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Hu Y, Wei T, Gao S, Gao N, Chen L, Cheng Q. CD200R promotes high glucose-induced oxidative stress and damage in human retinal pigment epithelial cells by activating the mTOR signaling pathway. Tissue Cell 2024; 88:102381. [PMID: 38692160 DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2024.102381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 04/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is established as the primary cause of visual impairment and preventable blindness, posing significant social and economic burdens on healthcare systems worldwide. Oxidative stress has been identified as a major contributor to DR, yet the precise role of the transmembrane glycoprotein CD200R in this context remains elusive. We studied human retinal pigment epithelia ARPE-19 cells to investigate the role of CD200R in high-glucose (HG) induced oxidative stress. Under HG conditions, we found a significant increase in CD200R expression in a time-dependent pattern. Conversely, knockdown of CD200R effectively alleviated oxidative stress and restored cell viability in HG-treated ARPE-19 cells, a phenomenon corroborated by the addition of a reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger. Exploration of the AKT/mTOR signaling pathway confirmed its mediating role regarding CD200R knockdown suppression of the expression of key proteins induced by HG conditions. Additionally, we found that the inhibition of mTOR signaling with Rapamycin effectively countered HG-induced oxidative stress in ARPE-19 cells, suggesting a promising therapeutic target against oxidative stress in the context of DR. This study establishes the crucial role of CD200R in HG-induced oxidative stress and identifies potential therapeutic avenues for the treatment of DR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaguang Hu
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, No. 277, Yanta West Road, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province 710061, PR China
| | - Ting Wei
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, No. 277, Yanta West Road, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province 710061, PR China
| | - Shan Gao
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, No. 277, Yanta West Road, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province 710061, PR China
| | - Ning Gao
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, No. 277, Yanta West Road, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province 710061, PR China
| | - Li Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, No. 277, Yanta West Road, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province 710061, PR China
| | - Qiaochu Cheng
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, No. 277, Yanta West Road, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province 710061, PR China.
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Qian H, Gao F, Wu X, Lin D, Huang Y, Chen A, Deng J, Gong C, Chen X, Zheng X. Activation of the CD200/CD200R1 axis attenuates neuroinflammation and improves postoperative cognitive dysfunction via the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway in aged mice. Inflamm Res 2023; 72:2127-2144. [PMID: 37902837 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-023-01804-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) is a neurological complication occurring after anesthesia and surgery. Neuroinflammation plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of POCD, and the activation of the cluster of differentiation 200 (CD200)/CD200R1 axis improves neurological recovery in various neurological disorders by modulating inflammation. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact and underlying mechanism of CD200/CD200R1 axis on POCD in aged mice. METHODS The model of POCD was established in aged mice. To assess the learning and memory abilities of model mice, the Morris water maze test was implemented. CD200Fc (CD200 fusion protein), CD200R1 Ab (anti-CD200R1 antibody), and 740Y-P (a specific PI3K activator) were used to evaluate the effects of the CD200/CD200R1/PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway on hippocampal microglial polarization, neuroinflammation, synaptic activity, and cognition in mice. RESULTS It was observed that anesthesia/surgery induced cognitive decline in aged mice, increased the levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1 β and decreased the levels of postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95), synaptophysin (SYN) in the hippocampus. Moreover, CD200Fc and 740Y-P attenuated neuroinflammation and synaptic deficits and reversed cognitive impairment via the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/ protein kinase B (Akt)/nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway, whereas CD200R1 Ab administration exerted the opposite effects. Our results further show that the CD200/CD200R1 axis modulates M1/M2 polarization in hippocampal microglia via the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate that the activation of the CD200/CD200R1 axis reduces neuroinflammation, synaptic deficits, and cognitive impairment in the hippocampus of aged mice by regulating microglial M1/M2 polarization via the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Qian
- Shengli Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Department of Anesthesiology, Fujian Provincial Hospital, Fuzhou, China
| | - Fei Gao
- Shengli Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Department of Anesthesiology, Fujian Provincial Hospital, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xuyang Wu
- College of Integrative Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, China
| | - Daoyi Lin
- Shengli Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Department of Anesthesiology, Fujian Provincial Hospital, Fuzhou, China
| | - Yongxin Huang
- Shengli Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Department of Anesthesiology, Fujian Provincial Hospital, Fuzhou, China
| | - Andi Chen
- Shengli Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Department of Anesthesiology, Fujian Provincial Hospital, Fuzhou, China
| | - Jianhui Deng
- Shengli Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Department of Anesthesiology, Fujian Provincial Hospital, Fuzhou, China
| | - Cansheng Gong
- Shengli Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Department of Anesthesiology, Fujian Provincial Hospital, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xiaohui Chen
- Shengli Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Department of Anesthesiology, Fujian Provincial Hospital, Fuzhou, China.
| | - Xiaochun Zheng
- Shengli Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Department of Anesthesiology, Fujian Provincial Hospital, Fuzhou, China.
- Fujian Emergency Medical Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, Fujian Provincial Co-Constructed Laboratory of "Belt and Road", Fuzhou, China.
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CD200R1 Contributes to Successful Functional Reinnervation after a Sciatic Nerve Injury. Cells 2022; 11:cells11111786. [PMID: 35681481 PMCID: PMC9179995 DOI: 10.3390/cells11111786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Activating and inhibitory immune receptors play a critical role in regulating systemic and central nervous system (CNS) immune and inflammatory processes. The CD200R1 immunoreceptor induces a restraining signal modulating inflammation and phagocytosis in the CNS under different inflammatory conditions. However, it remains unknown whether CD200R1 has a role in modulating the inflammatory response after a peripheral nerve injury, an essential component of the successful regeneration. Expression of CD200R1 and its ligand CD200 was analyzed during homeostasis and after a sciatic nerve crush injury in C57Bl/6 mice. The role of CD200R1 in Wallerian Degeneration (WD) and nerve regeneration was studied using a specific antibody against CD200R1 injected into the nerve at the time of injury. We found an upregulation of CD200R1 mRNA after injury whereas CD200 was downregulated acutely after nerve injury. Blockade of CD200R1 significantly reduced the acute entrance of both neutrophils and monocytes from blood after nerve injury. When long term regeneration and functional recovery were evaluated, we found that blockade of CD200R1 had a significant effect impairing the spontaneous functional recovery. Taken together, these results show that CD200R1 has a role in mounting a successful acute inflammatory reaction after injury, and contributes to an effective functional recovery.
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Cadiz MP, Jensen TD, Sens JP, Zhu K, Song WM, Zhang B, Ebbert M, Chang R, Fryer JD. Culture shock: microglial heterogeneity, activation, and disrupted single-cell microglial networks in vitro. Mol Neurodegener 2022; 17:26. [PMID: 35346293 PMCID: PMC8962153 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-022-00531-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microglia, the resident immune cells of the brain, play a critical role in numerous diseases, but are a minority cell type and difficult to genetically manipulate in vivo with viral vectors and other approaches. Primary cultures allow a more controlled setting to investigate these cells, but morphological and transcriptional changes upon removal from their normal brain environment raise many caveats from in vitro studies. METHODS To investigate whether cultured microglia recapitulate in vivo microglial signatures, we used single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq) to compare microglia freshly isolated from the brain to primary microglial cultures. We performed cell population discovery, differential expression analysis, and gene co-expression module analysis to compare signatures between in vitro and in vivo microglia. We constructed causal predictive network models of transcriptional regulators from the scRNAseq data and identified a set of potential key drivers of the cultured phenotype. To validate this network analysis, we knocked down two of these key drivers, C1qc and Prdx1, in primary cultured microglia and quantified changes in microglial activation markers. RESULTS We found that, although often assumed to be a relatively homogenous population of cells in culture, in vitro microglia are a highly heterogeneous population consisting of distinct subpopulations of cells with transcriptional profiles reminiscent of macrophages and monocytes, and are marked by transcriptional programs active in neurodegeneration and other disease states. We found that microglia in vitro presented transcriptional activation of a set of "culture shock genes" not found in freshly isolated microglia, characterized by strong upregulation of disease-associated genes including Apoe, Lyz2, and Spp1, and downregulation of homeostatic microglial markers, including Cx3cr1, P2ry12, and Tmem119. Finally, we found that cultured microglia prominently alter their transcriptional machinery modulated by key drivers from the homeostatic to activated phenotype. Knockdown of one of these drivers, C1qc, resulted in downregulation of microglial activation genes Lpl, Lyz2, and Ccl4. CONCLUSIONS Overall, our data suggest that when removed from their in vivo home environment, microglia suffer a severe case of "culture shock", drastically modulating their transcriptional regulatory network state from homeostatic to activated through upregulation of modules of culture-specific genes. Consequently, cultured microglia behave as a disparate cell type that does not recapitulate the homeostatic signatures of microglia in vivo. Finally, our predictive network model discovered potential key drivers that may convert activated microglia back to their homeostatic state, allowing for more accurate representation of in vivo states in culture. Knockdown of key driver C1qc partially attenuated microglial activation in vitro, despite C1qc being only weakly upregulated in culture. This suggests that even genes that are not strongly differentially expressed across treatments or preparations may drive downstream transcriptional changes in culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mika P. Cadiz
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, AZ 85259 USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Scottsdale, AZ 85259 USA
| | - Tanner D. Jensen
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, AZ 85259 USA
| | - Jonathon P. Sens
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, AZ 85259 USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Scottsdale, AZ 85259 USA
| | - Kuixi Zhu
- Department of Neurology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 USA
| | - Won-Min Song
- Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai Center for Transformative Disease Modeling, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Bin Zhang
- Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai Center for Transformative Disease Modeling, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Mark Ebbert
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, Biomedical Informatics, and Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536 USA
| | - Rui Chang
- Department of Neurology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 USA
| | - John D. Fryer
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, AZ 85259 USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Scottsdale, AZ 85259 USA
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Pavan M, Bassani D, Bolcato G, Bissaro M, Sturles M, Moro S. Computational strategies to identify new drug candidates against neuroinflammation. Curr Med Chem 2022; 29:4756-4775. [PMID: 35135446 DOI: 10.2174/0929867329666220208095122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The even more increasing application of computational approaches in these last decades has deeply modified the process of discovery and commercialization of new therapeutic entities. This is especially true in the field of neuroinflammation, in which both the peculiar anatomical localization and the presence of the blood-brain barrier makeit mandatory to finely tune the candidates' physicochemical properties from the early stages of the discovery pipeline. The aim of this review is therefore to provide a general overview to the readers about the topic of neuroinflammation, together with the most common computational strategies that can be exploited to discover and design small molecules controlling neuroinflammation, especially those based on the knowledge of the three-dimensional structure of the biological targets of therapeutic interest. The techniques used to describe the molecular recognition mechanisms, such as molecular docking and molecular dynamics, will therefore be eviscerated, highlighting their advantages and their limitations. Finally, we report several case studies in which computational methods have been applied in drug discovery on neuroinflammation, focusing on the last decade's research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Pavan
- Molecular Modeling Section (MMS), Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences University of Padova, via Marzolo 5, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Davide Bassani
- Molecular Modeling Section (MMS), Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences University of Padova, via Marzolo 5, 35131 Padova, Italy
- Molecular Modeling Section (MMS), Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences University of Padova, via Marzolo 5, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Giovanni Bolcato
- Molecular Modeling Section (MMS), Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences University of Padova, via Marzolo 5, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Maicol Bissaro
- Molecular Modeling Section (MMS), Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences University of Padova, via Marzolo 5, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Mattia Sturles
- Molecular Modeling Section (MMS), Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences University of Padova, via Marzolo 5, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Stefano Moro
- Molecular Modeling Section (MMS), Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences University of Padova, via Marzolo 5, 35131 Padova, Italy
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Singh V, Kushwaha S, Ansari JA, Gangopadhyay S, Mishra SK, Dey RK, Giri AK, Patnaik S, Ghosh D. MicroRNA-129-5p-regulated microglial expression of the surface receptor CD200R1 controls neuroinflammation. J Biol Chem 2021; 298:101521. [PMID: 34952004 PMCID: PMC8762073 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 12/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
CD200R1 is an inhibitory surface receptor expressed in microglia and blood macrophages. Microglial CD200R1 is known to control neuroinflammation by keeping the microglia in resting state, and therefore, tight regulation of its expression is important. CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein β (CEBPβ) is the known regulator of CD200R1 transcription. In the present study, our specific intention was to find a possible posttranscriptional regulatory mechanism of CD200R1 expression. Here we investigated a novel regulatory mechanism of CD200R1 expression following exposure to an environmental stressor, arsenic, combining in silico analysis, in vitro, and in vivo experiments, as well as validation in human samples. The in silico analysis and in vitro studies with primary neonatal microglia and BV2 microglia revealed that arsenic demethylates the promoter of a microRNA, miR-129-5p, thereby increasing its expression, which subsequently represses CD200R1 by binding to its 3′-untranslated region and shuttling the CD200R1 mRNA to the cytoplasmic-processing body in mouse microglia. The role of miR-129-5p was further validated in BALB/c mouse by stereotaxically injecting anti-miR-129. We found that anti-miR-129 reversed the expression of CD200R1, as well as levels of inflammatory molecules IL-6 and TNF-α. Experiments with a CD200R1 siRNA-induced loss-of-function mouse model confirmed an miR-129-5p→CD200R1→IL-6/TNF-α signaling axis. These main findings were replicated in a human cell line and validated in human samples. Taken together, our study revealed miR-129-5p as a novel posttranscriptional regulator of CD200R1 expression with potential implications in neuroinflammation and related complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikas Singh
- Immunotoxicology Laboratory, Food, Drug & Chemical Toxicology Group and Nanomaterial Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226001, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Shaivya Kushwaha
- Immunotoxicology Laboratory, Food, Drug & Chemical Toxicology Group and Nanomaterial Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226001, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Jamal Ahmad Ansari
- Immunotoxicology Laboratory, Food, Drug & Chemical Toxicology Group and Nanomaterial Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226001, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Siddhartha Gangopadhyay
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India; Developmental Toxicology Laboratory, Systems Toxicology & Health Risk Assessment Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226001, India
| | - Shubhendra K Mishra
- Immunotoxicology Laboratory, Food, Drug & Chemical Toxicology Group and Nanomaterial Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226001, India
| | - Rajib K Dey
- Immunotoxicology Laboratory, Food, Drug & Chemical Toxicology Group and Nanomaterial Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226001, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Ashok K Giri
- CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja Subodh Chandra Mallick Rd, Poddar Nagar, Jadavpur, Kolkata, West Bengal 700032, India
| | - Satyakam Patnaik
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India; Water Analysis Laboratory, Nanomaterial Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226001, India
| | - Debabrata Ghosh
- Immunotoxicology Laboratory, Food, Drug & Chemical Toxicology Group and Nanomaterial Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226001, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India.
