Construction and analysis of experimental DNA vaccines against megalocytivirus

The evolutionary diversification and antimicrobial potential of MPEG1 in Metazoa

Macrophage-expressed gene 1 (MPEG1) is an ancient immune effector known to exist in Cnidaria, Mollusca, Actinopterygii, and Mammalia. In this study, we examined the evolution and antibacterial potential of MPEG1 across Metazoa. By unbiased data-mining, MPEG1 orthologs were found in 11 of 34 screened phyla. In invertebrates, MPEG1 is present in the major phyla and exhibits intensive duplication. In vertebrates, class-based clades were formed by the major, generic MPEG1 (gMPEG1) in each class. However, there is a minority of unique MPEG1 (uMPEG1) from 71 species of 4 classes that clustered into a separate clade detached from all major class-based clades. gMPEG1 and uMPEG1 exhibit strong genomic collinearity and are surrounded by high-density transposons. gMPEG1 and uMPEG1 transcript expressions were most abundant in immune organs, but differed markedly in tissue specificity. Systematic analysis identified an antimicrobial peptide (AMP)-like segment in the C-terminal (CT) tail of MPEG1. Peptides based on the AMP-like regions of 35 representative MPEG1 were synthesized. Bactericidal activities were displayed by all peptides. Together these results suggest transposon-propelled evolutionary diversification of MPEG1 in Metazoa that has likely led to functional specialisation. This study also reveals a possible antimicrobial mechanism mediated directly and solely by the CT tail of MPEG1.

Development of recombinant major capsid protein Vaccine and assessment of its efficacy against SRDV in similar damselfish (Pomacentrus similis)

Viral vaccines against emerging viral diseases are crucial for encouraging successful aquaculture production. In this research, an experimental recombinant major capsid protein vaccine of similar damselfish virus was prepared and examined for its efficacy in marine ornamental fish, similar damselfish (Pomacentrus similis). The MCP gene of the SRDV was amplified from the viral DNA by a specific primer set viz bamHI and XhoI- restriction sites and confirmed by agarose gel electrophoresis with a target size of 1416 bp. The gel-purified PCR product was double-digested with the said enzymes and incorporated into the pTriEx1.1 vector, which was subsequently transformed to E. coli DH5α. The plasmids of the two clones pTriEx-MCP-1416-1 and pTriEx-MCP-1416-3 were transformed to E. coli BL21 (DE-3) pLacI. A crude protein compound derived from a colony of E. coli BL21 (DE-3) with expressed MCP inserts was used to evaluate efficacy in similar damselfish by intra-peritoneal injection. After the challenge with SRDV, damselfish vaccinated with recombinant protein showed a lower protection level, while the fish vaccinated with recombinant protein supplemented Quil-A® adjuvant showed an RPS of 26%. According to RPS values recorded from the vaccinated and non-vaccinated damselfish group, the recombinant protein vaccine conferred only marginal protection against the SRDV challenge.

Megalocytivirus and Other Members of the Family Iridoviridae in Finfish: A Review of the Etiology, Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Prevention and Control

Aquaculture has expanded to become the fastest growing food-producing sector in the world. However, its expansion has come under threat due to an increase in diseases caused by pathogens such as iridoviruses commonly found in aquatic environments used for fish farming. Of the seven members belonging to the family Iridoviridae, the three genera causing diseases in fish comprise ranaviruses, lymphocystiviruses and megalocytiviruses. These three genera are serious impediments to the expansion of global aquaculture because of their tropism for a wide range of farmed-fish species in which they cause high mortality. As economic losses caused by these iridoviruses in aquaculture continue to rise, the urgent need for effective control strategies increases. As a consequence, these viruses have attracted a lot of research interest in recent years. The functional role of some of the genes that form the structure of iridoviruses has not been elucidated. There is a lack of information on the predisposing factors leading to iridovirus infections in fish, an absence of information on the risk factors leading to disease outbreaks, and a lack of data on the chemical and physical properties of iridoviruses needed for the implementation of biosecurity control measures. Thus, the synopsis put forth herein provides an update of knowledge gathered from studies carried out so far aimed at addressing the aforesaid informational gaps. In summary, this review provides an update on the etiology of different iridoviruses infecting finfish and epidemiological factors leading to the occurrence of disease outbreaks. In addition, the review provides an update on the cell lines developed for virus isolation and culture, the diagnostic tools used for virus detection and characterization, the current advances in vaccine development and the use of biosecurity in the control of iridoviruses in aquaculture. Overall, we envision that the information put forth in this review will contribute to developing effective control strategies against iridovirus infections in aquaculture.

Antibacterial Activity and Mechanisms of TroHepc2-22, a Derived Peptide of Hepcidin2 from Golden Pompano (Trachinotus ovatus)

Hepcidin, a cysteine-rich antimicrobial peptide, has a highly conserved gene structure in teleosts, and it plays an essential role in host immune response against various pathogenic bacteria. Nonetheless, few studies on the antibacterial mechanism of hepcidin in golden pompano (Trachinotus ovatus) have been reported. In this study, we synthesized a derived peptide, TroHepc2-22, from the mature peptide of T. ovatus hepcidin2. Our results showed that TroHepc2-22 has superior antibacterial abilities against both Gram-negative (Vibrio harveyi and Edwardsiella piscicida) and Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus agalactiae) bacteria. Based on the results of a bacterial membrane depolarization assay and propidium iodide (PI) staining assay in vitro, TroHepc2-22 displayed antimicrobial activity by inducing the bacterial membrane depolarization and changing the bacterial membrane permeability. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) visualization illustrated that TroHepc2-22 brought about membrane rupturing and the leakage of the cytoplasm for the bacteria. In addition, TroHepc2-22 was verified to have hydrolytic activity on bacterial genomic DNA in view of the results of the gel retardation assay. In terms of the in vivo assay, the bacterial loads of V. harveyi in the tested immune tissues (liver, spleen, and head kidney) were significantly reduced in T. ovatus, revealing that TroHepc2-22 significantly enhanced the resistance against V. harveyi infection. Furthermore, the expressions of immune-related genes, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interleukin 1-β (IL-1β), IL-6, Toll-like receptor 1 (TLR1), and myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) were significantly increased, indicating that TroHepc2-22 might regulate inflammatory cytokines and activate immune-related signaling pathways. To summarize, TroHepc2-22 possesses appreciable antimicrobial activity and plays a vital role in resisting bacterial infection. The observation of our present study unveils the excellent application prospect of hepcidin as a substitute for antibiotics to resist pathogenic microorganisms in teleosts.

NKHs27, a sevenband grouper NK-Lysin peptide that possesses immunoregulatory and antimicrobial activity

As an effective and broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptide, NK-Lysin is attracted more and more attention at present. However, the functions and action mechanism of NK-Lysin peptides are still not comprehensive enough at present. In this study, a sevenband grouper (Hyporthodus septemfasciatus) NK-Lysin peptide, NKHs27, was identified and synthesized, and its biological functions were studied. The results indicated that NKHs27 shares 44.44%∼88.89% overall sequence identities with other teleost NK-Lysin peptides. The following antibacterial activity assay exhibited that NKHs27 was active against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus, Listonella anguillarum, Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio vulnificus. Additionally, NKHs27 showed a synergistic effect when it was combined with rifampicin or erythromycin. In the process of interaction with the L. anguillarum cells, NKHs27 changed the cell membrane permeability and retained its morphological integrity, then penetrated into the cytoplasm to act on genomic DNA or total RNA. Then, in vitro studies showed that NKHs27 could enhance the respiratory burst ability of macrophages and upregulate immune-related genes expression in it. Moreover, NKHs27 incubation improved the proliferation of peripheral blood leukocytes significantly. Finally, in vivo studies showed that administration of NKHs27 prior to bacterial infection significantly reduced pathogen dissemination and replication in tissues. In summary, these results provide new insights into the function of NK-Lysin peptides in teleost and support that NKHs27, as a novel broad-spectrum antibacterial peptide, has potential applications in aquaculture against pathogenic infections.

