Bacterial cellulose-lactoferrin as an antimicrobial edible packaging

Application of lactoferrin in food packaging: A comprehensive review on opportunities, advances, and horizons

Lactoferrin (LAC) is an iron-binding glycoprotein found in mammalian secretion, such as milk and colostrum, which has several advantageous biological characteristics, such as antioxidant and antimicrobial activity, intestinal iron absorption and regulation, growth factor activity, and immune response. LAC is an active GRAS food ingredient and can be included in the food packaging/film matrix in both free and encapsulated forms to increase the microbial, mechanical, barrier, and thermal properties of biopolymer films. Additionally, LAC-containing films maintain the quality of fresh food and extend the shelf life of food products. This paper primarily focuses on examining how LAC affects the antimicrobial, antioxidant, physical, mechanical, thermal, and optical properties of packaging films. Moreover, the paper explains the attributes of films incorporating LAC within different matrices, exploring the interaction between LAC and polymers. The potential of LAC-enhanced food packaging technologies is highlighted, showcasing their promising applications in sustainable food packaging.

Production of bacterial cellulose-based peptidopolysaccharide BC-L with anti-listerial properties using a co-cultivation strategy

Bacterial cellulose (BC) has been found extensive applications in diverse domains for its exceptional attributes. However, the lack of antibacterial properties hampers its utilization in food and biomedical sectors. Leucocin, a bacteriocin belonging to class IIa, is synthesized by Leuconostoc that demonstrates potent efficacy against the foodborne pathogen, Listeria monocytogenes. In the current study, co-culturing strategy involving Kosakonia oryzendophytica FY-07 and Leuconostoc carnosum 4010 was used to confer anti-listerial activity to BC, which resulted in the generation of leucocin-containing BC (BC-L). The physical characteristics of BC-L, as determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), were similar to the physical characteristics of BC. Notably, the experimental results of disc diffusion and growth curve indicated that the BC-L film exhibited a potent inhibitory effect against L. monocytogenes. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that BC-L exerts its bactericidal activity by forming pores on the bacterial cell wall. Despite the BC-L antibacterial mechanism, which involves pore formation, the mammalian cell viability remained unaffected by the BC-L film. The measurement results of zeta potential indicated that the properties of BC changed after being loaded with leucocin. Based on these findings, the anti-listerial BC-L generated through this co-culture system holds promise as a novel effective antimicrobial agent for applications in meat product preservation and packaging.

Preservation of chilled beef using active films based on bacterial cellulose and polyvinyl alcohol with the incorporation of Perilla essential oil Pickering emulsion

In this study, Perilla essential oil (PEO) Pickering emulsions, prepared using soybean protein isolate-chitosan nanoparticles (SPI-CSNPs) as emulsifiers (SCEO), were used to improve the performance of bacterial cellulose/polyvinyl alcohol (BC/PVA) films for application in chilled beef preservation. The SCEO has a smaller particle size (185 nm), higher viscosity, a more uniform dispersion and was more stable at an oil phase volume fraction of 80 %. An increase in the films' surface roughness and in the hydrogen bonding between SCEO and the films' matrix was also observed, resulting in a lower tensile strength (TS, 94.75-62.02 MPa) and higher elongation at break (EAB, 26.78-55.62 %). Moreover, the thermal stability, water vapor permeability, antioxidant and antibacterial properties of the composite films improved as the SCEO content increased. Furthermore, the Pickering emulsion method was effective in preventing the loss of PEO during storage. Overall, one particular composite film, BP/SCEO3, could prolong the shelf life of chilled beef by up to 14 days, and hence was promising for food preservation.

The Potential of Pediococcus acidilactici Cell-Free Supernatant as a Preservative in Food Packaging Materials

This study delves into the production and antimicrobial characteristics of cell-free supernatants from Pediococcus acidilactici (CFSs-Pa). Antimicrobial activity was initially observed in CFS-Pa harvested after 12 h of incubation and increased up to the late stationary phase at 48 h. The increase in antimicrobial activity did not align with total protein content, pointing to other factors linked to the accumulation of organic acids, particularly lactic acid. The SDS-PAGE analysis also indicated that the expected proteinaceous compound (pediocin) was not observed in CFS-Pa. Further investigations suggested that the antimicrobial properties of CFS-Pa were exclusively due to organic acids. The MIC values confirmed potent antimicrobial activity, particularly at a 10% dilution of CFS-Pa in MRS broth. The time-kill assays demonstrated bactericidal activity against EHEC, Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus by 12 h, 18 h, and 24 h using a 10% dilution of CFS-Pa. Additionally, CFS-Pa exhibited dose-dependent antioxidant activity, requiring a 70% (v/v) concentration to inhibit DPPH scavenging activity by 50%. All the experimental results suggested potential applications of CFS-Pa in food preservation. An attempt to incorporate CFS-Pa into bacterial cellulose (BC) for edible food packaging demonstrated promising antimicrobial results, particularly against L. monocytogenes and S. aureus, with room for optimization.