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Al Hussein Al Awamlh S, Wareham LK, Risner ML, Calkins DJ. Insulin Signaling as a Therapeutic Target in Glaucomatous Neurodegeneration. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:4672. [PMID: 33925119 PMCID: PMC8124776 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Revised: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Glaucoma is a multifactorial disease that is conventionally managed with treatments to lower intraocular pressure (IOP). Despite these efforts, many patients continue to lose their vision. The degeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their axons in the optic tract that characterizes glaucoma is similar to neurodegeneration in other age-related disorders of the central nervous system (CNS). Identifying the different molecular signaling pathways that contribute to early neuronal dysfunction can be utilized for neuroprotective strategies that prevent degeneration. The discovery of insulin and its receptor in the CNS and retina led to exploration of the role of insulin signaling in the CNS. Historically, insulin was considered a peripherally secreted hormone that regulated glucose homeostasis, with no obvious roles in the CNS. However, a growing number of pre-clinical and clinical studies have demonstrated the potential of modulating insulin signaling in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. This review will highlight the role that insulin signaling plays in RGC neurodegeneration. We will focus on how this pathway can be therapeutically targeted to promote RGC axon survival and preserve vision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Al Hussein Al Awamlh
- Vanderbilt Eye Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA; (S.A.H.A.A.); (L.K.W.); (M.L.R.)
| | - Lauren K. Wareham
- Vanderbilt Eye Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA; (S.A.H.A.A.); (L.K.W.); (M.L.R.)
| | - Michael L. Risner
- Vanderbilt Eye Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA; (S.A.H.A.A.); (L.K.W.); (M.L.R.)
| | - David J. Calkins
- Vanderbilt Eye Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA; (S.A.H.A.A.); (L.K.W.); (M.L.R.)
- Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
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Chamera K, Trojan E, Kotarska K, Szuster-Głuszczak M, Bryniarska N, Tylek K, Basta-Kaim A. Role of Polyinosinic:Polycytidylic Acid-Induced Maternal Immune Activation and Subsequent Immune Challenge in the Behaviour and Microglial Cell Trajectory in Adult Offspring: A Study of the Neurodevelopmental Model of Schizophrenia. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22041558. [PMID: 33557113 PMCID: PMC7913889 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22041558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple lines of evidence support the pathogenic role of maternal immune activation (MIA) in the occurrence of the schizophrenia-like disturbances in offspring. While in the brain the homeostatic role of neuron-microglia protein systems is well documented, the participation of the CX3CL1-CX3CR1 and CD200-CD200R dyads in the adverse impact of MIA often goes under-recognized. Therefore, in the present study, we examined the effect of MIA induced by polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (Poly I:C) on the CX3CL1-CX3CR1 and CD200-CD200R axes, microglial trajectory (MhcII, Cd40, iNos, Il-1β, Tnf-α, Il-6, Arg1, Igf-1, Tgf-β and Il-4), and schizophrenia-like behaviour in adult male offspring of Sprague-Dawley rats. Additionally, according to the “two-hit” hypothesis of schizophrenia, we evaluated the influence of acute challenge with Poly I:C in adult prenatally MIA-exposed animals on the above parameters. In the present study, MIA evoked by Poly I:C injection in the late period of gestation led to the appearance of schizophrenia-like disturbances in adult offspring. Our results revealed the deficits manifested as a diminished number of aggressive interactions, presence of depressive-like episodes, and increase of exploratory activity, as well as a dichotomy in the sensorimotor gating in the prepulse inhibition (PPI) test expressed as two behavioural phenotypes (MIAPPI-low and MIAPPI-high). Furthermore, in the offspring rats subjected to a prenatal challenge (i.e., MIA) we noticed the lack of modulation of behavioural changes after the additional acute immune stimulus (Poly I:C) in adulthood. The important finding reported in this article is that MIA affects the expression and levels of the neuron-microglia proteins in the frontal cortex and hippocampus of adult offspring. We found that the changes in the CX3CL1-CX3CR1 axis could affect microglial trajectory, including decreased hippocampal mRNA level of MhcII and elevated cortical expression of Igf-1 in the MIAPPI-high animals and/or could cause the up-regulation of an inflammatory response (Il-6, Tnf-α, iNos) after the “second hit” in both examined brain regions and, at least in part, might differentiate behavioural disturbances in adult offspring. Consequently, the future effort to identify the biological background of these interactions in the Poly I:C-induced MIA model in Sprague-Dawley rats is desirable to unequivocally clarify this issue.
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Liu Y, Yu L, Xu Y, Tang X, Wang X. Substantia nigra Smad3 signaling deficiency: relevance to aging and Parkinson's disease and roles of microglia, proinflammatory factors, and MAPK. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:342. [PMID: 33198771 PMCID: PMC7670688 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-02023-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Smad3 signaling is indicated to regulate microglia activity. Parkinson’s disease (PD) neurodegeneration is shown to be associated with aging and neuroinflammation. However, it remains unclear about the relationship among Smad3 signaling, aging, neuroinflammation, and PD. Methods Rats were treated with SIS3 (a specific inhibitor of Smad3, intranigal injection) and/or lipopolysaccharide (intraperitoneal injection). We investigated the effect of SIS3 and lipopolysaccharide and their mechanism of action on motor behavior and nigrostriatal dopaminergic system in the rats. Furthermore, we explored the effect of SIS3 and LPS and their potential signaling mechanism of action on inflammatory response by using primary microglial cultures. Finally, we investigated the relationship among aging, Smad3 signaling, and neuroinflammation using animals of different ages. Results Both SIS3 and lipopolysaccharide induced significant behavior deficits and nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the rats compared with the vehicle-treated (control) rats. Significantly increased behavior deficits and nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration were observed in the rats co-treated with SIS3 and lipopolysaccharide compared with the rats treated with vehicle, SIS3, or lipopolysaccharide. Furthermore, both SIS3 and lipopolysaccharide induced significant microglia activation and proinflammatory factor (IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS, and ROS) level increase in the SN of rats compared with the control rats. Significantly enhanced microglial inflammatory response was observed in the rats co-treated with SIS3 and lipopolysaccharide compared with the other three groups. For our in vitro study, both SIS3 and lipopolysaccharide induced significant proinflammatory factor level increase in primary microglia cultures compared with the control cultures. Significantly increased inflammatory response was observed in the cultures co-treated with SIS3 and lipopolysaccharide compared with the other three groups. MAPK (ERK/p38) contributed to microglial inflammatory response induced by co-treatment with SIS3 and lipopolysaccharide. Interestingly, there was decrease in Smad3 and pSmad3 expression (protein) and enhancement of neuroinflammation in the mouse SN with aging. Proinflammatory factor levels were significantly inversely correlated with Smad3 and pSmad3 expression. Conclusion Our study strongly indicates the involvement of SN Smad3 signaling deficiency in aging and PD neurodegeneration and provides a novel molecular mechanism underlying the participation of aging in PD and helps to elucidate the mechanisms for the combined effect of multiple factors in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Liu
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 1665 Kongjiang Road, Shanghai, 200092, P.R. China
| | - Lijia Yu
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 1665 Kongjiang Road, Shanghai, 200092, P.R. China
| | - Yaling Xu
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 1665 Kongjiang Road, Shanghai, 200092, P.R. China
| | - Xiaohui Tang
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 1665 Kongjiang Road, Shanghai, 200092, P.R. China
| | - Xijin Wang
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 1665 Kongjiang Road, Shanghai, 200092, P.R. China.
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Lyu J, Jiang X, Leak RK, Shi Y, Hu X, Chen J. Microglial Responses to Brain Injury and Disease: Functional Diversity and New Opportunities. Transl Stroke Res 2020; 12:474-495. [PMID: 33128703 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-020-00857-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
As an integral part of the innate immune system of the brain, resident microglia must react rapidly to the onset of brain injury and neurological disease. These dynamic cells then continue to shift their phenotype along a multidimensional continuum with overlapping pro- and anti-inflammatory states, allowing them to adapt to microenvironmental changes during the progression of brain disorders. However, the ability of microglia to shift phenotype through nimble molecular, structural, and functional changes comes at a cost, as the extreme pro-inflammatory states may prevent these professional phagocytes from clearing toxic debris and secreting tissue-repairing neurotrophic factors. Evolution has strongly favored heterogeneity in microglia in both the spatial and temporal dimensions-they can assume diverse roles in different brain regions, throughout the course of brain development and aging, and during the spatiotemporal progression of brain injuries and neurological diseases. Age and sex differences add further diversity to microglia functional status under physiological and pathological conditions. This article reviews recent advances in our knowledge of microglia with emphases on molecular mediators of phenotype shifts and functional diversity. We describe microglia-targeted therapeutic opportunities, including pharmacologic modulation of phenotype and repopulation of the brain with fresh microglia. With the advent of powerful new tools, research on microglia has recently accelerated in pace and may translate into potential therapeutics against brain injury and neurological disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junxuan Lyu
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery and Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Xiaoyan Jiang
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery and Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.,Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Rehana K Leak
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15282, USA
| | - Yejie Shi
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery and Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.,Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Xiaoming Hu
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery and Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.,Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Jun Chen
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery and Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA. .,Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA.