A saposin domain-containing protein of tongue sole Cynoglossus semilaevis: Antimicrobial activity and mechanism

Prosaposin is a precursor that can be processed into four different saposins, designated as A, B, C, and D, which have multiple functions in mammals, including neuroprotection and immune modulation. The immune function of saposin in teleost remains largely unknown. In the present study, a saposin (SAP) domain-containing protein was identified in half-smooth tongue sole Cynoglossus semilaevis and named CsSDP. CsSDP harbors one SAP A domain and two SAP B domains. When expressed in HEK293T cells, CsSDP was specifically localized in the lysosome. When overexpressed in Escherichia coli, CsSDP markedly inhibited bacterial growth, and the inhibitory effect depended on two specific regions in the SAP A and SAP B domains. Two polypeptides (P32 and P30) derived from the above SAP A and B domains could bind to and inhibit the growth of both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. The ultrastructural analysis revealed that P32 and P30 killed target bacteria by disrupting the bacterial cell wall and inducing substantial release of cytoplasmic contents. These results shed new lights on the immune function of saposin domain-containing protein in teleost.

Comparative transcriptome analysis reveals the immune response of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) induced by inactivated bivalent vaccine

Vibrio species are important pathogens that affect a wide range of farmed fish. Vaccination is regarded as the most efficacious strategy for fighting bacterial infections. However, the underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated. In the present study, a comparative transcriptome analysis was performed on the spleens from turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) induced by an inactivated bivalent vaccine (Vibrio anguillarum and Vibrio harveyi, IVVah1) at 4 week and 1 day post further challenge. Strong immune responses were induced by the bivalent vaccine, besides differentially expressed genes (DEGs) associated with adaptive immunity, more innate immunity-related DEGs were detected. At the late stage of vaccination, immune-related molecules associated with pattern recognition receptors, inflammatory factors, complement and coagulation cascade-related components, and antigen processing and presentation were significantly regulated, and some of them were even further up-regulated after the bacterial challenge, indicating the cooperation of multiple immune processes during the vaccine immunization process. In addition to the terms or pathways associated with the immune response, enrichment analysis revealed multiple significantly enriched terms/pathways associated with the response to stimulus/stress, homeostasis, metabolism, and biosynthesis, suggesting that a defensive status was established by the bivalent vaccine. This study furnishes new insights into the internal mechanism of immunity upon a combined vaccine administrating in turbot and lays a foundation for developing highly immunogenic vaccines in teleost.

A Teleost CXCL10 Is Both an Immunoregulator and an Antimicrobial

Chemokines are a group of cytokines that play important roles in cell migration, inflammation, and immune defense. In this study, we identified a CXC chemokine, CXCL10, from Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus (named PoCXCL10) and investigated its immune function. Structurally, PoCXCL10 possesses an N-terminal coil, three β-strands, and a C-terminal α-helix with cationic and amphipathic properties. PoCXCL10 expression occurred in multiple tissues and was upregulated by bacterial pathogens. Recombinant PoCXCL10 (rPoCXCL10) promoted the migration, cytokine expression, and phagocytosis of flounder peripheral blood leukocytes (PBLs). rPoCXCL10 bound to and inhibited the growth of a variety of common Gram-negative and Gram-positive fish pathogens. rPoCXCL10 killed the pathogens by causing bacterial membrane permeabilization and structure destruction. When introduced in vivo, rPoCXCL10 significantly inhibited bacterial dissemination in fish tissues. A peptide derived from the C-terminal α-helix exhibited bactericidal activity and competed with rPoCXCL10 for bacterial binding. Deletion of the α-helix affected the in vitro bactericidal activity but not the chemotaxis or in vivo antimicrobial activity of PoCXCL10. Together, these results indicate that PoCXCL10 exerts the role of both an immunoregulator and a bactericide/bacteriostatic via different structural domains. These findings provide new insights into the immune function and working mechanism of fish CXC chemokines.

Antimicrobial and Immunoregulatory Activities of TS40, a Derived Peptide of a TFPI-2 Homologue from Black Rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii)

Tissue factor pathway inhibitor-2 (TFPI-2) is a Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitor. Previous reports have shown that TFPI-2 plays an important role in innate immunity, and the C-terminal region of TFPI-2 proved to be active against a broad-spectrum of microorganisms. In this study, the TFPI-2 homologue (SsTFPI-2) of black rockfish (Sebastods schegelii) was analyzed and characterized, and the biological functions of its C-terminal derived peptide TS40 (FVSRQSCMDVCAKGAKQHTSRGNVRRARRNRKNRITYLQA, corresponding to the amino acid sequence of 187-226) was investigated. The qRT-PCR (quantitative real-time reverse transcription-PCR) analysis showed that the expression of SsTFPI-2 was higher in the spleen and liver. The expression of SsTFPI-2 increased significantly under the stimulation of Listonella anguillarum. TS40 had a strong bactericidal effect on L. anguillarum and Staphylococcus aureus. Further studies found that TS40 can destroy the cell structure and enter the cytoplasm to interact with nucleic acids to exert its antibacterial activity. The in vivo study showed that TS40 treatment could significantly reduce the transmission of L. anguillarum and the viral evasion in fish. Finally, TS40 enhanced the respiratory burst ability, reactive oxygen species production and the expression of immune-related genes in macrophages, as well as promoted the proliferation of peripheral blood leukocytes. These results provide new insights into the role of teleost TFPI-2.

Antimicrobial and immunoregulatory activities of the derived peptide of a natural killer lysin from black rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii)

Natural killer lysin (NK-lysin) is a small molecule antimicrobial peptide secreted by natural killer cells and T lymphocytes. In this study, we characterized a cDNA sequence encoding an NK-lysin homologue (SsNKL1) from black rockfish, Sebastes schlegelii. The open reading frame (ORF) of SsNKL1 encodes a putative protein of 149 amino acids and shares 44%-87% overall sequence identities with other teleost NK-lysins. SsNKL1 possesses conserved NK-lysin family features, including a signal sequence and a surfactant-associated protein B (SapB) domain, sequence analysis revealed that SsNKL1 is most closely related to false kelpfish (Sebastiscus marmoratus) NK-lysin (with 87% sequence identity). SsNKL1 transcripts were detected in all the tested tissues, with the highest level in the kidney, followed by the spleen and gills. Upon Listonella anguillarum infection, the mRNA expression of SsNKL1 in the black rockfish was significantly up-regulated in the liver and kidney. The derived peptide SsNKLP27 from SsNKL1 was synthesized, and its biological function was studied. SsNKLP27 showed direct antibacterial activity against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, L. anguillarum, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio alginolyticus and Vibrio vulnificus. SsNKLP27 treatment facilitated the bactericidal process of erythromycin by enhancing the permeability of the outer membrane. In the process of interaction with the target bacterial cells, SsNKLP27 changed the permeability and retained the morphological integrity of the cell membrane, then penetrated into the cytoplasm, and induced the degradation of genomic DNA and total RNA. In vivo studies showed that administration of SsNKLP27 before bacterial and viral infection significantly reduced the transmission and replication of pathogens in tissues. In vitro analysis showed that SsNKLP27 could enhance the respiratory burst ability and regulate the expression of some immune-related genes of macrophages. In summary, these results provided new insights into the function of NK-lysins in teleost fish and support that SsNKLP27 is a new broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptide that has a potential application prospect in aquaculture against pathogenic infection.