Nanocellulose Composite Films in Food Packaging Materials: A Review

Owing to the environmental pollution caused by petroleum-based packaging materials, there is an imminent need to develop novel food packaging materials. Nanocellulose, which is a one-dimensional structure, has excellent physical and chemical properties, such as renewability, degradability, sound mechanical properties, and good biocompatibility, indicating promising applications in modern industry, particularly in food packaging. This article introduces nanocellulose, followed by its extraction methods and the preparation of relevant composite films. Meanwhile, the performances of nanocellulose composite films in improving the mechanical, barrier (oxygen, water vapor, ultraviolet) and thermal properties of food packaging materials and the development of biodegradable or edible packaging materials in the food industry are elaborated. In addition, the excellent performances of nanocellulose composites for the packaging and preservation of various food categories are outlined. This study provides a theoretical framework for the development and utilization of nanocellulose composite films in the food packaging industry.

Recent Advances on Antimicrobial Peptides from Milk: Molecular Properties, Mechanisms, and Applications

Traditional antibiotics are facing a tremendous challenge due to increased antimicrobial resistance; hence, there is an urgent need to find novel antibiotic alternatives. Milk protein-derived antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are currently attracting substantial attention considering that they showcase an extensive spectrum of antimicrobial activities, with slower development of antimicrobial resistance and safety of raw materials. This review summarizes the molecular properties, and activity mechanisms and highlights the applications and limitations of AMPs derived from milk proteins comprehensively. Also the analytical technologies, especially bioinformatics methodologies, applied in the process of screening, identification, and mechanism illustration of AMPs were underlined. This review will give some ideas for further research and broadening of the applications of milk protein-derived AMPs in the food field.

Recent trends in polysaccharide-based biodegradable polymers for smart food packaging industry

Artificial packaging materials, such as plastic, can cause significant environmental problems. Thus, the use of polysaccharide-based biodegradable polymers (cellulose, starch, and alginate) has the potential in the field of environmental sustainability, reprocessing, or protection of the environment. Morphological and structural alterations caused by material degradation have a substantial impact on polymer material characteristics. To avoid degradation during storage, it is critical to evaluate and comprehend the structure, characteristics, and behavior of modern bio-based materials for potential food packaging applications. Hence, this review focused on the various types of polysaccharide-based biodegradable polymers (cellulose, starch, and alginate), their properties, and their commercial potential for food packaging applications. In addition, we overviewed the recent development of polysaccharide-based biodegradable polymer (cellulose, starch, and alginate) packaging for food products. The review concluded that the membrane and chromatographics are widely used in production of cellulose, starch, and alginate-based biodegradable polymers. Also, nanotechnology-based food packaging is widely used to improve the properties of cellulose, starch, and alginate biodegradable polymers and the incorporation of active agents to enhance the shelf life of food products. Overall, the review highlighted the potential of cellulose, starch, and alginate biodegradable polymers in the food packaging industry and the need for potential research and development to improve their properties and commercial viability.

Edible Coatings and Future Trends in Active Food Packaging-Fruits' and Traditional Sausages' Shelf Life Increasing

The global food production industry faces environmental concerns exacerbated by substantial food waste. European countries are striving to reduce food waste towards a circular bioeconomy and sustainable development. To address environmental issues and reduce plastic waste, researchers are developing sustainable active packaging systems, including edible packaging made from industry residues. These innovations aim to increase food safety and quality, extend shelf life, and reduce plastic and food waste. Particularly important in the context of the growing demand for fresh and minimally processed fruits, edible coatings have emerged as a potential solution that offers numerous advantages in maintaining fruit quality. In addition to fruit, edible coatings have also been investigated for animal-based foods to meet the demand for high-quality, chemical-free food and extended shelf life. These products globally consumed can be susceptible to the growth of harmful microorganisms and spoilage. One of the main advantages of using edible coatings is their ability to preserve meat quality and freshness by reducing undesirable physicochemical changes, such as color, texture, and moisture loss. Furthermore, edible coatings also contribute to the development of a circular bioeconomy, promoting sustainability in the food industry. This paper reviews the antimicrobial edible coatings investigated in recent years in minimally processed fruits and traditional sausages. It also approaches bionanocomposites as a recently emerged technology with potential application in food quality and safety.