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Bayo-Olugbami A, Nafiu AB, Amin A, Ogundele OM, Lee CC, Owoyele BV. Vitamin D attenuated 6-OHDA-induced behavioural deficits, dopamine dysmetabolism, oxidative stress, and neuro-inflammation in mice. Nutr Neurosci 2020; 25:823-834. [PMID: 32912107 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2020.1815331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Background: L-DOPA, the predominant therapy for Parkinson's disease (PD) is associated with motor deficits after prolonged use. The nigrostriatal tract, a primary target of neurodegeneration in PD, contains abundant Vitamin-D receptors, suggesting a potential role for VD in the disease. Therefore, we tested the impact of Vitamin D3 (VD3) in a mouse model of PD.Methods: PD was induced in adult male C57BL6 mice by a single intrastriatal injection of 6-hydroxydopamine. Two weeks post lesion, these mice received injections of a vehicle, VD3, L-DOPA, or a combination of VD3/L-DOPA and compared with sham controls. Treatment lasted three weeks, during which motor-cognitive neurobehaviour was assessed. Five weeks post lesion, brains were collected and striatal levels of the following proteins assessed: tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), dopamine decarboxylase (DDC), monoamine oxidase (MAO-B), Catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT), dopamine transporter (DAT), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), microglia marker (CD11b), inflammation (IL-1β), apoptotic signaling (BAX) and oxidative stress (p47phox).Results: Treatment with VD3 attenuated behavioural deficits induced by 6-OHDA, protein associated with dopamine metabolism and biomarkers of oxidative stress. VD3 significantly increased contralateral wall touches, exploratory motor and cognitive activities. VD3 significantly enhanced the expression of TH, DAT, BDNF, while significantly reducing expression of MAO-B, CD11b, IL-I β and p47phox.Conclusion: VD3 reversed some of the 6-OHDA induced changes in proteins involved in modulating the dopamine system, behavioural deficits and oxidative stress biomarkers. The data suggests that VD3 might be beneficial in reducing L-DOPA dosage, thereby reducing problems associated with dosage and prolonged use of L-DOPA in PD management.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Abdulbasit Amin
- Neuroscience & Inflammation unit, Department of Physiology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - Olalekan Michael Ogundele
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Charles C Lee
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Bamidele Victor Owoyele
- Neuroscience & Inflammation unit, Department of Physiology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
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Chamera K, Kotarska K, Szuster-Głuszczak M, Trojan E, Skórkowska A, Pomierny B, Krzyżanowska W, Bryniarska N, Basta-Kaim A. The prenatal challenge with lipopolysaccharide and polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid disrupts CX3CL1-CX3CR1 and CD200-CD200R signalling in the brains of male rat offspring: a link to schizophrenia-like behaviours. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:247. [PMID: 32829711 PMCID: PMC7444338 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-01923-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The bidirectional communication between neurons and microglia is fundamental for the homeostasis and biological function of the central nervous system. Maternal immune activation (MIA) is considered to be one of the factors affecting these interactions. Accordingly, MIA has been suggested to be involved in several neuropsychiatric diseases, including schizophrenia. The crucial regulatory systems for neuron-microglia crosstalk are the CX3CL1-CX3CR1 and CD200-CD200R axes. METHODS We aimed to clarify the impact of MIA on CX3CL1-CX3CR1 and CD200-CD200R signalling pathways in the brains of male Wistar rats in early and adult life by employing two neurodevelopmental models of schizophrenia based on the prenatal challenge with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (Poly I:C). We also examined the effect of MIA on the expression of microglial markers and the profile of cytokines released in the brains of young offspring, as well as the behaviour of adult animals. Moreover, we visualized the localization of ligand-receptor systems in the hippocampal regions (CA1, CA3 and DG) and the frontal cortex of young rats exposed to MIA. The differences between groups were analysed using Student's t test. RESULTS We observed that MIA altered developmental trajectories in neuron-microglia communication in the brains of young offspring, as evidenced by the disruption of CX3CL1-CX3CR1 and/or CD200-CD200R axes. Our data demonstrated the presence of abnormalities after LPS-induced MIA in levels of Cd40, Il-1β, Tnf-α, Arg1, Tgf-β and Il-10, as well as IBA1, IL-1β and IL-4, while after Poly I:C-generated MIA in levels of Cd40, iNos, Il-6, Tgf-β, Il-10, and IBA1, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, TGF-β and IL-4 early in the life of male animals. In adult male rats that experienced prenatal exposure to MIA, we observed behavioural changes resembling a schizophrenia-like phenotype. CONCLUSIONS Our study provides evidence that altered CX3CL1-CX3CR1 and/or CD200-CD200R pathways, emerging after prenatal immune challenge with LPS and Poly I:C, might be involved in the aetiology of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Chamera
- Laboratory of Immunoendocrinology, Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna St, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Kotarska
- Laboratory of Immunoendocrinology, Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna St, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Magdalena Szuster-Głuszczak
- Laboratory of Immunoendocrinology, Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna St, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Ewa Trojan
- Laboratory of Immunoendocrinology, Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna St, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Alicja Skórkowska
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum, 9 Medyczna St, 30-688, Kraków, Poland
| | - Bartosz Pomierny
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum, 9 Medyczna St, 30-688, Kraków, Poland
| | - Weronika Krzyżanowska
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum, 9 Medyczna St, 30-688, Kraków, Poland
| | - Natalia Bryniarska
- Laboratory of Immunoendocrinology, Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna St, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Basta-Kaim
- Laboratory of Immunoendocrinology, Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna St, 31-343, Kraków, Poland.
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HMGB1 A box protects neurons by potently inhibiting both microglia and T cell-mediated inflammation in a mouse Parkinson's disease model. Clin Sci (Lond) 2020; 134:2075-2090. [PMID: 32706028 DOI: 10.1042/cs20200553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In the subacute Parkinson's disease (PD) mice model of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), injection of HMGB1 competitive inhibitor protein HMGB1 A box and the ethyl pyruvate (EP) that inhibit the release of HMGB1 from cells restored the number of dopaminergic neurons and TH+ fibers in the SN and striatum. Our data show that A box up-regulated CD200-CD200R signal of microglia inhibited the activation of microglia mediated by HMGB1, and the production of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 in vivo and in vitro mixed culture system. Microglia overexpressing CD200R produced less inflammatory chemokines and reduced the loss of TH+ neurons. In addition, HMGB1 A box decreased the level of CCL5 and significantly inhibited the infiltration of almost all T cells including Th17 and the proportion of Th17 in CD4+ T cells. In vitro MPP+ induced model and HMGB1-stimulated mesencephalic cell system activated microglia induced the differentiation of naïve T cells to Th17, and A box significantly inhibited this process. To sum up, our results show that HMGB1 A box targeting HMGB1, which effectively reduces the activation of microglia in MPTP PD model by restoring CD200-CD200R signal inhibit microglia mediated neuroinflammation and the differentiation of T cells to Th17.
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Cardoso S, Moreira PI. Antidiabetic drugs for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases: Repurposing insulin, metformin, and thiazolidinediones. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2020; 155:37-64. [PMID: 32854858 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2020.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Medical and scientific communities have been striving to disentangle the complexity of neurodegenerative diseases, particularly Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), in order to develop a cure or effective treatment for these diseases. Along this journey, it has become important to identify the early events occurring in the prodromal phases of these diseases and the disorders that increase the risk of neurodegeneration highlighting common pathological features. This strategy has led to a wealth of evidence identifying diabetes, mainly type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) as a main risk factor for the onset and progression of AD and PD. Impaired glucose metabolism, insulin resistance, and mitochondrial dysfunction are features common to both type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and AD and PD, and they appear before clinical diagnosis of the two neurodegenerative diseases. These could represent the strategic nodes of therapeutic intervention. Following this line of thought, a conceivable approach is to repurpose antidiabetic drugs as valuable agents that may prevent or reduce the risk of cognitive decline and neurodegeneration. This review summarizes the past and current findings that link AD and PD with T2DM, emphasizing the common pathological mechanisms. The efficacy of antidiabetic drugs, namely intranasal insulin, metformin, and thiazolidinediones, in the prevention and/or treatment of AD and PD is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana Cardoso
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal; CIBB-Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal; IIIUC-Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Paula I Moreira
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal; CIBB-Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal; Laboratory of Physiology-Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
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Angelopoulou E, Paudel YN, Shaikh MF, Piperi C. Fractalkine (CX3CL1) signaling and neuroinflammation in Parkinson’s disease: Potential clinical and therapeutic implications. Pharmacol Res 2020; 158:104930. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Maternal Immune Activation Sensitizes Male Offspring Rats to Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Microglial Deficits Involving the Dysfunction of CD200-CD200R and CX3CL1-CX3CR1 Systems. Cells 2020; 9:cells9071676. [PMID: 32664639 PMCID: PMC7407118 DOI: 10.3390/cells9071676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Early life challenges resulting from maternal immune activation (MIA) may exert persistent effects on the offspring, including the development of psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia. Recent evidence has suggested that the adverse effects of MIA may be mediated by neuron-microglia crosstalk, particularly CX3CL1-CX3CR1 and CD200-CD200R dyads. Therefore, the present study assessed the behavioural parameters resembling schizophrenia-like symptoms in the adult male offspring of Sprague-Dawley rats that were exposed to MIA and to an additional acute lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge in adulthood, according to the "two-hit" hypothesis of schizophrenia. Simultaneously, we aimed to clarify the role of the CX3CL1-CX3CR1 and CD200-CD200R axes and microglial reactivity in the brains of adult offspring subjected to MIA and the "second hit" wit LPS. In the present study, MIA generated a range of behavioural changes in the adult male offspring, including increased exploratory activity and anxiety-like behaviours. The most intriguing finding was observed in the prepulse inhibition (PPI) test, where the deficit in the sensorimotor gating was age-dependent and present only in part of the rats. We were able to distinguish the occurrence of two groups: responsive and non-responsive (without the deficit). Concurrently, based on the results of the biochemical studies, MIA disrupted mainly the CD200-CD200R system, while the changes of the CX3CL1-CX3CR1 axis were less evident in the frontal cortex of adult non-responsive offspring. MIA markedly affected the immune regulators of the CD200-CD200R pathway as we observed an increase in cortical IL-6 release in the responsive group and IL-4 in the non-responsive offspring. Importantly, the "second hit" generated disturbances at the behavioural and biochemical levels mostly in the non-responsive adult animals. Those offspring were characterized both by disturbed PPI and "priming" microglia. Altogether, the exposure to MIA altered the immunomodulatory mechanisms, including the CD200-CD200R axis, in the brain and sensitized animals to subsequent immunological challenges, leading to the manifestation of schizophrenia-like alterations.
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Ageing as a risk factor for cerebral ischemia: Underlying mechanisms and therapy in animal models and in the clinic. Mech Ageing Dev 2020; 190:111312. [PMID: 32663480 DOI: 10.1016/j.mad.2020.111312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Age is the only one non-modifiable risk of cerebral ischemia. Advances in stroke medicine and behavioral adaptation to stroke risk factors and comorbidities was successful in decreasing stroke incidence and increasing the number of stroke survivors in western societies. Comorbidities aggravates the outcome after cerebral ischemia. However, due to the increased in number of elderly, the incidence of stroke has increased again paralleled by an increase in the number of stroke survivors, many with severe disabilities, that has led to an increased economic and social burden in society. Animal models of stroke often ignore age and comorbidities frequently associated with senescence. This might explain why drugs working nicely in animal models fail to show efficacy in stroke survivors. Since stroke afflicts mostly the elderly comorbid patients, it is highly desirable to test the efficacy of stroke therapies in an appropriate animal stroke model. Therefore, in this review, we make parallels between animal models of stroke und clinical data and summarize the impact of ageing and age-related comorbidities on stroke outcome.