Comparative transcriptome analysis reveals potential anti-viral immune pathways of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) subverted by megalocytivirus RBIV-C1 for immune evasion

Successful viral infection and multiplication chiefly rely on virus subversion mechanisms against host anti-viral immune responses. In this study, in order to reveal the anti-viral immune-related pathways suppressed by megalocytivirus infection, transcriptome analysis was performed on the head-kidney of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) infected with lethal dose of RBIV-C1 at 3, 6 and 9 days post challenge (dpc). The results showed that, compared to unchallenged groups, 190, 1220, and 3963 DEGs were detected in RBIV-C1 infected groups at 3, 6 and 9 dpc, respectively, of which, DEGs of complement components and pattern recognition proteins were up-regulated at 3 dpc and down-regulated at 6 and 9 dpc, DEGs of cytokines were up-regulated at 6 dpc and down-regulated at 9 dpc. Expression trend analysis revealed that DEGs of profiles 9 and 13 featured decreased expression patterns and were significantly enriched into 10 immune-related pathways, i.e., complement and coagulation cascades, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, chemokine signaling pathway, B/T cell receptor signaling pathway, antigen processing and presentation, and so on. Further co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) revealed positive correlated innate immune related pathways at 3 and 6 dpc, and negative correlated innate and adaptive immune related pathways at 9 dpc. This study revealed a set of anti-viral immune genes/pathways that would also be potential targets subverted by RBIV-C1 for immune evasion, which can serve as a valuable resource for future studies on the molecular mechanisms of anti-viral immune defense of turbot and immune escape of megalocytivirus.

A virulent Bacillus cereus strain from deep-sea cold seep induces pyroptosis in a manner that involves NLRP3 inflammasome, JNK pathway, and lysosomal rupture

Recent studies indicate that the Bacillus species is distributed in deep-sea environments. However, no specific studies on deep-sea Bacillus cereus have been documented. In the present work, we isolated a B. cereus strain, H2, from the deep-sea cold seep in South China Sea. We characterized the pathogenic potential of H2 and investigated H2-induced death of different types of cells. We found that H2 was capable of tissue dissemination and causing acute mortality in mice and fish following intraperitoneal/intramuscular injection. In vitro studies revealed that H2 infection of macrophages induced pyroptosis and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway that contributed partly to cell death. H2 infection activated p38, JNK, and ERK, but only JNK proved to participate in H2-triggered cell death. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and intracellular Ca²⁺ were essential to H2-induced activation of JNK and NLRP3 inflammasome. In contrast, lysosomal rupture and cathepsins were required for H2-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation but not for JNK activation. This study revealed for the first time the virulence characteristics of deep-sea B. cereus and provided new insights into the mechanism of B. cereus infection.

Expression analysis of tissue factor pathway inhibitors TFPI-1 and TFPI-2 in Paralichthys olivaceus and antibacterial and anticancer activity of derived peptides

Tissue factor pathway inhibitors (TFPI), including TFPI-1 and TFPI-2, are Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitors that mainly inhibit the blood coagulation induced by tissue factors. Previous reports on teleost proved TFPI play important roles in innate immunity. In this study, two TFPI (PoTFPI-1 and PoTFPI-2) molecules from Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) were analyzed and characterized for their expression patterns, antibacterial and anticancer activities of the C-terminal derived peptides. Quantitative real time RT-PCR analysis shows that constitutive PoTFPI-1 expression occurred, in increasing order, in the brain, muscle, spleen, gills, head kidney, blood, intestine, heart, and liver; PoTFPI-2 was expressed, in increasing order, in the brain, gills, head kidney, muscle, intestine, spleen, liver, heart, and blood. Under the stimulation of fish pathogens, both PoTFPI-1 and PoTFPI-2 expressions increased significantly in a manner that depended on the pathogens, tissue type, and infection stage. Furthermore, C-terminal peptides TP25 and TP26, derived from PoTFPI-1 and PoTFPI-2, respectively, were synthesized and proved to be active against Micrococcus luteus (for TP25 and TP26) and Staphylococcus aureus (for TP25) via retardation effects on bacterial nucleic acids. In addition, TP25 and TP26 also displayed significant inhibitory effects on human colon cancer cell line HT-29. These results reveal that both PoTFPI-1 and PoTFPI-2 play important roles in host innate immunity. The antibacterial activity and anticancer cells function of TP25 and TP26 will add new insights into the roles of teleost TFPI.

Megalocytiviruses in ornamental fish: A review

Iridoviruses, especially megalocytiviruses, are related to severe disease resulting in high economic losses in the aquaculture industry worldwide. The ornamental fish industry has been affected severely due to Megalocytivirus infections. Megalocytivirus is a DNA virus that has three genera; including red sea bream iridovirus, infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus, and turbot reddish body iridovirus. Megalocytivirus causes non-specific clinical signs in ornamental fish. Cell culture, histology, immunofluorescence test, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay, and loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay have been used to diagnose megalocytiviruses. Risk factors such as temperature, transportation (export and import), and life stages of ornamental fish have been reported for the previous cases due to Megalocytivirus infections. In addition, other prevention and control methods also have been practiced in farms to prevent Megalocytivirus outbreaks. This is the first review of megalocytiviruses in ornamental fish since its first detection in 1989. This review discusses the occurrences of Megalocytivirus in ornamental fish, including the history, clinical signs, detection method, risk factors, and prevention measures.

Characterization of the Genome Feature and Toxic Capacity of a Bacillus wiedmannii Isolate From the Hydrothermal Field in Okinawa Trough

The Bacillus cereus group is frequently isolated from soil, plants, food, and other environments. In this study, we report the first isolation and characterization of a B. cereus group member, Bacillus wiedmannii SR52, from the hydrothermal field in the Iheya Ridge of Okinawa Trough. SR52 was isolated from the gills of shrimp Alvinocaris longirostris, an invertebrate species found abundantly in the ecosystems of the hydrothermal vents, and is most closely related to B. wiedmannii FSL W8-0169. SR52 is aerobic, motile, and able to form endospores. SR52 can grow in NaCl concentrations up to 9%. SR52 has a circular chromosome of 5,448,361 bp and a plasmid of 137,592 bp, encoding 5,709 and 189 genes, respectively. The chromosome contains 297 putative virulence genes, including those encoding enterotoxins and hemolysins. Fourteen rRNA operons, 107 tRNAs, and 5 sRNAs are present in the chromosome, and 7 tRNAs are present in the plasmid. SR52 possesses 13 genomic islands (GIs), all on the chromosome. Comparing to FSL W8-0169, SR52 exhibits several streaking features in its genome, notably an exceedingly large number of non-coding RNAs and GIs. In vivo studies showed that following intramuscular injection into fish, SR52 was able to disseminate in tissues and cause mortality; when inoculated into mice, SR52 induced acute mortality and disseminated transiently in tissues. In vitro studies showed that SR52 possessed hemolytic activity, and the extracellular product of SR52 exhibited a strong cytotoxic effect. These results provided the first insight into the cytotoxicity and genomic feature of B. wiedmannii from the deep-sea hydrothermal environment.