Recent Advances in Halal Bioactive Materials for Intelligent Food Packaging Indicator

Food safety and security are top priorities for consumers and the food industry alike. Despite strict standards and criteria for food production processes, the potential for food-borne diseases due to improper handling and processing is always present. This has led to an urgent need for solutions that can ensure the safety of packaged foods. Therefore, this paper reviews intelligent packaging, which employs non-toxic and environmentally friendly packaging with superior bioactive materials that has emerged as a promising solution. This review was prepared based on several online libraries and databases from 2008 to 2022. By incorporating halal bioactive materials into the packaging system, it becomes possible to interact with the contents and surrounding environment of halal food products, helping preserve them for longer periods. One particularly promising avenue of research is the use of natural colourants as halal bioactive materials. These colourants possess excellent chemical, thermal, and physical stabilities, along with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, making them ideal candidates for use in intelligent indicators that can detect food blemishes and prevent pathogenic spoilage. However, despite the potential of this technology, further research and development are needed to promote commercial applications and market development. With continued efforts to explore the full potential of natural colourants as halal bioactive materials, we can meet the increasing demand for food safety and security, helping to ensure that consumers have access to high-quality, safe, and nutritious foods.

Fabrication of bacterial cellulose composites with antimicrobial properties by in situ modification utilizing the specific function-suspension containing water-insoluble magnolol

In situ modification is commonly employed for Bacterial cellulose (BC) functionalization. However, water-insoluble modifiers are usually deposited at the bottom of the medium, therefore cannot be used for in situ modification of BC. Herein, a novel strategy for in situ modification of insoluble modifiers after suspension by a suspending agent was proposed. The BC-producing strain Kosakonia oryzendophytica FY-07, not Gluconacetobacter xylinus, was selected to prepare BC products with antibacterial activity because of its tolerance to natural antibacterial products. The experimental results showed that xanthan gum as a suspending agent can uniformly and stably disperse water-insoluble plant extracts magnolol in the culture medium to prepare the in situ modified BC products. Characterization of the properties showed that the in situ modified BC products have reduced crystallinity, significantly increased swelling ratio and strong inhibition on Gram-positive bacteria and fungi and weak inhibition on Gram-negative bacteria. Furthermore, the in situ modified BC products had no toxicity to cells. This study provided a feasible strategy for in situ modification of BC using water-insoluble modifiers to extend BC functionality and has significant implications for the biopolymer industry.

Remediation plan of nano/microplastic toxicity in food

Microplastic pollution is causing a stir globally due to its persistent and ubiquitous nature. The scientific collaboration is diligently working on improved, effective, sustainable, and cleaner measures to control the nano/microplastic load in the environment especially wrecking the aquatic habitat. This chapter discusses the challenges encountered in nano/microplastic control and improved technologies like density separation, continuous flow centrifugation, oil extraction protocol, electrostatic separation to extract and quantify the same. Although it is still in the early stages of research, biobased control measures, like meal worms and microbes to degrade microplastics in the environment have been proven effective. Besides the control measures, practical alternatives to microplastics can be developed like core-shell powder, mineral powder, and biobased food packaging systems like edible films and coatings developed using various nanotechnological tools. Lastly, the existing and ideal stage of global regulations is compared, and key research areas are pinpointed. This holistic coverage would enable manufacturers and consumers to reconsider their production and purchase decisions for sustainable development goals.

Development of a layered bacterial nanocellulose-PHBV composite for food packaging

BACKGROUND

Most of the current materials used in food packaging are synthetic and non-degradable, raising environmental issues derived from the accumulation of plastics in landfills/waterways. The food industry increasingly needs eco-friendly sustainable materials that meet food-packaging requirements. Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC), a biopolymer obtained by fermentation, offers very good mechanical properties and the ability to carry and deliver active substances. However, its water-vapor permeability is too high for food-packaging applications. In this work, a layered biodegradable composite based on BNC and polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHBV) was produced, attempting to improve its overall barrier properties. Polyhydroxyalkanoate is a biopolymer with high degree of hydrophobicity and biodegradability, and is also obtained by fermentation. Wet BNC membranes produced by static culture were plasticized by impregnation of solutions of either glycerol (BNC_gly ) or polyethylene glycol (M_W 600) (BNC_PEG ). The plasticized BNC was then coated with PHBV solution dissolved in formic acid, and oven dried at 148 °C.

RESULTS

Overall, PHBV coating on plasticized BNC reduced water vapor permeability significantly (from 0.990 to 0.032 g.μm.m^-2 .day^-1 .Pa^-1 ) under 50% relative humidity. It increased the hydrophobicity (contact angle from 10-40° to 80-90°) but decreased the stiffness (from 3.1 GPa to 1.3 Gpa) of the composite.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the mechanical and barrier properties of the layered composite obtained were considered suitable for food-packaging applications. The plasticizing (with glycerol or polyethylene glycol) of BNC significantly improved the mechanical performance and the PHBV coating reduced the water affinity (vapor and liquid state) on BNC. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Bacterial Cellulose/Cellulose Imidazolium Bio-Hybrid Membranes for In Vitro and Antimicrobial Applications