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Sun H, He X, Tao X, Hou T, Chen M, He M, Liao H. The CD200/CD200R signaling pathway contributes to spontaneous functional recovery by enhancing synaptic plasticity after stroke. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:171. [PMID: 32473633 PMCID: PMC7260848 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-01845-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Spontaneous functional recovery occurs during the acute phase after stroke onset, but this intrinsic recovery remains limited. Therefore, exploring the mechanism underlying spontaneous recovery and identifying potential strategies to promote functional rehabilitation after stroke are very important. The CD200/CD200R signaling pathway plays an important role in neurological recovery by modulating synaptic plasticity during multiple brain disorders. However, the effect and mechanism of action of the CD200/CD200R pathway in spontaneous functional recovery after stroke are unclear. METHODS In this study, we used a transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model in rats to investigate the function of CD200/CD200R signaling in spontaneous functional recovery after stroke. We performed a battery of behavioral tests (Longa test, adhesive removal test, limb-use asymmetry test, and the modified grip-traction test) to evaluate sensorimotor function after intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection with CD200 fusion protein (CD200Fc) or CD200R blocking antibody (CD200R Ab) post-stroke. Density and morphology of dendritic spines were analyzed by Golgi staining. Microglia activation was evaluated by immunofluorescence staining. Western blot was used to detect the levels of protein and the levels of mRNA were measured by qPCR. RESULTS Our study demonstrated that sensorimotor function, synaptic proteins, and structures were gradually recovered and CD200R was transiently upregulated in ipsilateral cortex after stroke. Synapse-related proteins and dendritic spines were preserved, accompanied by sensorimotor functional recovery, after stereotaxic CD200Fc injection post-stroke. In addition, CD200Fc restrained microglia activation and pro-inflammatory factor release (such as Il-1, Tnf-α, and Il-6) after MCAO. On the contrary, CD200R Ab aggravated sensory function recovery in adhesive removal test and further promoted microglia activation and pro-inflammatory factor release (such as Il-1) after MCAO. The immune-modulatory effect of CD200/CD200R signaling might be exerted partly by its inhibition of the MAPK pathway. CONCLUSIONS This study provides evidence that the CD200/CD200R signaling pathway contributes to spontaneous functional recovery by enhancing synaptic plasticity via inhibition of microglia activation and inflammatory factor release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Sun
- Jiangsu Key laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjiaxiang Street, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Xinran He
- Jiangsu Key laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjiaxiang Street, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Xia Tao
- Jiangsu Key laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjiaxiang Street, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Tingting Hou
- Jiangsu Key laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjiaxiang Street, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Mingming Chen
- Jiangsu Key laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjiaxiang Street, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Meijun He
- Jiangsu Key laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjiaxiang Street, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Hong Liao
- Jiangsu Key laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjiaxiang Street, Nanjing, 210009, China.
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Sutherland TC, Geoffroy CG. The Influence of Neuron-Extrinsic Factors and Aging on Injury Progression and Axonal Repair in the Central Nervous System. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:190. [PMID: 32269994 PMCID: PMC7109259 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In the aging western population, the average age of incidence for spinal cord injury (SCI) has increased, as has the length of survival of SCI patients. This places great importance on understanding SCI in middle-aged and aging patients. Axon regeneration after injury is an area of study that has received substantial attention and made important experimental progress, however, our understanding of how aging affects this process, and any therapeutic effort to modulate repair, is incomplete. The growth and regeneration of axons is mediated by both neuron intrinsic and extrinsic factors. In this review we explore some of the key extrinsic influences on axon regeneration in the literature, focusing on inflammation and astrogliosis, other cellular responses, components of the extracellular matrix, and myelin proteins. We will describe how each element supports the contention that axonal growth after injury in the central nervous system shows an age-dependent decline, and how this may affect outcomes after a SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa C Sutherland
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Bryan, TX, United States
| | - Cédric G Geoffroy
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Bryan, TX, United States
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Chamera K, Trojan E, Szuster-Głuszczak M, Basta-Kaim A. The Potential Role of Dysfunctions in Neuron-Microglia Communication in the Pathogenesis of Brain Disorders. Curr Neuropharmacol 2020; 18:408-430. [PMID: 31729301 PMCID: PMC7457436 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x17666191113101629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Revised: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The bidirectional communication between neurons and microglia is fundamental for the proper functioning of the central nervous system (CNS). Chemokines and clusters of differentiation (CD) along with their receptors represent ligand-receptor signalling that is uniquely important for neuron - microglia communication. Among these molecules, CX3CL1 (fractalkine) and CD200 (OX-2 membrane glycoprotein) come to the fore because of their cell-type-specific localization. They are principally expressed by neurons when their receptors, CX3CR1 and CD200R, respectively, are predominantly present on the microglia, resulting in the specific axis which maintains the CNS homeostasis. Disruptions to this balance are suggested as contributors or even the basis for many neurological diseases. In this review, we discuss the roles of CX3CL1, CD200 and their receptors in both physiological and pathological processes within the CNS. We want to underline the critical involvement of these molecules in controlling neuron - microglia communication, noting that dysfunctions in their interactions constitute a key factor in severe neurological diseases, such as schizophrenia, depression and neurodegeneration-based conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Chamera
- Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, Laboratory of Immunoendocrinology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna St. 31-343Kraków, Poland
| | - Ewa Trojan
- Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, Laboratory of Immunoendocrinology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna St. 31-343Kraków, Poland
| | - Magdalena Szuster-Głuszczak
- Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, Laboratory of Immunoendocrinology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna St. 31-343Kraków, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Basta-Kaim
- Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, Laboratory of Immunoendocrinology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna St. 31-343Kraków, Poland
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Comella Bolla A, Valente T, Miguez A, Brito V, Gines S, Solà C, Straccia M, Canals JM. CD200 is up-regulated in R6/1 transgenic mouse model of Huntington's disease. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0224901. [PMID: 31790427 PMCID: PMC6886799 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In Huntington's disease (HD), striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs) are particularly sensitive to the presence of a CAG repeat in the huntingtin (HTT) gene. However, there are many evidences that cells from the peripheral immune system and central nervous system (CNS) immune cells, namely microglia, play an important role in the etiology and the progression of HD. However, it remains unclear whether MSNs neurodegeneration is mediated by a non-cell autonomous mechanism. The homeostasis in the healthy CNS is maintained by several mechanisms of interaction between all brain cells. Neurons can control microglia activation through several inhibitory mechanisms, such as the CD200-CD200R1 interaction. Due to the complete lack of knowledge about the CD200-CD200R1 system in HD, we determined the temporal patterns of CD200 and CD200R1 expression in the neocortex, hippocampus and striatum in the HD mouse models R6/1 and HdhQ111/7 from pre-symptomatic to manifest stages. In order to explore any alteration in the peripheral immune system, we also studied the levels of expression of CD200 and CD200R1 in whole blood. Although CD200R1 expression was not altered, we observed and increase in CD200 gene expression and protein levels in the brain parenchyma of all the regions we examined, along with HD pathogenesis in R6/1 mice. Interestingly, the expression of CD200 mRNA was also up-regulated in blood following a similar temporal pattern. These results suggest that canonical neuronal-microglial communication through CD200-CD200R1 interaction is not compromised, and CD200 up-regulation in R6/1 brain parenchyma could represent a neurotrophic signal to sustain or extend neuronal function in the latest stages of HD as pro-survival mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Comella Bolla
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Laboratory, Production and Validation Center of Advanced Therapies (Creatio), Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Neuroscience Institute, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Tony Valente
- August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Cerebral Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona–Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IIBB–CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Andres Miguez
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Laboratory, Production and Validation Center of Advanced Therapies (Creatio), Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Neuroscience Institute, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Veronica Brito
- Neuroscience Institute, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Silvia Gines
- Neuroscience Institute, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carme Solà
- August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Cerebral Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona–Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IIBB–CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marco Straccia
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Laboratory, Production and Validation Center of Advanced Therapies (Creatio), Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Neuroscience Institute, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Josep M. Canals
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Laboratory, Production and Validation Center of Advanced Therapies (Creatio), Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Neuroscience Institute, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
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22
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Liu CY, Wang X, Liu C, Zhang HL. Pharmacological Targeting of Microglial Activation: New Therapeutic Approach. Front Cell Neurosci 2019; 13:514. [PMID: 31803024 PMCID: PMC6877505 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2019.00514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mounting evidence suggests that neuroinflammation is not just a consequence but a vital contributor to the development and progression of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Microglia in particular, may contribute to the induction and modulation of inflammation in PD. Upon stimulation, microglia convert into activated phenotypes, which exist along a dynamic continuum and bear different immune properties depending on the disease stage and severity. Activated microglia release various factors involved in neuroinflammation, such as cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, reactive oxygen species (ROS), reactive nitrogen species (RNS), and prostaglandins (PGs). Further, activated microglia interact with other cell types (e.g., neurons, astrocytes and mast cells) and are closely associated with α-synuclein (α-syn) pathophysiology and iron homeostasis disturbance. Taken together, microglial activation and microglia-mediated inflammatory responses play essential roles in the pathogenesis of PD and elucidation of the complexity and imbalance of microglial activation may shed light on novel therapeutic approaches for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cai-Yun Liu
- Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xu Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Chang Liu
- Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Hong-Liang Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China.,Department of Life Sciences, National Natural Science Foundation of China, Beijing, China
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23
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Palasz E, Niewiadomski W, Gasiorowska A, Wysocka A, Stepniewska A, Niewiadomska G. Exercise-Induced Neuroprotection and Recovery of Motor Function in Animal Models of Parkinson's Disease. Front Neurol 2019; 10:1143. [PMID: 31736859 PMCID: PMC6838750 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is manifested by progressive motor, autonomic, and cognitive disturbances. Dopamine (DA) synthesizing neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) degenerate, causing a decline in DA level in the striatum that leads to the characteristic movement disorders. A disease-modifying therapy to arrest PD progression remains unattainable with current pharmacotherapies, most of which cause severe side effects and lose their efficacy with time. For this reason, there is a need to seek new therapies supporting the pharmacological treatment of PD. Motor therapy is recommended for pharmacologically treated PD patients as it alleviates the symptoms. Molecular mechanisms behind the beneficial effects of motor therapy are unknown, nor is it known whether such therapy may be neuroprotective in PD patients. Due to obvious limitations, human studies are unlikely to answer these questions; therefore, the use of animal models of PD seems indispensable. Motor therapy in animal models of PD characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons has neuroprotective and neuroregenerative effects, and the completeness of neuronal protection may depend on (i) degree of neuronal loss, (ii) duration and intensity of exercise, and (iii) time elapsed between insult and commencing of training. As the physical activity is neuroprotective for dopaminergic neurons, the question arises what is the mechanism of this protective action. A current hypothesis assumes a central role of neurotrophic factors in the neuroprotection of dopaminergic neurons, even though it is still not clear whether increased DA level in the nigrostriatal axis results from neurogenesis of dopaminergic neurons in the SN, recovery of the phenotype of dopaminergic neurons, increased sprouting of the residual dopaminergic axons in the striatum, or generation of local striatal neurons from inhibitory interneurons. In the present review, we discuss studies describing the influence of physical exercise on the PD-like changes manifested in animal models of the disease and focus our interest on the current state of knowledge on the mechanism of neuroprotection induced by physical activity as a supportive therapy in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewelina Palasz
- Neurobiology Center, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Science, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Wiktor Niewiadomski
- Department of Applied Physiology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Gasiorowska
- Neurobiology Center, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Science, Warsaw, Poland.,Department of Applied Physiology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Adrianna Wysocka
- Neurobiology Center, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Science, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Stepniewska
- Department of Applied Physiology, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Grazyna Niewiadomska
- Neurobiology Center, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Science, Warsaw, Poland
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24