A voting mechanism-based linear epitope prediction system for the host-specific Iridoviridae family

Background

The Iridoviridae family is categorized into five genera and clustered into two subfamilies: Alphairidovirinae includes Lymphocystivirus, Ranavirus (GIV), and Megalocystivirus (TGIV), which infect vertebrate hosts and Betairidovirinae includes Iridovirus and Chloriridovirus, which infect invertebrate hosts. Clustered Iridoviridae subfamilies possess host-specific characteristics, which can be considered as exclusive features for in-silico prediction of effective epitopes for vaccine development. A voting mechanism-based linear epitope (LE) prediction system was applied to identify and endorse LE candidates with a minimum length requirement for each clustered subfamily

Results

The experimental results showed that four conserved epitopes among the Iridovirideae family, one exclusive epitope for invertebrate subfamily and two exclusive epitopes for vertebrate family were predicted. These predicted LE candidates were further validated by ELISA assays for evaluating the strength of antigenicity and cross antigenicity. The conserved LEs for Iridoviridae family reflected high antigenicity responses for the two subfamilies, while exclusive LEs reflected high antigenicity responses only for the host-specific subfamily

Conclusions

Host-specific characteristics are important features and constraints for effective epitope prediction. Our proposed voting mechanism based system provides a novel approach for in silico LE prediction prior to vaccine development, and it is especially powerful for analyzing antigen sequences with exclusive features between two clustered groups.

A teleost TFPI-2 peptide that possesses a broad antibacterial spectrum and immune-stimulatory properties

Tissue factor pathway inhibitor 2 (TFPI-2) is an analogue of TFPI-1 and a potent endogenous inhibitor of tissue factor (TF)-mediated blood coagulation. Previous reports have shown that several peptides derived from human and vertebrates TFPI-2 possess antibacterial activity against diverse bacteria. In this study, a C-terminal peptide, TO24 (with 24 amino acids), derived from red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) TFPI-2, was synthesized and investigated for its antimicrobial spectrum, action mode, as well as the immune-stimulatory property. Our results indicated that TO24 was active against Gram-positive bacteria Micrococcus luteus and Staphylococcus aureus; Gram-negative bacteria Vibrio litoralis, Vibrio ichthyoenteri, Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio scophthalmi, as well as fish megalocytivirus, infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus (ISKNV). During its interaction with V. vulnificus, TO24 exerted its antibacterial activity by destroying cell membrane integrity, penetrating the cytoplasm and inducing degradation of genomic DNA and total RNA. In addition, TO24 had no hemolytic activity against red drum blood cells. In vitro, TO24 enhanced bactericidal activity of red drum macrophages. In vivo, administration of red drum with TO24 before bacterial infection significantly reduced pathogen dissemination and replication in tissues. These results indicate that TO24 is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptide with immune-stimulatory properties and it has the potential to be used as an antimicrobial agent in aquaculture.

First characterization of an anti-lipopolysaccharide factor (ALF) from hydrothermal vent shrimp: Insights into the immune function of deep-sea crustacean ALF

Anti-lipopolysaccharide factor (ALF) is a type of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with a vital role in antimicrobial defense. Although a large amount of ALFs have been identified from neritic and fresh water crustacean species, no functional investigation of ALFs from deep-sea animals have been documented. In the present study, we characterized the immune function of an ALF molecule (named RspALF1) from the shrimp Rimicaris sp. residing in the deep-sea hydrothermal vent in Desmos, Manus Basin. RspALF1 shares 51.5%-62.4% overall sequence identities with known shrimp ALFs and contains the conserved LPS binding domain (LBD). Both recombinant RspALF1 (rRspALF1) and the LBD-derived peptide (ALF1P1) bound to the cell wall components of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and killed a wide range of bacteria, especially those from deep-sea hydrothermal field, by damaging bacterial cellular structures. The bactericidal activities of rRspALF1 and ALF1P1 were optimal and stably maintained from 4 °C to 37 °C, which is comparable to the ambient temperature range of the habitat of Rimicaris sp. In addition to bacteria, rRspALF1 and ALF1P1 also exhibited anti-fungal activity. rRspALF1 and ALF1P1 exhibited high killing efficiencies, which, in terms of MIC values, were ranged between 0.25 μM and 4 μM for bacteria and 4 μM-8 μM for fungi. When introduced in vivo, both rRspALF1 and ALF1P1 effectively inhibited bacterial infection in shrimp and reduced the dissemination of bacterial and viral pathogens in fish. Together, these results provide the first insight into the biological property of deep-sea ALF and indicate that RspALF1 very likely plays a significant role in immune defense by functioning as a highly effective antimicrobial with a broad target range.

TO17: A teleost antimicrobial peptide that induces degradation of bacterial nucleic acids and inhibits bacterial infection in red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus

Tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI)-1 is well known for its role as an inhibitor of blood coagulation. Several studies have demonstrated that the C-terminal peptides of TFPI-1 are active against a broad spectrum of microorganisms. In a previous study, we found that TO17 (with 17 amino acids), a TFPI-1 C-terminal peptide from red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus), was active against Edwardsiella tarda. In the present study, we investigated further the antimicrobial spectrum, action mode, as well as the immunostimulatory property of TO17. Our results showed that TO17 displayed antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Micrococcus luteus, Vibrio vulnificus, and infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus, independent of host serum. Furthermore, the activity of TO17 was influenced by the length or type of amino acids at the N and C termini. During its interaction with V. vulnificus, TO17 exerted its antibacterial activity by destroying cell membrane integrity, penetrating the cytoplasm and inducing degradation of genomic DNA and total RNA. In addition, TO17 had no hemolytic activity against red drum blood cells. In vitro, TO17 enhanced production of nitric oxide and bactericidal activity of red drum macrophages. In vivo, administration of red drum with TO17 before bacterial infection significantly reduced pathogen dissemination and replication in tissues. These results indicate that TO17 is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptide with immunostimulatory properties and it has the potential to be used as an antimicrobial agent in aquaculture.

Transcriptome analysis reveals temperature-regulated antiviral response in turbot Scophthalmus maximus

Megalocytivirus is a severe pathogen to turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), a popular aquaculture species in many countries. In this study, we investigated the effect of temperature on the antiviral response of turbot at transcriptome level. We found that when turbot were infected with megalocytivirus RBIV-C1 at low temperatures (14 °C, 16 °C, and 18 °C), viral replication was undetectable or moderate and no fish mortality occurred; in contrast, when turbot were infected with RBIV-C1 at high temperatures (20 °C, 22 °C, and 24 °C), viral replication was robust and 100% host mortality was observed. During the course of viral infection, downward temperature shift curbed viral replication and augmented host survival, whereas upward temperature shift promoted viral replication and reduced host survival. Comparative transcriptome analyses were conducted to examine the whole-genome transcription of turbot infected with RBIV-C1 at 16 °C and 22 °C for 4 days (samples S16-4d and S22-4d, respectively) and 8 days (samples S16-8d and S22-8d, respectively). The results showed that compared to S22-4d and S22-8d, 1600 and 5927 upregulated unigenes of various functional categories were identified in S16-4d and S16-8d, respectively. Of these genes, 22 were immune-related, most of which were detected in S16-8d and exhibited more genetic subtypes in S16-8d than in S16-4d. In addition, upregulated genes associated with cell junctions and cell membrane were also identified. These results indicate that temperature had a profound effect on the global transcription of turbot, which consequently affects the immune as well as physical resistance of the fish against viral infection.