In biomedical applications, bacterial cellulose (BC) is widely used because of its cytocompatibility, high mechanical properties, and ultrafine nanofibrillar structure. However, biomedical use of neat BC is often limited due to its lack of antimicrobial properties. In the current article, we proposed a novel technique for preparing cationic BC hydrogel through in situ incorporation of cationic water-soluble cellulose derivative, cellulose bearing imidazolium tosylate function group (Cell-IMD), in the media used for BC preparation. Different concentrations of cationic cellulose derivative (2, 4, and 6%) were embedded into a highly inter-twined BC nanofibrillar network through the in situ biosynthesis until forming cationic cellulose gels. Cationic functionalization was deeply examined by the Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), NMR spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) methods. In vitro studies with L929 cells confirmed a good cytocompatibility of BC/cationic cellulose derivatives, and a significant increase in cell proliferation after 7 days, in the case of BC/Cell-IMD3 groups. Finally, antimicrobial assessment against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus mutans, and Candida albicans was assessed, recording a good sensitivity in the case of the higher concentration of the cationic cellulose derivative. All the results suggest a promising use of cationic hybrid materials for biomedical and bio-sustainable applications (i.e., food packaging).

Milk-Derived Antimicrobial Peptides: Overview, Applications, and Future Perspectives

The growing consumer awareness towards healthy and safe food has reformed food processing strategies. Nowadays, food processors are aiming at natural, effective, safe, and low-cost substitutes for enhancing the shelf life of food products. Milk, besides being a rich source of nutrition for infants and adults, serves as a readily available source of precious functional peptides. Due to the existence of high genetic variability in milk proteins, there is a great possibility to get bioactive peptides with varied properties. Among other bioactive agents, milk-originated antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are gaining interest as attractive and safe additive conferring extended shelf life to minimally processed foods. These peptides display broad-spectrum antagonistic activity against bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoans. Microbial proteolytic activity, extracellular peptidases, food-grade enzymes, and recombinant DNA technology application are among few strategies to tailor specific peptides from milk and enhance their production. These bioprotective agents have a promising future in addressing the global concern of food safety along with the possibility to be incorporated into the food matrix without compromising overall consumer acceptance. Additionally, in conformity to the current consumer demands, these AMPs also possess functional properties needed for value addition. This review attempts to present the basic properties, synthesis approaches, action mechanism, current status, and prospects of antimicrobial peptide application in food, dairy, and pharma industry along with their role in ensuring the safety and health of consumers.

Lactoferrin-The Health-Promoting Properties and Contemporary Application with Genetic Aspects

The aim of the study is to present a review of literature data on lactoferrin's characteristics, applications, and multiple health-promoting properties, with special regard to nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics. The article presents a new approach to food ingredients. Nowadays, lactoferrin is used as an ingredient in food but mainly in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. In the European Union, bovine lactoferrin has been legally approved for use as a food ingredient since 2012. However, as our research shows, it is not widely used in food production. The major producers of lactoferrin and the few available food products containing it are listed in the article. Due to anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and anti-tumour activity, the possibility of lactoferrin use in disease prevention (as a supportive treatment in obesity, diabetes, as well as cardiovascular diseases, including iron deficiency and anaemia) is reported. The possibility of targeted use of lactoferrin is also presented. The use of nutrition genomics, based on the identification of single nucleotide polymorphisms in genes, for example, FTO, PLIN1, TRAP2B, BDNF, SOD2, SLC23A1, LPL, and MTHFR, allows for the effective stratification of people and the selection of the most optimal bioactive nutrients, including lactoferrin, whose bioactive potential cannot be considered without taking into account the group to which they will be given.

Emerging Food Packaging Applications of Cellulose Nanocomposites: A Review

Cellulose is the most abundant biopolymer on Earth, which is synthesized by plants, bacteria, and animals, with source-dependent properties. Cellulose containing β-1,4-linked D-glucoses further assembles into hierarchical structures in microfibrils, which can be processed to nanocellulose with length or width in the nanoscale after a variety of pretreatments including enzymatic hydrolysis, TEMPO-oxidation, and carboxymethylation. Nanocellulose can be mainly categorized into cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) produced by acid hydrolysis, cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) prepared by refining, homogenization, microfluidization, sonification, ball milling, and the aqueous counter collision (ACC) method, and bacterial cellulose (BC) biosynthesized by the Acetobacter species. Due to nontoxicity, good biodegradability and biocompatibility, high aspect ratio, low thermal expansion coefficient, excellent mechanical strength, and unique optical properties, nanocellulose is utilized to develop various cellulose nanocomposites through solution casting, Layer-by-Layer (LBL) assembly, extrusion, coating, gel-forming, spray drying, electrostatic spinning, adsorption, nanoemulsion, and other techniques, and has been widely used as food packaging material with excellent barrier and mechanical properties, antibacterial activity, and stimuli-responsive performance to improve the food quality and shelf life. Under the driving force of the increasing green food packaging market, nanocellulose production has gradually developed from lab-scale to pilot- or even industrial-scale, mainly in Europe, Africa, and Asia, though developing cost-effective preparation techniques and precisely tuning the physicochemical properties are key to the commercialization. We expect this review to summarise the recent literature in the nanocellulose-based food packaging field and provide the readers with the state-of-the-art of this research area.