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Zhao X, Li J, Sun H. CD200-CD200R Interaction: An Important Regulator After Stroke. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:840. [PMID: 31440137 PMCID: PMC6693438 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The high mortality and morbidity rate of stroke is a chronic problem that plagues human society. The activation of microglia is one of the principal reasons why neuroinflammation induces cerebral dysfunction. Because of their vital functions in the regulation of neuroinflammation, microglia constitute an important target for stroke. Given that there is an innate self-preservation mechanism between neurons and microglia, the transmembrane glycoproteins on the surface of their membranes, namely CD200 and CD200R, have become a popular topic of research. Numerous studies have demonstrated that CD200-CD200R interaction, microglial activation, and poststroke neuroinflammatory damage are inextricably linked. In this review, we describe the above relationship from a new perspective. We specifically focus on neuroinflammation after stroke. The role of crosstalk of CD200-CD200R inhibitory immune ligand receptors in immune regulation will also be illustrated. Thus, we will see how poststroke injury can be influenced by the CD200-CD200R crosstalk. Finally, we will discuss the possibility of clinical application of the result of CD200-CD200R interaction to manage neuroinflammatory injury after stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Zhao
- Department of Neurosurgery, The National Key Clinical Specialty, The Engineering Technology Research Center of Education Ministry of China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory on Brain Function Repair and Regeneration, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,The Second Clinical Medical College, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Mental Health of the Ministry of Education, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area Center for Brian Science and Brain-Inspired Intelligence, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jing Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, The National Key Clinical Specialty, The Engineering Technology Research Center of Education Ministry of China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory on Brain Function Repair and Regeneration, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,The Second Clinical Medical College, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Mental Health of the Ministry of Education, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area Center for Brian Science and Brain-Inspired Intelligence, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Haitao Sun
- Department of Neurosurgery, The National Key Clinical Specialty, The Engineering Technology Research Center of Education Ministry of China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory on Brain Function Repair and Regeneration, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,The Second Clinical Medical College, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Mental Health of the Ministry of Education, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area Center for Brian Science and Brain-Inspired Intelligence, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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25
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Le CS, Hao XD, Li JW, Zhong JW, Lin HR, Zhou YT, Travis ZD, Tong LS, Gao F. CD200Fc Improves Neurological Function by Protecting the Blood-brain Barrier after Intracerebral Hemorrhage. Cell Transplant 2019; 28:1321-1328. [PMID: 31208229 PMCID: PMC6767889 DOI: 10.1177/0963689719857655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
CD200 is widely distributed in the central nervous system and plays an essential role in
the immune response in neurological diseases. However, little is currently known about the
effects of CD200 signaling on the blood–brain barrier (BBB) function after intracerebral
hemorrhage (ICH). In this study, the role of CD200 during ICH in an autologous blood
induced mouse ICH model was investigated. Following ICH, critical protein expression, BBB
permeability, and neurological function were measured with or without CD200Fc
administration. Our results showed that both the expression of CD200 and CD200R1 decreased
after ICH and administration of CD200Fc attenuated BBB leakage and improved neurological
functions. In conclusion, our work demonstrated that CD200Fc might be a potential
treatment option for ICH by protecting the BBB and improving functional outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Sheng Le
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,All the authors contributed equally to this article
| | - Xiao-di Hao
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,All the authors contributed equally to this article
| | - Jia-Wen Li
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jia-Wei Zhong
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Hao-Ran Lin
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yi-Ting Zhou
- Department of Pharmacy, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zachary D Travis
- Loma Linda University, School of Medicine, Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Lu-Sha Tong
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,All the authors contributed equally to this article
| | - Feng Gao
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,All the authors contributed equally to this article
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26
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Tansey MG, Romero-Ramos M. Immune system responses in Parkinson's disease: Early and dynamic. Eur J Neurosci 2019; 49:364-383. [PMID: 30474172 PMCID: PMC6391192 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Revised: 11/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The neuropathological hallmarks of Parkinson's disease (PD) are the degeneration and death of dopamine-producing neurons in the ventral midbrain, the widespread intraneuronal aggregation of alpha-synuclein (α) in Lewy bodies and neurites, neuroinflammation, and gliosis. Signs of microglia activation in the PD brain postmortem as well as during disease development revealed by neuroimaging, implicate immune responses in the pathophysiology of the disease. Intensive research during the last two decades has advanced our understanding of the role of these responses in the disease process, yet many questions remain unanswered. A transformative finding in the field has been the confirmation that in vivo microglia are able to respond directly to pathological a-syn aggregates but also to neuronal dysfunction due to intraneuronal a-syn toxicity well in advance of neuronal death. In addition, clinical research and disease models have revealed the involvement of both the innate and adaptive immune systems. Indeed, the data suggest that PD leads not only to a microglia response, but also to a cellular and humoral peripheral immune response. Together, these findings compel us to consider a more holistic view of the immunological processes associated with the disease. Central and peripheral immune responses aimed at maintaining neuronal health will ultimately have consequences on neuronal survival. We will review here the most significant findings that have contributed to the current understanding of the immune response in PD, which is proposed to occur early, involve peripheral and brain immune cells, evolve as neuronal dysfunction progresses, and is likely to influence disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malú G Tansey
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Marina Romero-Ramos
- Department of Biomedicine, Danish Research Institute of Translational Neuroscience - DANDRITE, Nordic-EMBL Partnership for Molecular Medicine, & AU IDEAS center NEURODIN, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
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27
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Bachiller S, Jiménez-Ferrer I, Paulus A, Yang Y, Swanberg M, Deierborg T, Boza-Serrano A. Microglia in Neurological Diseases: A Road Map to Brain-Disease Dependent-Inflammatory Response. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:488. [PMID: 30618635 PMCID: PMC6305407 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 428] [Impact Index Per Article: 71.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia represent a specialized population of macrophages-like cells in the central nervous system (CNS) considered immune sentinels that are capable of orchestrating a potent inflammatory response. Microglia are also involved in synaptic organization, trophic neuronal support during development, phagocytosis of apoptotic cells in the developing brain, myelin turnover, control of neuronal excitability, phagocytic debris removal as well as brain protection and repair. Microglial response is pathology dependent and affects to immune, metabolic. In this review, we will shed light on microglial activation depending on the disease context and the influence of factors such as aging, environment or cell-to-cell interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Bachiller
- Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Itzia Jiménez-Ferrer
- Translational Neurogenetics Unit, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Agnes Paulus
- Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Yiyi Yang
- Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Maria Swanberg
- Translational Neurogenetics Unit, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Tomas Deierborg
- Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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28
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Manich G, Recasens M, Valente T, Almolda B, González B, Castellano B. Role of the CD200-CD200R Axis During Homeostasis and Neuroinflammation. Neuroscience 2018; 405:118-136. [PMID: 30367946 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 07/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are considered to be the resident macrophages of the CNS and main effector of immune brain function. Due to their essential role in the regulation of neuroinflammatory response, microglia constitute an important target for neurological diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease. The communication between neurons and microglia contributes to a proper maintenance of homeostasis in the CNS. Research developed in the last decade has demonstrated that this interaction is mediated by "Off-signals" - molecules exerting immune inhibition - and "On signals" - molecules triggering immune activation. Among "Off signals", molecular pair CD200 and its CD200R receptor, expressed mainly in the membrane of neurons and microglia, respectively, have centered our attention due to its unexplored and powerful immunoregulatory functions. In this review, we will offer an updated global view of the CD200-CD200R role in the microglia-neuron crosstalk during homeostasis and neuroinflammation. Specifically, the effects of CD200-CD200R in the inhibition of pro-inflammatory microglial activation will be explained, and their involvement in other functions such as homeostasis preservation, tissue repair, and brain aging, among others, will be pointed out. In addition, we will depict the effects of CD200-CD200R uncoupling in the etiopathogenesis of autoimmune and neurodegenerative diseases. Finally, we will explore how to translate the scientific evidence of CD200-CD200R interaction into possible clinical therapeutic strategies to tackle neuroinflammatory CNS diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Manich
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Recasens
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Tony Valente
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Beatriz Almolda
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Berta González
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Bernardo Castellano
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
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29
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Harris G, Eschment M, Orozco SP, McCaffery JM, Maclennan R, Severin D, Leist M, Kleensang A, Pamies D, Maertens A, Hogberg HT, Freeman D, Kirkwood A, Hartung T, Smirnova L. Toxicity, recovery, and resilience in a 3D dopaminergic neuronal in vitro model exposed to rotenone. Arch Toxicol 2018; 92:2587-2606. [PMID: 29955902 PMCID: PMC6063347 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-018-2250-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
To date, most in vitro toxicity testing has focused on acute effects of compounds at high concentrations. This testing strategy does not reflect real-life exposures, which might contribute to long-term disease outcome. We used a 3D-human dopaminergic in vitro LUHMES cell line model to determine whether effects of short-term rotenone exposure (100 nM, 24 h) are permanent or reversible. A decrease in complex I activity, ATP, mitochondrial diameter, and neurite outgrowth were observed acutely. After compound removal, complex I activity was still inhibited; however, ATP levels were increased, cells were electrically active and aggregates restored neurite outgrowth integrity and mitochondrial morphology. We identified significant transcriptomic changes after 24 h which were not present 7 days after wash-out. Our results suggest that testing short-term exposures in vitro may capture many acute effects which cells can overcome, missing adaptive processes, and long-term mechanisms. In addition, to study cellular resilience, cells were re-exposed to rotenone after wash-out and recovery period. Pre-exposed cells maintained higher metabolic activity than controls and presented a different expression pattern in genes previously shown to be altered by rotenone. NEF2L2, ATF4, and EAAC1 were downregulated upon single hit on day 14, but unchanged in pre-exposed aggregates. DAT and CASP3 were only altered after re-exposure to rotenone, while TYMS and MLF1IP were downregulated in both single-exposed and pre-exposed aggregates. In summary, our study shows that a human cell-based 3D model can be used to assess cellular adaptation, resilience, and long-term mechanisms relevant to neurodegenerative research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgina Harris
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Melanie Eschment
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT) Europe, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Sebastian Perez Orozco
- The Integrated Imaging Center, Department of Biology, Engineering in Oncology Center and The Institute for NanoBioTechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - J Michael McCaffery
- The Integrated Imaging Center, Department of Biology, Engineering in Oncology Center and The Institute for NanoBioTechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Daniel Severin
- The Mind/Brain Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Marcel Leist
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT) Europe, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Andre Kleensang
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - David Pamies
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Alexandra Maertens
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Helena T Hogberg
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Dana Freeman
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Alfredo Kirkwood
- The Mind/Brain Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Thomas Hartung
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT) Europe, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Lena Smirnova
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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30
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Qi M, Qiu Y, Zhou X, Tian K, Zhou K, Sun F, Yue B, Chen F, Zha D, Qiu J. Regional up-regulation of NOX2 contributes to the differential vulnerability of outer hair cells to neomycin. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2018; 500:110-116. [PMID: 29571735 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2018.03.141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In hearing loss induced by aminoglycoside antibiotics, the outer hair cells (OHCs) in the basal turn are always more susceptible than OHCs in the apical turn, while the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. In this study, we reported that NAPDH oxidase 2 (NOX2) played an important role in the OHCs damage preferentially in the basal turn. Normally, NOX2 was evenly expressed in OHCs among different turns, at a relatively low level. However, after neomycin treatment, NOX2 was dominantly induced in OHCs in the basal turn. In vivo and in vitro studies demonstrated that inhibition of NOX2 significantly alleviated neomycin-induced OHCs damages, as seen from both the cleaved caspase-3 and TUNEL staining. Moreover, gp91 ds-tat delivery and DHE staining results showed that NOX2-derived ROS was responsible for neomycin ototoxicity. Taken together, our study shows that regional up-expression of NOX2 and subsequent increase of ROS in OHCs of the basal turn is an important factor contributing to the vulnerability of OHCs there, which should shed light on the prevention of hearing loss induced by aminoglycoside antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meihao Qi
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yang Qiu
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xueying Zhou
- Department of Ultrasound Diagnostics, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Keyong Tian
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Ke Zhou
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Fei Sun
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Bo Yue
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Fuquan Chen
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Dingjun Zha
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China.
| | - Jianhua Qiu
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China.