TC38, a teleost TFPI-2 peptide that kills bacteria via penetration of the cell membrane and interaction with nucleic acids

Tissue factor pathway inhibitor 2 (TFPI-2) is an analog of TFPI-1 and a potent endogenous inhibitor of tissue factor (TF)-mediated blood coagulation. Recent reports have proven that the C-terminal of TFPI-2 peptides in humans and several other vertebrates possesses antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. In our previous study, we reported that the TFPI-2 peptide, TC38 in tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis) was active against Micrococcus luteus. In this study, we further examine the antimicrobial spectrum, mechanism of action, and function of TC38 in tongue sole. Our results indicate that TC38 is active against the Gram-negative bacteria Vibrio ichthyoenteri, Vibrio litoralis, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and Vibrio vulnificus, as well as the fish Megalocytivirus, infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus (ISKNV). The mechanism of action of TC38 against V. vulnificus was explored. The results showed that TC38 killed V. vulnificus cells without lysis of the cell membrane. FITC-labeled TC38 was able to penetrate the cell membrane and bind to DNA and RNA, then disrupt cellular function, eventually leading to cell death. Administration of TC38 to tongue sole significantly improved its defense against V. vulnificus infection. Overall, these results indicate that TC38 is a novel peptide with a broad antimicrobial spectrum. Furthermore, the unique action of TC38 against V. vulnificus adds new insights to the mechanism of action of vertebrate TFPI peptides. Moreover, TC38 is an interesting antimicrobial agent that could be useful in the fight against pathogenic invasion in aquaculture.

A TFPI-1 peptide that induces degradation of bacterial nucleic acids, and inhibits bacterial and viral infection in half-smooth tongue sole, Cynoglossus semilaevis

Tissue factor pathway inhibitor 1 (TFPI-1) is a serine protease inhibitor that inhibits tissue factor (TF)-mediated coagulation. The C-terminal region of TFPI-1 could be cleaved off and proved to be antimicrobial against a broad-spectrum of microorganism. In a previous study, a C-terminal peptide, TC24 (with 24 amino acids), derived from tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis) TFPI-1, was synthesized and found antibacterial against Micrococcus luteus. In the present study, the antibacterial spectrum and the action mode of TC24 was further examined, and its in vivo function was analyzed. Our results showed that TC24 also possesses bactericidal activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Vibrio vulnificus. During its interaction with the target bacterial cells, TC24 destroyed cell membrane integrity, penetrated into the cytoplasm, and induced degradation of genomic DNA and total RNA. In vivo study showed that administration of tongue sole with TC24 before bacterial and viral infection significantly reduced pathogen dissemination and replication in tissues. These results indicated that TC24 is a novel antimicrobial peptide against bacterial and viral pathogens, and that the observed effect of TC24 on bacterial RNA adds new insights to the action mechanism of fish antimicrobial peptides. Moreover, TC24 may play an important role in fighting pathogenic infection in aquaculture.

Molecular characterization, expression analysis, and bactericidal activity of the derivative peptides of TFPI-1 and TFPI-2 in half-smooth tongue sole, Cynoglossus semilaevis

Tissue factor pathway inhibitors (TFPIs) are Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitors that reversibly regulate the blood coagulation induced by tissue factor. TFPI family contain two members, TFPI-1 and TFPI-2. Recent studies have shown TFPI-1 and TFPI-2 also play important roles in innate immunity, however, the potential function of teleost TFPI are very limited. In this study, we characterized two TFPI (CsTFPI-1 and CsTFPI-2) molecules from half-smooth tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis), examined their tissue distributions and expression patterns under pathogens stimulation as well as investigated the antibacterial activity of the C-terminal peptides. Quantitative real time RT-PCR analysis showed that constitutive CsTFPI-1 expression occurred, in increasing order, in head kidney, intestine, brain, spleen, liver, skin, gills, heart, and muscle; CsTFPI-2 was expressed, in increasing order, in the gills, intestine, skin, head kidney, liver, brain, spleen, muscle, and heart. Under Vibrio anguillarum, Streptococcus agalactiae and fish megalocytivirus stimulation, both CsTFPI-1 and CsTFPI-2 expression increased significantly in a manner that depended on the pathogen, tissue type, and infection stage, which suggested CsTFPI-1 and CsTFPI-2 play important roles in anti-bacterial and anti-viral infection. Finally, C-terminal peptides of CsTFPI-1 and CsTFPI-2, were synthesized and proved to have antibacterial effect against Micrococcus luteus that were independent of host serum. Take together, these results indicate that CsTFPI-1 and CsTFPI-2 play important roles in antimicrobial immunity of this fish.

Immunogenicity of varicella zoster virus glycoprotein E DNA vaccine

In the present study a eukaryotic expression vector of varicella zoster virus (VZV) glycoprotein E (gE) was constructed and enabled to express in COS7 cells. Furthermore, a specific immune response against the VZV gE eukaryotic expression plasmid was induced in BALB/c mice. The VZV gE gene was amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and cloned into a eukaryotic expression vector, pcDNA3.1. The recombinant vector was subsequently transfected into COS7 cells using a liposome transfection reagent. The recombinant protein was instantaneously expressed by the transfected cells, as detected by immunohistochemistry, and the recombinant pcDNA-VZV gE plasmid was subsequently used to immunize mice. Tissue expression levels were analyzed by reverse transcription-PCR. In addition, the levels of serum antibodies and spleen lymphocyte proliferation activity were investigated. The amplified target gene included the full-length gE gene (~2.7 kb), and the recombinant expression vector induced gE expression in COS7 cells. In addition, the expression plasmid induced sustained expression in vivo following immunization of mice. Furthermore, the plasmid was capable of inducing specific antibody production and effectively stimulating T cell proliferation. Effective humoral and cellular immunity was triggered in the mice immunized with the VZV gE eukaryotic expression vector. The results of the present study laid the foundation for future research into a VZV DNA vaccine.

CsTNF1, a teleost tumor necrosis factor that promotes antibacterial and antiviral immune defense in a manner that depends on the conserved receptor binding site

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is one of the most important cytokines involved in inflammation, apoptosis, cell proliferation, and stimulation of the immune system. The TNF gene has been cloned in teleost fish; however, the in vivo function of fish TNF is essentially unknown. In this study, we report the identification of a TNF homologue, CsTNF1, from tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis) and analysis of its expression and biological effect. CsTNF1 is composed of 242 amino acid residues and possesses a TNF domain and conserved receptor binding sites. Expression of CsTNF1 was detected in a wide range of tissues and up-regulated in a time-dependent manner by experimental challenge with bacterial and viral pathogens. Bacterial infection of peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL) caused extracellular secretion of CsTNF1. Purified recombinant CsTNF1 (rCsTNF1) was able to bind to PBL and stimulate the respiratory burst activity of PBL. In contrast, rCsTNF1M1 and rCsTNF1M2, the mutant CsTNF1 bearing substitutions at the receptor binding site, failed to activate PBL. Fish administered with rCsTNF1, but not with rCsTNF1M1 and rCsTNF1M2, exhibited enhanced expression of IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, IL-27, TLR9 and G3BP in a time-dependent manner and augmented resistance against bacterial and viral infection. These results provide the first evidence that the receptor binding sites are essential to a fish TNF, and that CsTNF1 is involved in the innate immune defense of fish against microbial pathogens.