Cost-Effective Synthesis of Bacterial Cellulose and Its Applications in the Food and Environmental Sectors

Bacterial cellulose (BC), also termed bio-cellulose, has been recognized as a biomaterial of vital importance, thanks to its impressive structural features, diverse synthesis routes, high thermomechanical properties, and its ability to combine with multiple additives to form composites for a wide range of applications in diversified areas. Its purity, nontoxicity, and better physico-mechanical features than plant cellulose (PC) make it a better choice for biological applications. However, a major issue with the use of BC instead of PC for various applications is its high production costs, mainly caused by the use of expensive components in the chemically defined media, such as Hestrin–Schramm (HS) medium. Furthermore, the low yield of BC-producing bacteria indirectly accounts for the high cost of BC-based products. Over the last couple of decades, extensive efforts have been devoted to the exploration of low-cost carbon sources for BC production, besides identifying efficient bacterial strains as well as developing engineered strains, developing advanced reactors, and optimizing the culturing conditions for the high yield and productivity of BC, with the aim to minimize its production cost. Considering the applications, BC has attracted attention in highly diversified areas, such as medical, pharmaceutics, textile, cosmetics, food, environmental, and industrial sectors. This review is focused on overviewing the cost-effective synthesis routes for BC production, along with its noteworthy applications in the food and environmental sectors. We have made a comprehensive review of recent papers regarding the cost-effective production and applications of BC in the food and environmental sectors. This review provides the basic knowledge and understanding for cost-effective and scaleup of BC production by discussing the techno-economic analysis of BC production, BC market, and commercialization of BC products. It explores BC applications as food additives as its functionalization to minimize different environmental hazards, such as air contaminants and water pollutants.

Fabrication and characterization of pullulan-based composite films incorporated with bacterial cellulose and ferulic acid

Pullulan-based composite films incorporated with bacterial cellulose (BC) and ferulic acid (FA) were prepared by solution casting method. The rheological, morphological, barrier, optical, anti-fogging, and antioxidant properties of pullulan-based composite films doped with BC and FA were investigated. The rheological results showed that all film-forming solution was pseudoplastic fluid and its viscosity increased with the increase of BC content. An appropriate BC (2 %) and FA were uniformly dispersed in pullulan to form uniform and dense composite films. With the increase of BC content, the roughness and opacity of composite films increased while their UV-vis barrier performance was improved by incorporating BC and FA. Fourier transform infrared spectrometer analysis demonstrated that hydrogen bond interactions among pullulan, BC, and FA were found, and incorporating BC could increase the crystallinity of the composite films, thus enhancing their mechanical, barrier, hydrophobic, and thermal stability properties. Pullulan-based composite films incorporated with 2 % BC and FA (P-BC2-FA) showed better mechanical properties, water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide barrier performances, and its water contact angle value also increased compared with control, respectively. P-BC2-FA film showed superior anti-fogging and antioxidant activities. These results indicate that the P-BC2-FA film are expected to be a potential target of bioactive packaging.

Fabrication of intelligent/active films based on chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol matrices containing Jacaranda cuspidifolia anthocyanin for real-time monitoring of fish freshness

The present work describes the natural anthocyanin from Jacaranda cuspidifolia (JC) flower immobilized within a biopolymer matrix composed of chitosan (CS) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) gave novel intelligent/active packaging films (CPC). We introduced microwave irradiation to prepare polymeric composite films noticed faster mixing of the polymers and extract take place than the conventional method. The prepared composite films are characterized by various analytical and spectroscopic techniques. The smooth SEM images demonstrated CS/PVA matrix miscibility and compatibility with anthocyanin for the film formation. The addition of anthocyanin to the CS/PVA films significantly reduced UV-Vis light transmission, while causing a slight decrease in the films transparency. An increased anthocyanin concentration on polymer films showed improved oxygen permeability (77.09 %), moisture retention capacity (11.64 %), and water vapor transmission rate (43.10 %) substantially. Additionally, the prepared CPC smart films exhibited strong antioxidant (97.92 %) as well as antibacterial activities against common foodborne pathogens such as S. aureus, and E. coli. Furthermore, the prepared smart films demonstrated pink color in acidic, while grey to yellowish in basic solvent. Further, the color response of the freshness label was consistent with the spoilage Total Volatile Basic-Nitrogen (TVB-N) content determined in the fish samples with varied time period. The CPC smart films also showed promising application in terms of monitoring freshness of the fish fillets at room temperature. The obtained results suggested that, the prepared CPC smart films have potential to be used as quality indicator in the marine food packaging system.