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31
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L'Episcopo F, Tirolo C, Serapide MF, Caniglia S, Testa N, Leggio L, Vivarelli S, Iraci N, Pluchino S, Marchetti B. Microglia Polarization, Gene-Environment Interactions and Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling: Emerging Roles of Glia-Neuron and Glia-Stem/Neuroprogenitor Crosstalk for Dopaminergic Neurorestoration in Aged Parkinsonian Brain. Front Aging Neurosci 2018; 10:12. [PMID: 29483868 PMCID: PMC5816064 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammatory processes are recognized key contributory factors in Parkinson's disease (PD) physiopathology. While the causes responsible for the progressive loss of midbrain dopaminergic (mDA) neuronal cell bodies in the subtantia nigra pars compacta are poorly understood, aging, genetics, environmental toxicity, and particularly inflammation, represent prominent etiological factors in PD development. Especially, reactive astrocytes, microglial cells, and infiltrating monocyte-derived macrophages play dual beneficial/harmful effects, via a panel of pro- or anti-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, neurotrophic and neurogenic transcription factors. Notably, with age, microglia may adopt a potent neurotoxic, pro-inflammatory “primed” (M1) phenotype when challenged with inflammatory or neurotoxic stimuli that hamper brain's own restorative potential and inhibit endogenous neurorepair mechanisms. In the last decade we have provided evidence for a major role of microglial crosstalk with astrocytes, mDA neurons and neural stem progenitor cells (NSCs) in the MPTP- (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-) mouse model of PD, and identified Wnt/β-catenin signaling, a pivotal morphogen for mDA neurodevelopment, neuroprotection, and neuroinflammatory modulation, as a critical actor in glia-neuron and glia-NSCs crosstalk. With age however, Wnt signaling and glia-NSC-neuron crosstalk become dysfunctional with harmful consequences for mDA neuron plasticity and repair. These findings are of importance given the deregulation of Wnt signaling in PD and the emerging link between most PD related genes, Wnt signaling and inflammation. Especially, in light of the expanding field of microRNAs and inflammatory PD-related genes as modulators of microglial-proinflammatory status, uncovering the complex molecular circuitry linking PD and neuroinflammation will permit the identification of new druggable targets for the cure of the disease. Here we summarize recent findings unveiling major microglial inflammatory and oxidative stress pathways converging in the regulation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling, and reciprocally, the ability of Wnt signaling pathways to modulate microglial activation in PD. Unraveling the key factors and conditons promoting the switch of the proinflammatory M1 microglia status into a neuroprotective and regenerative M2 phenotype will have important consequences for neuroimmune interactions and neuronal outcome under inflammatory and/or neurodegenerative conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Maria F Serapide
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Medical School, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | | | | | - Loredana Leggio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Medical School, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Silvia Vivarelli
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Medical School, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Nunzio Iraci
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Medical School, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Stefano Pluchino
- Division of Stem Cell Neurobiology, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute, NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Bianca Marchetti
- Oasi ResearchInstitute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy.,Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Medical School, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
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Xu H, Wang Y, Song N, Wang J, Jiang H, Xie J. New Progress on the Role of Glia in Iron Metabolism and Iron-Induced Degeneration of Dopamine Neurons in Parkinson's Disease. Front Mol Neurosci 2018; 10:455. [PMID: 29403352 PMCID: PMC5780449 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2017.00455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2017] [Accepted: 12/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
It is now increasingly appreciated that glial cells play a critical role in the regulation of iron homeostasis. Impairment of these properties might lead to dysfunction of iron metabolism and neurodegeneration of neurons. We have previously shown that dysfunction of glia could cause iron deposit and enhance iron-induced degeneration of dopamine (DA) neurons in Parkinson’s disease (PD). There also has been a substantial growth of knowledge regarding the iron metabolism of glia and their effects on iron accumulation and degeneration of DA neurons in PD in recent years. Here, we attempt to describe the role of iron metabolism of glia and the effect of glia on iron accumulation and degeneration of DA neurons in the substantia nigra of PD. This could provide evidence to reveal the mechanisms underlying nigral iron accumulation of DA neurons in PD and provide the basis for discovering new potential therapeutic targets for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huamin Xu
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Youcui Wang
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Ning Song
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Jun Wang
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Hong Jiang
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Junxia Xie
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
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Yu L, Wang X, Chen H, Yan Z, Wang M, Li Y. Neurochemical and Behavior Deficits in Rats with Iron and Rotenone Co-treatment: Role of Redox Imbalance and Neuroprotection by Biochanin A. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:657. [PMID: 29217997 PMCID: PMC5703859 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 11/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidences show that the etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) is multifactorial. Studying the combined effect of several factors is becoming a hot topic in PD research. On one hand, iron is one of the essential trace metals for human body; on the other hand, iron may be involved in the etiopathogenesis of PD. In our present study, the rats with increased neonatal iron (120 μg/g bodyweight) supplementation were treated with rotenone (0.5 mg/kg) when they were aged to 14 weeks. We observed that iron and rotenone co-treatment induced significant behavior deficits (time-dependent) and striatal dopamine depletion in the male and female rats, while they did not do so when they were used alone. No significant change in striatal 5-hydroxytryptamine content was observed in the male and female rats with iron and rotenone co-treatment. Also, iron and rotenone co-treatment significantly decreased substantia nigra TH expression in the male rats. Furthermore, co-treatment with iron and rotenone significantly induced malondialdehyde increase and glutathione decrease in the substantia nigra of male and female rats. There was no significant change in cerebellar malondialdehyde and glutathione content of the rats co-treated with iron and rotenone. Interestingly, biochanin A significantly attenuated striatal dopamine depletion and improved behavior deficits (dose-dependently) in the male and female rats with iron and rotenone co-treatment. Biochanin A treatment also significantly alleviated substantia nigra TH expression reduction in the male rats co-treated with iron and rotenone. Finally, biochanin A significantly decreased malondialdehyde content and increased glutathione content in the substantia nigra of male and female rats with iron and rotenone co-treatment. Our results indicate that iron and rotenone co-treatment may result in aggravated neurochemical and behavior deficits through inducing redox imbalance and increased neonatal iron supplementation may participate in the etiopathogenesis of PD. Moreover, biochanin A may exert dopaminergic neuroprotection by maintaining redox balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijia Yu
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xijin Wang
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hanqing Chen
- School of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China
| | - Zhiqiang Yan
- Shanghai Laboratory Animal Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Meihua Wang
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yunhong Li
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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Joshi N, Singh S. Updates on immunity and inflammation in Parkinson disease pathology. J Neurosci Res 2017; 96:379-390. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Revised: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Neeraj Joshi
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics; Helen Diller Comprehensive Cancer Center; San Francisco California
| | - Sarika Singh
- Toxicology and Experimental Medicine Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute; Lucknow India
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Ramirez AI, de Hoz R, Salobrar-Garcia E, Salazar JJ, Rojas B, Ajoy D, López-Cuenca I, Rojas P, Triviño A, Ramírez JM. The Role of Microglia in Retinal Neurodegeneration: Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson, and Glaucoma. Front Aging Neurosci 2017; 9:214. [PMID: 28729832 PMCID: PMC5498525 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2017.00214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 296] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Accepted: 06/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia, the immunocompetent cells of the central nervous system (CNS), act as neuropathology sensors and are neuroprotective under physiological conditions. Microglia react to injury and degeneration with immune-phenotypic and morphological changes, proliferation, migration, and inflammatory cytokine production. An uncontrolled microglial response secondary to sustained CNS damage can put neuronal survival at risk due to excessive inflammation. A neuroinflammatory response is considered among the etiological factors of the major aged-related neurodegenerative diseases of the CNS, and microglial cells are key players in these neurodegenerative lesions. The retina is an extension of the brain and therefore the inflammatory response in the brain can occur in the retina. The brain and retina are affected in several neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and glaucoma. AD is an age-related neurodegeneration of the CNS characterized by neuronal and synaptic loss in the cerebral cortex, resulting in cognitive deficit and dementia. The extracellular deposits of beta-amyloid (Aβ) and intraneuronal accumulations of hyperphosphorylated tau protein (pTau) are the hallmarks of this disease. These deposits are also found in the retina and optic nerve. PD is a neurodegenerative locomotor disorder with the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. This is accompanied by Lewy body inclusion composed of α-synuclein (α-syn) aggregates. PD also involves retinal dopaminergic cell degeneration. Glaucoma is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disease of the optic nerve, characterized by retinal ganglion cell loss. In this pathology, deposition of Aβ, synuclein, and pTau has also been detected in retina. These neurodegenerative diseases share a common pathogenic mechanism, the neuroinflammation, in which microglia play an important role. Microglial activation has been reported in AD, PD, and glaucoma in relation to protein aggregates and degenerated neurons. The activated microglia can release pro-inflammatory cytokines which can aggravate and propagate neuroinflammation, thereby degenerating neurons and impairing brain as well as retinal function. The aim of the present review is to describe the contribution in retina to microglial-mediated neuroinflammation in AD, PD, and glaucomatous neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana I. Ramirez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oftalmológicas Ramón Castroviejo. Universidad Complutense de MadridMadrid, Spain
- Departamento de Oftalmología y ORL, Facultad de Óptica y Optometría, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM)Madrid, Spain
| | - Rosa de Hoz
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oftalmológicas Ramón Castroviejo. Universidad Complutense de MadridMadrid, Spain
- Departamento de Oftalmología y ORL, Facultad de Óptica y Optometría, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM)Madrid, Spain
| | - Elena Salobrar-Garcia
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oftalmológicas Ramón Castroviejo. Universidad Complutense de MadridMadrid, Spain
- Departamento de Oftalmología y ORL, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM)Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan J. Salazar
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oftalmológicas Ramón Castroviejo. Universidad Complutense de MadridMadrid, Spain
- Departamento de Oftalmología y ORL, Facultad de Óptica y Optometría, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM)Madrid, Spain
| | - Blanca Rojas
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oftalmológicas Ramón Castroviejo. Universidad Complutense de MadridMadrid, Spain
- Departamento de Oftalmología y ORL, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM)Madrid, Spain
| | - Daniel Ajoy
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oftalmológicas Ramón Castroviejo. Universidad Complutense de MadridMadrid, Spain
| | - Inés López-Cuenca
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oftalmológicas Ramón Castroviejo. Universidad Complutense de MadridMadrid, Spain
| | - Pilar Rojas
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oftalmológicas Ramón Castroviejo. Universidad Complutense de MadridMadrid, Spain
- Servicio de Oftalmología, Hospital Gregorio MarañónMadrid, Spain
| | - Alberto Triviño
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oftalmológicas Ramón Castroviejo. Universidad Complutense de MadridMadrid, Spain
- Departamento de Oftalmología y ORL, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM)Madrid, Spain
| | - José M. Ramírez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oftalmológicas Ramón Castroviejo. Universidad Complutense de MadridMadrid, Spain
- Departamento de Oftalmología y ORL, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM)Madrid, Spain
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Song J, Pan W, Sun Y, Han J, Shi W, Liao W. Aspergillus fumigatus-induced early inflammatory response in pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells: Role of p38 MAPK and inhibition by silibinin. Int Immunopharmacol 2017; 49:195-202. [PMID: 28601021 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2017.05.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Human invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) is a serious infectious disease mainly caused by Aspergillus fumigatus (A. fumigatus). Pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (PMVECs) are important ones in the human lung tissue. However, it remains unclear about the role of PMVECs in IPA. In the present study, we cocultured PMVECs with A. fumigatus. We observed that A. fumigatus induced dose- and time-dependent increases of interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) concentration in the cultures. Significant increases in IL-6, IL-1β, E-selectin, and ICAM-1 mRNA expression were also observed in the cultures treated with A. fumigatus. While preincubation with SB203580 (10μM) did not cause significant changes in IL-6, IL-1β and ICAM-1 concentration in the cocultures, significant IL-6, IL-1β and ICAM-1 concentration decreases were observed in the cocultures preincubated with SB203580 (20μM). Neither SP600125 (10-20μM) nor PD98059 (10-20μM) caused significant changes in IL-6, IL-1β and ICAM-1 concentration in the cocultures. PCR results also showed that SB203580 (20μM) (neither SP600125 (20μM) nor PD98059 (20μM)) preincubation significantly decreased IL-6, IL-1β, E-selectin and ICAM-1 mRNA expression in the cocultures. In addition, significant p38 MAPK phosphorylation increase was observed in the PMVECs cultures treated with A. fumigatus. Furthermore, silibinin pre-treatment and post-treatment were observed to significantly down-regulate mRNA and protein expression of proinflammatory factors and adhesion molecules in the cocultures. Finally, we observed that silibinin significantly inhibited A. fumigatus-induced p38 MAPK activation in PMVECs. Our results indicated that PMVECs might participate in IPA early inflammation which is mediated by p38 MAPK. Silibinin may inhibit A. fumigatus-induced inflammation in PMVECs through p38 MAPK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Song
- Department of Dermatology, Shanghai First People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Weihua Pan
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Medical Mycology, Shanghai Institute of Medical Mycology, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yue Sun
- Department of Dermatology, Shanghai First People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Han
- Department of Dermatology, Shanghai First People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Weimin Shi
- Department of Dermatology, Shanghai First People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Wanqing Liao
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Medical Mycology, Shanghai Institute of Medical Mycology, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China.