ORF75 of megalocytivirus RBIV-C1: A global transcription regulator and an effective vaccine candidate

Megalocytivirus, a DNA virus belonging to the Iridoviridae family, is a severe pathogen to a wide range of marine and freshwater fish. In this study, using turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) as a host model, we examined the immunoprotective property of one megalocytivirus gene, ORF75, in the form of DNA vaccine (named pORF75). Immunofluorescence microscopy and RT-PCR analysis showed that P444, the protein encoded by ORF75, was naturally produced in the tissues of turbot during megalocytivirus infection, and that the vaccine gene in pORF75 was expressed in fish cells transfected with pORF75 and in the tissues of turbot immunized with pORF75. Following vaccination of turbot with pORF75, a high level of survival (73%) was observed against a lethal megalocytivirus challenge. Consistently, viral replication in the vaccinated fish was significantly inhibited. Immune response analysis showed that pORF75-vaccinated fish (i) exhibited upregulated expression of the genes involved in innate and adaptive immunity, (ii) possessed specific memory immune cells that showed significant response to secondary antigen stimulation, and (iii) produced specific serum antibodies which, when co-introduced into turbot with megalocytivirus, blocked viral replication. Furthermore, whole-genome transcriptome analysis revealed that ORF75 knockdown altered the transcription of 43 viral genes. Taken together, these results indicate that ORF75 encoded a highly protective immunogen that is also a global transcription regulator of megalocytivirus.

Molecular characterization of the cathepsin B of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus)

Cathepsin B is an enzymatic protein belonging to the peptidase C1 family. It is involved in diverse physiological and pathological functions that include immune response. In this study, we identified and characterized a cathepsin B homolog (SmCatB) from turbot (Scophthalmus maximus). SmCatB is composed of 330 amino acid residues and possesses typical domain architecture of cathepsin B, which contains a propeptide region and a cysteine protease domain, and the latter processes four conserved residues (Q101, C107, H277, and N297) in the active site. SmCatB shares 80.6-87.6% overall sequence identities with the cathepsin B of a number of teleost. SmCatB expression was detected in a wide range of tissues and upregulated by bacterial infection in a time-dependent manner. Recombinant SmCatB (rSmCatB-WT) purified from Escherichia coli exhibited apparent protease activity, which was optimal at 50 °C and pH 5.5. Compared to rSmCatB-WT, the mutant proteins rSmCatB-C107S, rSmCatB-H277A, and rSmCatB-N297A, which bear C107S, H277A, and N297A mutations, respectively, were significantly reduced in protease activity, with the highest reduction observed with rSmCatB-N297A. These results indicate that SmCatB is a bioactive protease that depends on the conserved structural features and that SmCatB is involved in pathogen-induced immune response.

P247 and p523: two in vivo-expressed megalocytivirus proteins that induce protective immunity and are essential to viral infection

Megalocytivirus is a DNA virus with a broad host range among teleost fish. Although the complete genome sequences of a number of megalocytivirus isolates have been reported, the functions of most of the genes of this virus are unknown. In this study, we selected two megalocytivirus immunogens, P247 and P523, which were expressed during host infection and, when in the form of DNA vaccines (pCN247 and pCN523 respectively), elicited strong protectivity against lethal megalocytivirus challenge in a turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) model. Compared to control fish, fish vaccinated with pCN247 and pCN523 exhibited drastically reduced viral loads in tissues and high levels of survival rates. Immune response analysis showed that pCN247 and pCN523 (i) induced production of specific serum antibodies, (ii) caused generation of cytotoxic immune cells and specific memory immune cells that responded to secondary antigen stimulation, and (iii) upregulated the expression of genes involved in innate and adaptive immunity. To examine the potential role of P247 and P523 in viral infection, the expression of P247 and P523 was knocked down by siRNA. Subsequent in vivo infection study showed that P247 and P523 knockdown significantly impaired viral replication. Furthermore, whole-genome transcriptome analysis revealed that P247 and P523 knockdown altered the expression profiles of 26 and 41 viral genes, respectively, putatively participating in diverse aspects of viral infection. Taken together, these results indicate that P247 and P523 induce protective immunity in teleost and play fundamental roles essential to viral replication. These observations provide the first evidence that suggests a likely link between the protectivity of viral immunogens and their biological significance in viral replication.

Immune effects of R848: evidences that suggest an essential role of TLR7/8-induced, Myd88- and NF-κB-dependent signaling in the antiviral immunity of Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus)

The imidazoquinoline compound R848 is a specific agonist of toll-like receptor (TLR) 7/TLR8 that has been used as an immunostimulant in humans against viral diseases. Although R848-induced immune response has been reported in teleost fish, the relevant mechanism is not clear. In this study, we investigated the antiviral potential and the signaling pathway of R848 in a model of Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). We found that R848 was able to inhibit the replication of megalocytivirus, stimulated the proliferation of peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL), enhanced the expression of immune genes, and reduced apoptosis of PBL. When endosomal acidification was blocked by chloroquine (CQ), R848-mediated antiviral activity and immune response were significantly reduced. Likewise, inhibition of Myd88 activation markedly impaired the pro-proliferation and anti-apoptosis effect of R848. Cellular study showed that cultured founder cells treated with R848 exhibited augmented NF-κB activity, which, however, was dramatically reduced in the presence of CQ and Myd88 inhibitor. Furthermore, when NF-κB was inactivated, the effect of R848 on cell proliferation and apoptosis was significantly decreased. Taken together, these results indicate that R848 is an immunostimulant with antiviral property in a teleost species, and that the immune response of R848 is mediated by, most likely, TLR7/TLR8 signaling pathway, in which Myd88 and NK-κB play an essential role.

Protein encoded by ORF093 is an effective vaccine candidate for infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus in Chinese perch Siniperca chuatsi

Infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus (ISKNV) is the causative agent of a disease causing high mortality and economic losses in Chinese perch, Siniperca chuatsi in China. Little information about the antigenicity of ISKNV proteins is available. In this study the ORF093 gene of ISKNV was cloned into the prokaryotic expression vector pET32a(+) and eukaryotic expression vector pcDNA3.1(+), and designated as pET-093 and pcDNA-093, respectively. A recombinant 51-kDa protein was detected in Escherichia coli BL21 (harboring pET-093) after IPTG inducement. Polyclonal antibodies were raised in rabbits against the purified ORF093 protein and the reaction of the antibodies was confirmed by western blotting using the purified recombinant protein. Expression of the pcDNA-093 in muscle tissue of vaccinated fish was confirmed by western blotting. The protection efficacy of ORF093 was investigated and results showed that cumulative mortality of Chinese perch was significant differences between immune groups and control (P<0.05) after ISKNV challenge, and the RPS value of 093 recombinant protein, pcDNA093 and pcDNA093+MCP was 47%, 50% and 57%. The results suggested that ORF093 is an effective vaccine candidate for ISKNV and it can be used in the control of ISKNV disease in Chinese perch.

CsIFIT1, an interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeat, inhibits viral infection in tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis)

Interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats (IFIT) is involved in antiviral immunity in mammalian cells. In fish, the function of this group of proteins is unknown. In this study, we report the identification of an IFIT homologue (named CsIFIT1) from tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis) and examined its antiviral potential. CsIFIT1 is composed of 436 residues and shares 30.9%-58.7% overall sequence identities with the known IFITs of a number of teleost species. In silico analysis identified two tetratricopeptide repeats in CsIFIT1. Quantitative real time RT-PCR analysis showed that CsIFIT1 expression was most abundant in immune relevant organs and upregulated, in a time-dependent manner, by experimental infection with the fish viral pathogen megalocytivirus. When CsIFIT1 was overexpressed in tongue sole before megalocytivirus infection, viral replication in fish tissues was blocked to significant extents. Consistently, when CsIFIT1 expression in tongue sole was knocked down by siRNA, viral replication in fish tissues was significantly enhanced. Taken together, these results indicate that CsIFIT1 is likely a key factor of antiviral immunity and is required for optimal defense against viral infection.