In Vitro Cytotoxicity, Colonisation by Fibroblasts and Antimicrobial Properties of Surgical Meshes Coated with Bacterial Cellulose

Hernia repairs are the most common abdominal wall elective procedures performed by general surgeons. Hernia-related postoperative infective complications occur with 10% frequency. To counteract the risk of infection emergence, the development of effective, biocompatible and antimicrobial mesh adjuvants is required. Therefore, the aim of our in vitro investigation was to evaluate the suitability of bacterial cellulose (BC) polymer coupled with gentamicin (GM) antibiotic as an absorbent layer of surgical mesh. Our research included the assessment of GM-BC-modified meshes’ cytotoxicity against fibroblasts ATCC CCL-1 and a 60-day duration cell colonisation measurement. The obtained results showed no cytotoxic effect of modified meshes. The quantified fibroblast cells levels resembled a bimodal distribution depending on the time of culturing and the type of mesh applied. The measured GM minimal inhibitory concentration was 0.47 µg/mL. Results obtained in the modified disc-diffusion method showed that GM-BC-modified meshes inhibited bacterial growth more effectively than non-coated meshes. The results of our study indicate that BC-modified hernia meshes, fortified with appropriate antimicrobial, may be applied as effective implants in hernia surgery, preventing risk of infection occurrence and providing a high level of biocompatibility with regard to fibroblast cells.

Polysaccharides and Metal Nanoparticles for Functional Textiles: A Review

Nanotechnology is a powerful tool for engineering functional materials that has the potential to transform textiles into high-performance, value-added products. In recent years, there has been considerable interest in the development of functional textiles using metal nanoparticles (MNPs). The incorporation of MNPs in textiles allows for the obtention of multifunctional properties, such as ultraviolet (UV) protection, self-cleaning, and electrical conductivity, as well as antimicrobial, antistatic, antiwrinkle, and flame retardant properties, without compromising the inherent characteristics of the textile. Environmental sustainability is also one of the main motivations in development and innovation in the textile industry. Thus, the synthesis of MNPs using ecofriendly sources, such as polysaccharides, is of high importance. The main functions of polysaccharides in these processes are the reduction and stabilization of MNPs, as well as the adhesion of MNPs onto fabrics. This review covers the major research attempts to obtain textiles with different functional properties using polysaccharides and MNPs. The main polysaccharides reported include chitosan, alginate, starch, cyclodextrins, and cellulose, with silver, zinc, copper, and titanium being the most explored MNPs. The potential applications of these functionalized textiles are also reported, and they include healthcare (wound dressing, drug release), protection (antimicrobial activity, UV protection, flame retardant), and environmental remediation (catalysts).

Recent Advancements in Smart Biogenic Packaging: Reshaping the Future of the Food Packaging Industry

Due to their complete non-biodegradability, current food packages have resulted in major environmental issues. Today’s smart consumer is looking for alternatives that are environmentally friendly, durable, recyclable, and naturally rather than synthetically derived. It is a well-established fact that complete replacement with environmentally friendly packaging materials is unattainable, and bio-based plastics should be the future of the food packaging industry. Natural biopolymers and nanotechnological interventions allow the creation of new, high-performance, light-weight, and environmentally friendly composite materials, which can replace non-biodegradable plastic packaging materials. This review summarizes the recent advancements in smart biogenic packaging, focusing on the shift from conventional to natural packaging, properties of various biogenic packaging materials, and the amalgamation of technologies, such as nanotechnology and encapsulation; to develop active and intelligent biogenic systems, such as the use of biosensors in food packaging. Lastly, challenges and opportunities in biogenic packaging are described, for their application in sustainable food packing systems.

Development of Encapsulation Strategies and Composite Edible Films to Maintain Lactoferrin Bioactivity: A Review

Lactoferrin (LF) is a whey protein with various and valuable biological activities. For this reason, LF has been used as a supplement in formula milk and functional products. However, it must be considered that the properties of LF can be affected by technological treatments and gastrointestinal conditions. In this article, we have revised the literature published on the research done during the last decades on the development of various technologies, such as encapsulation or composite materials, to protect LF and avoid its degradation. Multiple compounds can be used to conduct this protective function, such as proteins, including those from milk, or polysaccharides, like alginate or chitosan. Furthermore, LF can be used as a component in complexes, nanoparticles, hydrogels and emulsions, to encapsulate, protect and deliver other bioactive compounds, such as essential oils or probiotics. Additionally, LF can be part of systems to deliver drugs or to apply certain therapies to target cells expressing LF receptors. These systems also allow improving the detection of gliomas and have also been used for treating some pathologies, such as different types of tumours. Finally, the application of LF in edible and active films can be effective against some contaminants and limit the increase of the natural microbiota present in meat, for example, becoming one of the most interesting research topics in food technology.