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Li S, Wei D, Mao Z, Chen L, Yan X, Li Y, Dong S, Wang D. Design, synthesis, immunocytochemistry evaluation, and molecular docking investigation of several 4-aminopyridine derivatives as potential neuroprotective agents for treating Parkinson's disease. Bioorg Chem 2017; 73:63-75. [PMID: 28618343 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2017.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2017] [Revised: 04/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Neuroprotection refers to the relative preservation of neuronal structure and function. Neuroprotective agents refer to substances that are capable of preserving brain function and structure. Currently, there are no neuroprotective agents available that can effectively relieve the progression of Parkinson's disease. In this work, five novel 4-aminopyridine derivatives, including three amides and two ureas, were designed, synthesized, and evaluated using the rat PC12 mice pheochromocytoma cell line as an in vitro model. As well as human Rho kinase inhibitory experiment was performed. Among them, compound 3, which exhibited high cell viability, low cytotoxicity and good efficacy of inhibition on α-synuclein, oxidation, inflammation and Rho kinase, was profound as potential agents for Parkinson's disease (PD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Shulin Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China
| | - Daiyan Wei
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China
| | - Zhuo Mao
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China
| | - Ligong Chen
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China
| | - Xilong Yan
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China
| | - Yang Li
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China
| | - Shengjie Dong
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China
| | - Donghua Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China.
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Old Maids: Aging and Its Impact on Microglia Function. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18040769. [PMID: 28379162 PMCID: PMC5412353 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18040769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Revised: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are highly active and vigilant housekeepers of the central nervous system that function to promote neuronal growth and activity. With advanced age, however, dysregulated inflammatory signaling and defects in phagocytosis impede their ability to perform the most essential of homeostatic functions, including immune surveillance and debris clearance. Microglial activation is one of the hallmarks of the aging brain and coincides with age-related neurodegeneration and cognitive decline. Age-associated microglial dysfunction leads to cellular senescence and can profoundly alter the response to sterile injuries and immune diseases, often resulting in maladaptive responses, chronic inflammation, and worsened outcomes after injury. Our knowledge of microglia aging and the factors that regulate age-related microglial dysfunction remain limited, as the majority of pre-clinical studies are performed in young animals, and human brain samples are difficult to obtain quickly post-mortem or in large numbers. This review outlines the impact of normal aging on microglial function, highlights the potential mechanisms underlying age-related changes in microglia, and discusses how aging can shape the recovery process following injury.
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Walker DG, Lue LF, Tang TM, Adler CH, Caviness JN, Sabbagh MN, Serrano GE, Sue LI, Beach TG. Changes in CD200 and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) levels in brains of Lewy body disorder cases are associated with amounts of Alzheimer's pathology not α-synuclein pathology. Neurobiol Aging 2017; 54:175-186. [PMID: 28390825 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2017.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Revised: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 03/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Enhanced inflammation has been associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and diseases with Lewy body (LB) pathology, such as Parkinson's disease (PD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). One issue is whether amyloid and tangle pathology, features of AD, or α-synuclein LB pathology have similar or different effects on brain inflammation. An aim of this study was to examine if certain features of inflammation changed in brains with increasing LB pathology. To assess this, we measured levels of the anti-inflammatory protein CD200 and the pro-inflammatory protein intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in cingulate and temporal cortex from a total of 143 cases classified according to the Unified Staging System for LB disorders. Changes in CD200 and ICAM-1 levels did not correlate with LB pathology, but with AD pathology. CD200 negatively correlated with density of neurofibrillary tangles, phosphorylated tau, and amyloid plaque density. ICAM-1 positively correlated with these AD pathology measures. Double immunohistochemistry for phosphorylated α-synuclein and markers for microglia showed limited association of microglia with LB pathology, but microglia strongly associated with amyloid plaques or phosphorylated tau. These results suggest that there are different features of inflammatory pathology in diseases associated with abnormal α-synuclein compared with AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas G Walker
- Neurodegenerative Disease Research Center, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA; Banner Sun Health Research Institute, Sun City, AZ, USA.
| | - Lih-Fen Lue
- Neurodegenerative Disease Research Center, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA; Banner Sun Health Research Institute, Sun City, AZ, USA
| | - Tiffany M Tang
- Neurodegenerative Disease Research Center, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Charles H Adler
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Scottsdale, AZ, USA
| | - John N Caviness
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Scottsdale, AZ, USA
| | | | | | - Lucia I Sue
- Banner Sun Health Research Institute, Sun City, AZ, USA
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Jiang T, Sun Q, Chen S. Oxidative stress: A major pathogenesis and potential therapeutic target of antioxidative agents in Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Prog Neurobiol 2016; 147:1-19. [PMID: 27769868 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2016.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 420] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Revised: 06/19/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress reflects an imbalance between the overproduction and incorporation of free radicals and the dynamic ability of a biosystem to detoxify reactive intermediates. Free radicals produced by oxidative stress are one of the common features in several experimental models of diseases. Free radicals affect both the structure and function of neural cells, and contribute to a wide range of neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Although the precise mechanisms that result in the degeneration of neurons and the relevant pathological changes remain unclear, the crucial role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases is associated with several proteins (such as α-synuclein, DJ-1, Amyloid β and tau protein) and some signaling pathways (such as extracellular regulated protein kinases, phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Protein Kinase B pathway and extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2) that are tightly associated with the neural damage. In this review, we present evidence, gathered over the last decade, concerning a variety of pathogenic proteins, their important signaling pathways and pathogenic mechanisms associated with oxidative stress in Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Proper control and regulation of these proteins' functions and the related signaling pathways may be a promising therapeutic approach to the patients. We also emphasizes antioxidative options, including some new neuroprotective agents that eliminate excess reactive oxygen species efficiently and have a certain therapeutic effect; however, controversy surrounds some of them in terms of the dose and length of therapy. These agents require further investigation by clinical application in patients suffering Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianfang Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurology and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Rui Jin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Qian Sun
- Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurology and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Rui Jin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Shengdi Chen
- Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurology and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Rui Jin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China; Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Institute of Health Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science & Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China.
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Athauda D, Foltynie T. Insulin resistance and Parkinson's disease: A new target for disease modification? Prog Neurobiol 2016; 145-146:98-120. [PMID: 27713036 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2016.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Revised: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
There is growing evidence that patients with Type 2 diabetes have an increased risk of developing Parkinson's disease and share similar dysregulated pathways suggesting common underlying pathological mechanisms. Historically insulin was thought solely to be a peripherally acting hormone responsible for glucose homeostasis and energy metabolism. However accumulating evidence indicates insulin can cross the blood-brain-barrier and influence a multitude of processes in the brain including regulating neuronal survival and growth, dopaminergic transmission, maintenance of synapses and pathways involved in cognition. In conjunction, there is growing evidence that a process analogous to peripheral insulin resistance occurs in the brains of Parkinson's disease patients, even in those without diabetes. This raises the possibility that defective insulin signalling pathways may contribute to the development of the pathological features of Parkinson's disease, and thereby suggests that the insulin signalling pathway may potentially be a novel target for disease modification. Given these growing links between PD and Type 2 diabetes it is perhaps not unsurprising that drugs used the treatment of T2DM are amongst the most promising treatments currently being prioritised for repositioning as possible novel treatments for PD and several clinical trials are under way. In this review, we will examine the underlying cellular links between insulin resistance and the pathogenesis of PD and then we will assess current and future pharmacological strategies being developed to restore neuronal insulin signalling as a potential strategy for slowing neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Athauda
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology & The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Queen Square, London, WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom.
| | - T Foltynie
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology & The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Queen Square, London, WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom.