Poly(I:C) induces antiviral immune responses in Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) that require TLR3 and MDA5 and is negatively regulated by Myd88

Polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)) is a ligand of toll-like receptor (TLR) 3 that has been used as an immunostimulant in humans and mice against viral diseases based on its ability to enhance innate and adapt immunity. Antiviral effect of poly(I:C) has also been observed in teleost, however, the underling mechanism is not clear. In this study, we investigated the potential and signaling mechanism of poly(I:C) as an antiviral agent in a model of Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) infected with megalocytivirus. We found that poly(I:C) exhibited strong antiviral activity and enhanced activation of head kidney macrophages and peripheral blood leukocytes. In vivo studies showed that (i) TLR3 as well as MDA5 knockdown reduced poly(I:C)-mediated immune response and antiviral activity to significant extents; (ii) when Myd88 was overexpressed in flounder, poly(I:C)-mediated antiviral activity was significantly decreased; (iii) when Myd88 was inactivated, the antiviral effect of poly(I:C) was significantly increased. Cellular study showed that (i) the NF-κB activity induced by poly(I:C) was upregulated in Myd88-overexpressing cells and unaffected in Myd88-inactivated cells; (ii) Myd88 overexpression inhibited and upregulated the expression of poly(I:C)-induced antiviral genes and inflammatory genes respectively; (iii) Myd88 inactivation enhanced the expression of the antiviral genes induced by poly(I:C). Taken together, these results indicate that poly(I:C) is an immunostimulant with antiviral potential, and that the immune response of poly(I:C) requires TLR3 and MDA5 and is negatively regulated by Myd88 in a manner not involving NK-κB. These results provide insights to the working mechanism of poly(I:C), TLR3, and Myd88 in fish.

NKLP27: a teleost NK-lysin peptide that modulates immune response, induces degradation of bacterial DNA, and inhibits bacterial and viral infection

NK-lysin is an antimicrobial protein produced by cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells. In this study, we examined the biological property of a peptide, NKLP27, derived from tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis) NK-lysin. NKLP27 is composed of 27 amino acids and shares little sequence identity with known NK-lysin peptides. NKLP27 possesses bactericidal activity against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria including common aquaculture pathogens. The bactericidal activity of NKLP27 was dependent on the C-terminal five residues, deletion of which dramatically reduced the activity of NKLP27. During its interaction with the target bacterial cells, NKLP27 destroyed cell membrane integrity, penetrated into the cytoplasm, and induced degradation of genomic DNA. In vivo study showed that administration of tongue sole with NKLP27 before bacterial and viral infection significantly reduced pathogen dissemination and replication in tissues. Further study revealed that fish administered with NKLP27 exhibited significantly upregulated expression of the immune genes including those that are known to be involved in antibacterial and antiviral defense. These results indicate that NKLP27 is a novel antimicrobial against bacterial and viral pathogens, and that the observed effect of NKLP27 on bacterial DNA and host gene expression adds new insights to the action mechanism of fish antimicrobial peptides.

Protective immunity against infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus induced by immunization with DNA plasmid containing mcp gene in Chinese perch Siniperca chuatsi

Infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus (ISKNV) is the causative agent of a disease leading to high mortality and economic losses in Chinese perch, Siniperca chuatsi. There is an urgent need to develop an effective vaccine against this fatal disease. In this study, the mcp gene encoding the major capsid protein, the predominant structural component of the iridovirus particles, was cloned into a eukaryotic expression vector pcDNA3.1+, and the recombinant plasmid, designated as pcMCP, was constructed. Expression of the mcp gene was confirmed in transfected cells and muscle tissues of vaccinated fish by RT-PCR, immunodot blot and western blot. Immune response was induced by intramuscular injection of Chinese perch with pcMCP added QCDC adjuvant. The expression levels of type I IFN system genes including IRF-7, IRAK1, Mx and Viperin were up-regulated at 6 h, and reached a peak at 48 h. In addition, there was a second peak of the expression levels of IRF-7 and Mx gene on the 21st day post-vaccination. Before the 21st day post-vaccination, the levels of IgM did not show a significant difference among all groups, but there was a remarkable increase on the 28th day post-vaccination. The relative percent survival (RPS) of Chinese perch vaccinated with pcMCP added QCDC adjuvant was 80% in a challenge trial on the 28th day post-vaccination. Moreover, real-time PCR demonstrated that the levels of viral load in the dead fish of the vaccinated group were significantly higher than those in mock-vaccinated fish. Together, these results indicate that pcMCP is a potential candidate DNA vaccine against ISKNV disease.

C7: a CpG oligodeoxynucleotide that induces protective immune response against megalocytivirus in Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) via Toll-like receptor 9-mediated signaling pathway

Megalocytivirus is the causative agent of severe disease outbreaks in farmed fish. Currently there is no effective control against megalocytivirus in aquaculture. Synthetic oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) containing unmethylated CpG motifs are known to possess marked immunostimulatory properties. In this study, we investigated the potentials of ten CpG ODNs as antiviral agents in a model of Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). We found that, when administered into flounder, three of the ten CpG ODNs inhibited viral replication in kidney, spleen, and liver. ODN C7, which exhibited the strongest inhibitory activity, was able to promote proliferation of peripheral blood leukocytes and enhance activation of head kidney mononuclear adherent phagocytes. When the expression of toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) was knocked down in vivo by small interfering RNA, C7-mediated immune response and antiviral activity were significantly blocked. Moreover, when C7 was co-administered with pCN86, a DNA vaccine against megalocytivirus, a significant increase in vaccine-induced protection was observed compared to administration with pCN86 alone. Further analysis showed that compared to fish immunized with pCN86, fish immunized with pCN86 plus C7 exhibited significantly upregulated expression of a wide range of genes involved in innate and adaptive immunity. Taken together, these results indicate that ODN C7 activates TLR9-mediated immune response and possesses antiviral and adjuvant potentials that may be exploited for the control of megalocytivirus infection in farmed flounder.

Turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) hepcidin-1 and hepcidin-2 possess antimicrobial activity and promote resistance against bacterial and viral infection

Hepcidin is an antimicrobial peptide and a regulator of iron homeostasis. In turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), two types of hepcidins have been identified, which share approximately 50% sequence identity. In this study, we examined the antimicrobial potentials of the two hepcidins in the form of synthesized peptides, SmHep1P and SmHep2P. We found that SmHep1P and SmHep2P exhibited apparent bactericidal activities against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria in a dose-dependent manner. The bactericidal effect of SmHep1P was stronger against Gram-positive bacteria, while the bactericidal effect of SmHep2P was stronger against Gram-negative bacteria. Fluorescence and electron microscopy showed that both peptides were able to bind to the target bacterial cells and alter the surface structure of the cells. In vitro studies showed that SmHep1P and SmHep2P reduced bacterial invasion into cultured fish cells. In vivo studies showed that turbot administered with SmHep1P and SmHep2P exhibited significantly enhanced resistance against bacterial and viral infection. In both in vivo and in vitro studies, the antimicrobial activities of SmHep2P were in most cases significantly stronger than those of SmHep1P. Together these results indicate that the two hepcidins of turbot most likely possess antimicrobial properties and play a role in the innate immune defense against bacterial and viral pathogens.