Natural Antimicrobials as Additives for Edible Food Packaging Applications: A Review

Edible packaging is a swiftly emerging art of science in which edible biopolymers like lipids, polysaccharides, proteins, resins, etc., and other consumable constituents extracted from various non-conventional sources are used alone or imbibed together. Edible packaging with antimicrobial components had led to the development of the hypothesis of active packaging which safeguards the quality of foods as well as health of consumers. Natural antimicrobial agents (NAMAs) like essential oils from spices, bioactive compounds derived from vegetables and fruits, animal and microorganism derived compounds having antimicrobial properties can be potentially used in edible films as superior replcement for synthetic compounds, thus serving the purpose of quality and heath. Most of the natural antimicrobial agents enjoy GRAS status and are safer than their synthetic counterparts. This review focuses on updated literature on the sources, properties and potential applications of NAMAs in the food industry. This review also analyzes the biodegradability and biocompatibility and edibility properties of NAMAs enriched films and it can be concluded that NAMAs are better substitutes but affect the organoleptic as well as the mechanical properties of the films. Despite many advantages, the inclusion of NAMAs into the films needs to be investigated more to quantify the inhibitory concentration without affecting the properties of films and exerting potential antimicrobial action to ensure food safety.

Bacteria co-culture adhesion on different texturized zirconia surfaces

Zirconia is becoming reckoned as a promising solution for different applications, in particular those within the dental implant investigation field. It has been proved to successfully overcome important limitations of the commonly used titanium implants. The adhesion of microorganisms to the implants, in particular of bacteria, may govern the success or the failure of a dental implant, as the accumulation of bacteria on the peri-implant bone may rapidly evolve into periodontitis. However, bacterial adhesion on different zirconia architectures is still considerably unknown. Therefore, the adhesion of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa to zirconia surfaces with different finishings was evaluated and compared to a titanium surface. The adhesion interaction between S. aureus and P. aeruginosa was also evaluated using a co-culture since these bacteria are infamous due to their common presence in chronic wound infections. Results showed that different bacterium species possess different properties which influence their propensity to adhere to different roughness levels and architectures. E. coli revealed a higher propensity to adhere to zirconia channelled surfaces (7.15 × 10⁶ CFU/mL), whereas S. aureus and P. aeruginosa adhered more to the titanium control group (1.07 × 10⁵ CFU/mL and 8.43 × 10⁶ CFU/mL, respectively). Moreover, the co-culture denoted significant differences on the adhesion behaviour of bacteria. Despite not having shown an especially better behaviour regarding bacterial adhesion, zirconia surfaces with micro-channels are expected to improve the vascularization around the implants and ultimately enhance osseointegration, thus being a promising solution for dental implants.

Antimicrobial-coated films as food packaging: A review

Antimicrobial food packaging involves packaging the foods with antimicrobials to protect them from harmful microorganisms. In general, antimicrobials can be integrated with packaging materials via direct incorporation of antimicrobial agents into polymers or application of antimicrobial coating onto polymer surfaces. The former option is generally achieved through thermal film-making technology such as compression molding or film extrusion, which is primarily suitable for heat-stable antimicrobials. As a nonthermal technology, surface coating is more promising compared to molding or extrusion for manufacturing food packaging containing heat-sensitive antimicrobials. In addition, it also has advantages over direct incorporation to preserve the packaging materials' bulk properties (e.g., mechanical and physical properties) and minimize the amount of antimicrobials to reach sufficient efficacy. Herein, antimicrobial food packaging films achieved through surface coating is explored and discussed. The two components (i.e., film substrate and antimicrobials) consisting of the antimicrobial-coated films are reviewed as plastic/biopolymer films; and synthetic/naturally occurring antimicrobials. Furthermore, special emphasis is given to different coating technologies to deposit antimicrobials onto film substrate. Laboratory coating techniques (e.g., knife coating, bar coating, and spray coating) commonly applied in academic research are introduced briefly, and scalable coating methods (i.e., electrospinning/spraying, gravure roll coating, flexography coating) that have the potential to bring laboratory-developed antimicrobial-coated films to an industrial level are explained in detail. The migration profile, advantages/drawbacks of antimicrobial-coated films for food applications, and quantitative analyses of the reviewed antimicrobial-coated films from different aspects are also covered in this review. A conclusion is made with a discussion of the challenges that remain in bringing the production of antimicrobial-coated films to an industrial level.