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Le W, Wu J, Tang Y. Protective Microglia and Their Regulation in Parkinson's Disease. Front Mol Neurosci 2016; 9:89. [PMID: 27708561 PMCID: PMC5030290 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2016.00089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation is a hallmark of Parkinson’s disease (PD). In the brains of patients with PD, microglia have both neurotoxic and neuroprotective effects, depending on their activation state. In this review, we focus on recent research demonstrating the neuroprotective role of microglia in PD. Accumulating evidence indicates that the protective mechanisms of microglia may result from their regulation of transrepression pathways via nuclear receptors, anti-inflammatory responses, neuron–microglia crosstalk, histone modification, and microRNA regulation. All of these mechanisms work together to suppress the production of neurotoxic inflammatory components. However, during the progression of PD, the detrimental effects of inflammation overpower the protective actions of microglia. Therefore, an in-depth exploration of the mechanisms underlying microglial neuroprotection, and a means of promoting the transformation of microglia to the protective phenotype, are urgently needed for the treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weidong Le
- Center for Clinical Research on Neurological Diseases, First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian China
| | - Junjiao Wu
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, ChangshaChina; Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TXUSA
| | - Yu Tang
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TXUSA; Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TXUSA
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Cai T, Luo W, Ruan D, Wu YJ, Fox DA, Chen J. The History, Status, Gaps, and Future Directions of Neurotoxicology in China. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2016; 124:722-732. [PMID: 26824332 PMCID: PMC4892912 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1409566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Revised: 09/25/2015] [Accepted: 01/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rapid economic development in China has produced serious ecological, environmental, and health problems. Neurotoxicity has been recognized as a major public health problem. The Chinese government, research institutes, and scientists conducted extensive studies concerning the source, characteristics, and mechanisms of neurotoxicants. OBJECTIVES This paper presents, for the first time, a comprehensive history and review of major sources of neurotoxicants, national bodies/legislation engaged, and major neurotoxicology research in China. METHODS Peer-reviewed research and pollution studies by Chinese scientists from 1991 to 2015 were examined. PubMed, Web of Science and Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) were the major search tools. RESULTS The central problem is an increased exposure to neurotoxicants from air and water, food contamination, e-waste recycling, and manufacturing of household products. China formulated an institutional framework and standards system for management of major neurotoxicants. Basic and applied research was initiated, and international cooperation was achieved. The annual number of peer-reviewed neurotoxicology papers from Chinese authors increased almost 30-fold since 2001. CONCLUSIONS Despite extensive efforts, neurotoxicity remains a significant public health problem. This provides great challenges and opportunities. We identified 10 significant areas that require major educational, environmental, governmental, and research efforts, as well as attention to public awareness. For example, there is a need to increase efforts to utilize new in vivo and in vitro models, determine the potential neurotoxicity and mechanisms involved in newly emerging pollutants, and examine the effects and mechanisms of mixtures. In the future, we anticipate working with scientists worldwide to accomplish these goals and eliminate, prevent and treat neurotoxicity. CITATION Cai T, Luo W, Ruan D, Wu YJ, Fox DA, Chen J. 2016. The history, status, gaps, and future directions of neurotoxicology in China. Environ Health Perspect 124:722-732; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1409566.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongjian Cai
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Ministry of Education Key Lab of Hazard Assessment and Control in Special Operational Environment, School of Public Health, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Preventive Medicine, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Wenjing Luo
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Ministry of Education Key Lab of Hazard Assessment and Control in Special Operational Environment, School of Public Health, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Diyun Ruan
- Neurotoxicology Lab, School of Life Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yi-Jun Wu
- Laboratory of Molecular Toxicology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Donald A. Fox
- College of Optometry,
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry,
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, and
- Department of Health and Human Performance, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Jingyuan Chen
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Ministry of Education Key Lab of Hazard Assessment and Control in Special Operational Environment, School of Public Health, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
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Aging-related 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-induced neurochemial and behavioral deficits and redox dysfunction: improvement by AK-7. Exp Gerontol 2016; 82:19-29. [PMID: 27235848 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2016.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Aging is a prominent risk factor for the occurrence and progression of Parkinson disease (PD). Aging animals are more significant for PD research than young ones. It is promising to develop effective treatments for PD through modulation of aging-related molecules. Sirtuin 2 (SIRT2), a strong deacetylase highly expressed in the brain, has been implicated in the aging process. In our present study, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP, 12mg/kg once daily) was observed to bring about significant behavioral deficits and striatal dopamine depletion in aging male and female mice, while it did not do so in young animals. MPTP did not cause significant reduction in striatal 5-hydroxytryptamine content in aging male and female mice. Furthermore, we observed that MPTP treatment resulted in significant reduction in GSH content and significant increase in MDA content and SIRT2 expression in the substantia nigra (SN) of aging mice, while it did not do so in young animals. Importantly, we observed that AK-7 (a selective SIRT2 inhibitor) significantly improved behavior abnormality and neurochemical deficits in aging male and female mice treated with MPTP. Significant increase in GSH content and significant decrease in MDA content were also observed in the SN of aging male and female mice co-treated with MPTP and AK-7 compared with the MPTP-treated animals. Our results indicated that MPTP induce aging-related neurochemical and behavioural deficits and dysfunction of redox network in male and female mice and AK-7 may be neuroprotective in PD through modulating redox network.
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Wu SY, Chen YW, Tsai SF, Wu SN, Shih YH, Jiang-Shieh YF, Yang TT, Kuo YM. Estrogen ameliorates microglial activation by inhibiting the Kir2.1 inward-rectifier K(+) channel. Sci Rep 2016; 6:22864. [PMID: 26960267 PMCID: PMC4785403 DOI: 10.1038/srep22864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglial activation is implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Although the etiology of PD remains unclear, age and male gender are known PD risk factors. By comparing microglia and dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) of male and female mice of different ages, we found that the degrees of microglial activation and DA neuron loss increased with age in both genders, but were more pronounced in males, as were peripheral lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced microglial activation and DA neuron loss. A bilateral ovariectomy (OVX) eliminated the female-associated protection against age- and LPS-induced microglial activation, which suggests that ovary hormones are involved in gender-specific responses. Treating female mice with 17β-estradiol supplements reduced the age-associated microglial activation in OVX mice. Moreover, pretreating mouse BV2 microglial cells with 17β-estradiol inhibited LPS-induced elevation of Toll-like receptor 4, phosphorylated p38, and TNF-α levels. We then examined the effect of 17β-estradiol on inward-rectifier K(+) channel Kir2.1, a known regulator of microglial activation. We found that 17β-estradiol inhibited the Kir2.1 activity of BV2 cells by reducing the probability that the channel would be open. We conclude that age- and inflammation-associated microglial activation is attenuated by ovarian estrogen, because it inhibits Kir2.1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shih-Ying Wu
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Yun-Wen Chen
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.,Department of Chinese Medicine for Post-Baccalaureate, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Feng Tsai
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Nan Wu
- Department of Physiology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Yao-Hsiang Shih
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Fen Jiang-Shieh
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Ting Yang
- Department of Chinese Medicine for Post-Baccalaureate, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Min Kuo
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.,Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
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Chen H, Wang X, Wang M, Yang L, Yan Z, Zhang Y, Liu Z. Behavioral and Neurochemical Deficits in Aging Rats with Increased Neonatal Iron Intake: Silibinin's Neuroprotection by Maintaining Redox Balance. Front Aging Neurosci 2015; 7:206. [PMID: 26578951 PMCID: PMC4623400 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2015.00206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Aging is a critical risk factor for Parkinson's disease. Silibinin, a major flavonoid in Silybum marianum, has been suggested to display neuroprotective properties against various neurodegenerative diseases. In the present study, we observed that neonatal iron (120 μg/g body weight) supplementation resulted in significant abnormality of behavior and depletion of striatal dopamine (DA) in the aging male and female rats while it did not do so in the young male and female rats. No significant change in striatal serotonin content was observed in the aging male and female rats with neonatal supplementation of the same dose of iron. Furthermore, we found that the neonatal iron supplementation resulted in significant increase in malondialdehyde (MDA) and decrease in glutathione (GSH) in the substantia nigra (SN) of the aging male and female rats. No significant change in content of MDA and GSH was observed in the cerebellum of the aging male and female rats with the neonatal iron supplementation. Interestingly, silibinin (25 and 50 mg/kg body weight) treatment significantly and dose-dependently attenuated depletion of striatal DA and improved abnormality of behavior in the aging male and female rats with the neonatal iron supplementation. Moreover, silibinin significantly reduced MDA content and increased GSH content in the SN of the aging male and female rats. Taken together, our results indicate that elevated neonatal iron supplementation may result in neurochemical and behavioral deficits in the male and female rats with aging and silibinin may exert dopaminergic neuroprotection by maintaining redox balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanqing Chen
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai , China ; School of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Hefei University of Technology , Hefei , China
| | - Xijin Wang
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai , China
| | - Meihua Wang
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai , China
| | - Liu Yang
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai , China
| | - Zhiqiang Yan
- Shanghai Laboratory Animal Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Shanghai , China
| | - Yuhong Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University , Shanghai , China
| | - Zhenguo Liu
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai , China
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Wang Q, Liu Y, Zhou J. Neuroinflammation in Parkinson's disease and its potential as therapeutic target. Transl Neurodegener 2015; 4:19. [PMID: 26464797 PMCID: PMC4603346 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-015-0042-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 532] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD), the second most common age-associated neurodegenerative disorder, is characterized by the loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons and the presence of α-synuclein-containing aggregates in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). Chronic neuroinflammation is one of the hallmarks of PD pathophysiology. Post-mortem analyses of human PD patients and experimental animal studies indicate that activation of glial cells and increases in pro-inflammatory factor levels are common features of the PD brain. Chronic release of pro-inflammatory cytokines by activated astrocytes and microglia leads to the exacerbation of DA neuron degeneration in the SNpc. Besides, peripheral immune system is also implicated in the pathogenesis of PD. Infiltration and accumulation of immune cells from the periphery are detected in and around the affected brain regions of PD patients. Moreover, inflammatory processes have been suggested as promising interventional targets for PD and even other neurodegenerative diseases. A better understanding of the role of inflammation in PD will provide new insights into the pathological processes and help to establish effective therapeutic strategies. In this review, we will summarize recent progresses in the neuroimmune aspects of PD and highlight the potential therapeutic interventions targeting neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinqin Wang
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yueyang Road, Shanghai, 200031 China
| | - Yingjun Liu
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yueyang Road, Shanghai, 200031 China
| | - Jiawei Zhou
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yueyang Road, Shanghai, 200031 China
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Varnum MM, Kiyota T, Ingraham KL, Ikezu S, Ikezu T. The anti-inflammatory glycoprotein, CD200, restores neurogenesis and enhances amyloid phagocytosis in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2015; 36:2995-3007. [PMID: 26315370 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2015.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2014] [Revised: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cluster of Differentiation-200 (CD200) is an anti-inflammatory glycoprotein expressed in neurons, T cells, and B cells, and its receptor is expressed on glia. Both Alzheimer's disease patients and mouse models display age-related or amyloid-β peptide (Aβ)-induced reductions in CD200. The goal of this study was to determine if neuronal CD200 expression restores hippocampal neurogenesis and reduces Aβ in the amyloid precursor protein mouse model. Amyloid precursor protein and wild-type mice were injected at 6 months of age with an adeno-associated virus expressing CD200 into the hippocampus and sacrificed at 12 months. CD200 expression restored neural progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation in the subgranular and granular cell layers of the dentate gyrus and reduced diffuse but not thioflavin-S(+) plaques in the hippocampus. In vitro studies demonstrated that CD200-stimulated microglia increased neural differentiation of neural stem cells and enhanced axon elongation and dendrite number. CD200 also enhanced Aβ uptake by microglia. These data indicate that CD200 is capable of enhancing microglia-mediated Aβ clearance and neural differentiation and has potential as a therapeutic for Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan M Varnum
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tomomi Kiyota
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Kaitlin L Ingraham
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Seiko Ikezu
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tsuneya Ikezu
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA.
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Wang X, Guan Q, Wang M, Yang L, Bai J, Yan Z, Zhang Y, Liu Z. Aging-related rotenone-induced neurochemical and behavioral deficits: role of SIRT2 and redox imbalance, and neuroprotection by AK-7. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2015; 9:2553-63. [PMID: 26089639 PMCID: PMC4466888 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s81539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Aging is one of the strongest risk factors for Parkinson’s disease (PD). SIRT2 has been implicated in the aging process. It is pertinent to investigate the role of SIRT2 in aging-related dopaminergic neurotoxicity and to develop effective therapeutic strategies for PD through the use of aging animals. In this study, we observed that rotenone induced significant behavior abnormality and striatal dopamine depletion in aging rats, while it did not do so in young rats. No significant change in striatal serotonin level was observed in the aging rats after rotenone administration. There was also aging-related rotenone-induced increase in substantia nigra (SN) SIRT2 expression in the rats. In addition, there was aging-related rotenone-induced SN malondialdehyde (MDA) increase and glutathione (GSH) decrease in the rats. No significant changes in cerebellar SIRT2, MDA, or GSH levels were observed in the aging rats after rotenone administration. Striatal dopamine content was significantly inversely correlated with SN SIRT2 expression in the rats. AK-7 significantly diminished striatal dopamine depletion and improved behavior abnormality in the rotenone-treated aging rats. Furthermore, AK-7 significantly decreased MDA content and increased GSH content in the SN of rotenone-treated aging rats. Finally, the effect of AK-7 on dopaminergic neurons and redox imbalance was supported by the results from primary mesencephalic cultures. Our study helps to elucidate the mechanism for the participation of aging in PD and suggests that SN SIRT2 may be involved in PD neurodegeneration, that AK-7 may be neuroprotective in PD, and that maintaining redox balance may be one of the mechanisms underlying neuroprotection by AK-7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xijin Wang
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiang Guan
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Meihua Wang
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Liu Yang
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Bai
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhiqiang Yan
- Shanghai Laboratory Animal Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tongji University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuhong Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenguo Liu
- Department of Neurology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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Guan Q, Jin L, Li Y, Han H, Zheng Y, Nie Z. Multifactor analysis for risk factors involved in the fear of falling in patients with chronic stroke from mainland China. Top Stroke Rehabil 2015; 22:368-73. [DOI: 10.1179/1074935714z.0000000048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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