia et al., 2008). The isolation of UM 591 from a patient's contact lens indicates the pathogenic potential of this dematiaceous fungus in human. However, the underlying factors that contribute to the opportunistic cross-infection have not been fully studied. We employed genome sequencing and gene homology annotations in attempt to identify these factors in UM 591 using data obtained from publicly available bioinformatics databases. The assembly size of UM 591 genome is 41.8 Mbp, and a total of 13,531 (≥99 bp) genes have been predicted. UM 591 is enriched with genes that encode for glycoside hydrolases, carbohydrate esterases, auxiliary activity enzymes and cell wall degrading enzymes. Virulent genes comprising of CAZymes, peptidases, and hypervirulence-associated cutinases were found to be present in the fungal genome. Comparative analysis result shows that UM 591 possesses higher number of carbohydrate esterases family 10 (CE10) CAZymes compared to other species of fungi in this study, and these enzymes hydrolyses wide range of carbohydrate and non-carbohydrate substrates. Putative melanin, siderophore, ent-kaurene, and lycopene biosynthesis gene clusters are predicted, and these gene clusters denote that UM 591 are capable of protecting itself from the UV and chemical stresses, allowing it to adapt to different environment. Putative sterigmatocystin, HC-toxin, cercosporin, and gliotoxin biosynthesis gene cluster are predicted. This finding have highlighted the necrotrophic and invasive nature of UM 591.