Homogeneous and efficient production of a bacterial nanocellulose-lactoferrin-collagen composite under an electric field as a matrix to promote wound healing

BNC was functionalized with collagen (COL) and lactoferrin (LF) to form three different composites: BNC/COL, BNC/LF and BNC/LF/COL using a novel electrophoresis-based technology. The technology is less time-consuming than traditional immersion-adsorption methods and offers the additional advantages of greater protein loading, better homogeneity and a lower requirement for processing solution. Significantly, it has general applicability and great potential for fabricating other similar composites. The water-holding capability and water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) of BNC composites were significantly improved, particularly in the case of BNC/LF/COL, with a WVTR of 2600 g m-2 d-1, indicating that the composite maintains a moderately moist environment over the wound bed, which would enhance epithelial cell migration during the healing process. Compared with BNC and BNC/COL, the LF-impregnated composites mediated a reduction in bacterial viability of at least 77%. Impregnation with COL significantly improved the cytocompatibility of BNC composites to promote the adhesion and proliferation of fibroblast cells. Furthermore, a greater therapeutic effect of BNC/LF/COL was observed in a rat model of wound healing, with a new epithelium formed within 9 days and without any significant adverse reactions. These results suggest that BNC/LF/COL obtained using the electrophoresis method represents a promising wound dressing for use in practical applications.

Homogeneous and efficient production of a bacterial nanocellulose-lactoferrin-collagen composite under an electric field as a matrix to promote wound healing

A novel BNC/LF/COL membrane fabricated using an electrophoresis-based technology showed superior advantages in water-holding capability and antibacterial activity, with higher cytocompatibility as well as greater therapeutic effect in wound healing.

Nanocellulose Bio-Based Composites for Food Packaging

The food industry is increasingly demanding advanced and eco-friendly sustainable packaging materials with improved physical, mechanical and barrier properties. The currently used materials are synthetic and non-degradable, therefore raising environmental concerns. Consequently, research efforts have been made in recent years towards the development of bio-based sustainable packaging materials. In this review, the potential of nanocelluloses as nanofillers or as coatings for the development of bio-based nanocomposites is discussed, namely: (i) the physico-chemical interaction of nanocellulose with the adjacent polymeric phase, (ii) the effect of nanocellulose modification/functionalization on the final properties of the composites, (iii) the production methods for such composites, and (iv) the effect of nanocellulose on the overall migration, toxicity, and the potential risk to human health. Lastly, the technology readiness level of nanocellulose and nanocellulose based composites for the market of food packaging is discussed.

Bacterial Nanocellulose-A Biobased Polymer for Active and Intelligent Food Packaging Applications: Recent Advances and Developments

The aim of this review is to provide an overview of recent findings related to bacterial cellulose application in bio-packaging industry. This constantly growing sector fulfils a major role by the maintenance of product safety and quality, protection against environmental impacts that affect the shelf life. Conventional petroleum-based plastic packaging are still rarely recyclable and have a number of harmful environmental effects. Herein, we discuss the most recent studies on potential good alternative to plastic packaging-bacterial nanocellulose (BNC), known as an ecological, safe, biodegradable, and chemically pure biopolymer. The limitations of this bio-based packaging material, including relatively poor mechanical properties or lack of antimicrobial and antioxidant activity, can be successfully overcome by its modification with a wide variety of bioactive and reinforcing compounds. BNC active and intelligent food packaging offer a new and innovative approach to extend the shelf life and maintain, improve, or monitor product quality and safety. Incorporation of different agents BNC matrices allows to obtain e.g., antioxidant-releasing films, moisture absorbers, antimicrobial membranes or pH, freshness and damage indicators, humidity, and other biosensors. However, further development and implementation of this kind of bio-packaging will highly depend on the final performance and cost-effectiveness for the industry and consumers.

Effect of bacterial nanocellulose binding on the bactericidal activity of bovine lactoferrin

Bovine lactoferrin (bLF) has been extensively described as a wide spectrum antimicrobial protein. bLF bactericidal activity has been mainly attributed to two different mechanisms: environmental iron depletion and cell membrane destabilization. Due to its antimicrobial properties, bLF has been included in the formulation nutraceutical food products and edible active packages. This work comprises the experimental evidence of the requirement of bLF unrestricted mobility ("free bLF") to effectively perform its bactericidal action. To assess the unrestricted and restricted bLF activity, a nontoxic matrix of bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) was used as carrier, and as an anchoring scaffold, respectively. Therefore, BNC was functionalized with bLF through two different methodologies: (i) bLF was embedded within the three-dimensional structure of BNC and; (ii) bLF was covalently bounded to the nanofibrils of BNC. bLF efficiency was tested against two bacteria isolated from clinical specimens, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. bLF concentration after covalent binding to BNC was two-fold higher in comparison to the embedding method. Nevertheless, only the embedded bLF exhibited a significant bactericidal activity, due to bLF ability to permeate the BNC matrix and execute its bactericidal action.