Strategies and hurdles using DNA vaccines to fish

DNA vaccinations against fish viral diseases as IHNV at commercial level in Canada against VHSV at experimental level are both success stories. DNA vaccination strategies against many other viral diseases have, however, not yet yielded sufficient results in terms of protection. There is an obvious need to combat many other viral diseases within aquaculture where inactivated vaccines fail. There are many explanations to why DNA vaccine strategies against other viral diseases fail to induce protective immune responses in fish. These obstacles include: 1) too low immunogenicity of the transgene, 2) too low expression of the transgene that is supposed to induce protection, 3) suboptimal immune responses, and 4) too high degradation rate of the delivered plasmid DNA. There are also uncertainties with regard distribution and degradation of DNA vaccines that may have implications for safety and regulatory requirements that need to be clarified. By combining plasmid DNA with different kind of adjuvants one can increase the immunogenicity of the transgene antigen – and perhaps increase the vaccine efficacy. By using molecular adjuvants with or without in combination with targeting assemblies one may expect different responses compared with naked DNA. This includes targeting of DNA vaccines to antigen presenting cells as a central factor in improving their potencies and efficacies by means of encapsulating the DNA vaccine in certain carriers systems that may increase transgene and MHC expression. This review will focus on DNA vaccine delivery, by the use of biodegradable PLGA particles as vehicles for plasmid DNA mainly in fish.

Strategies and hurdles using DNA vaccines to fish

DNA vaccinations against fish viral diseases as IHNV at commercial level in Canada against VHSV at experimental level are both success stories. DNA vaccination strategies against many other viral diseases have, however, not yet yielded sufficient results in terms of protection. There is an obvious need to combat many other viral diseases within aquaculture where inactivated vaccines fail. There are many explanations to why DNA vaccine strategies against other viral diseases fail to induce protective immune responses in fish. These obstacles include: 1) too low immunogenicity of the transgene, 2) too low expression of the transgene that is supposed to induce protection, 3) suboptimal immune responses, and 4) too high degradation rate of the delivered plasmid DNA. There are also uncertainties with regard distribution and degradation of DNA vaccines that may have implications for safety and regulatory requirements that need to be clarified. By combining plasmid DNA with different kind of adjuvants one can increase the immunogenicity of the transgene antigen - and perhaps increase the vaccine efficacy. By using molecular adjuvants with or without in combination with targeting assemblies one may expect different responses compared with naked DNA. This includes targeting of DNA vaccines to antigen presenting cells as a central factor in improving their potencies and efficacies by means of encapsulating the DNA vaccine in certain carriers systems that may increase transgene and MHC expression. This review will focus on DNA vaccine delivery, by the use of biodegradable PLGA particles as vehicles for plasmid DNA mainly in fish.

DNA vaccination against a fish rhabdovirus promotes an early chemokine-related recruitment of B cells to the muscle

In fish, intramuscular (i.m) injection of plasmid DNA encoding viral proteins has proved a highly effective vaccination strategy against some viral pathogens. The efficacy of DNA vaccination in teleost fish is based on the high level of viral antigen expression in muscle cells inducing a strong and long-lasting protection. However, the mechanisms through which this protection is established and effectuated in fish are still not fully understood. Moreover, similarities to mammalian models cannot be established since DNA vaccination in mammals usually induces much weaker responses. In this work, we have focused on the characterization of the immune cells that infiltrate the muscle at the site of DNA injection in vaccinated fish and the chemokines and chemokine receptors that may be involved in their infiltration. We have demonstrated through diverse techniques that B lymphocytes, both IgM⁺ and IgT⁺ cells, represented a major infiltrating cell type in fish vaccinated with a viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) glycoprotein-encoding DNA vaccine, whereas in control fish injected with an oil adjuvant mainly granulocyte/monocyte-type cells were attracted. Among twelve chemokine genes studied, only CXCL11_L1, CK5B and CK6 mRNA levels were up-regulated in DNA vaccinated fish compared to fish injected with the corresponding vector backbone. Furthermore, the transcription of CXCR3B, a possible receptor for CXCL11_L1 was also significantly up-regulated in vaccinated fish. Finally, experiments performed with recombinant trout CK5B and CK6 and chemokine expression plasmids revealed that these chemokines have chemotactic capacities which might explain the recruitment of B cells to the site of DNA injection. Altogether, our results reveal that there is an early chemokine-related B cell recruitment triggered by i.m. DNA vaccination against VHSV which might play an important role in the initial phase of the immune response.

Viral vaccines for bony fish: past, present and future

Since 1970, aquaculture production has grown. In 2010, it had an annual average rate of 6.3% with 59.9 million tons of product and soon could exceed capture fisheries as a source of fishery products. However, the occurrence of viral diseases continues to be a significant limiting factor and its control is important for the development of this sector. In aquaculture farms, fish are reared under intensive culture conditions, and the use of viral vaccines has enabled an increase in production. Several types of vaccines and strategies of vaccination have been developed; however, this approach has not reached the expected goals in the most susceptible stage (fingerlings). Currently, there are inactivated and recombinant commercial vaccines, mainly for salmonids and cyprinids. In addition, updated genomic and proteomic technology has expedited the research and expansion of new vaccine models, such as those comprised of subunits or DNA. The objective of this review is to cover the various types of viral vaccines that have been developed and are available for bony fishes, as well as the advantages and challenges that DNA vaccines present for massive administration in a growing aquaculture, possible risks for the environment, the controversy regarding genetically modified organisms and possible acceptance by consumers.

Nuclear factor 45 of half smooth tongue sole Cynoglossus semilaevis: gene structure, expression profile, and immunoregulatory property

Nuclear factor 45 (NF45) is a component of the protein complex called nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT), which in mammals regulates interleukin (IL)-2 expression. To date very little is known about fish NF45. In this study, we identified a NF45 (named CsNF45) from half smooth tongue sole Cynoglossus semilaevis and examined its gene organization, expression profile, and regulatory function. We found that CsNF45 is composed of 387 residues and shares 90.3%-97.9% overall sequence identities with the NF45 of human and teleosts. Genetic analysis showed that the genomic sequence of the ORF region of CsNF45 consists of 14 exons and 13 introns. Constitutive expression of CsNF45 occurred in multiple tissues including gill, muscle, brain, heart, liver, head kidney, spleen, and gut. Experimental infection with viral and bacterial pathogens upregulated the expression of CsNF45 in head kidney and spleen in a time-dependent manner. Transient transfection analysis showed that CsNF45 was localized in the nucleus and able to stimulate the activity of mouse IL-2 promoter. These results indicate that CsNF45 possesses immunoregulatory property and is possibly involved in host immune defense against bacterial and viral infection.

Megalocytivirus-induced proteins of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus): identification and antiviral potential

Megalocytivirus is an important fish pathogen with a broad host range that includes turbot. In this study, proteomic analysis was conducted to examine turbot proteins modulated in expression by megalocytivirus infection. Thirty five proteins from spleen were identified to be differentially expressed at 2days post-viral infection (dpi) and 7dpi. Three upregulated proteins, i.e. heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70), Mx protein, and natural killer enhancing factor (NKEF), were further analyzed for potential antiviral effect. For this purpose, turbot were administered separately with the plasmids pHsp70, pMx, and pNKEF, which express Hsp70, Mx, and NKEF respectively, before megalocytivirus infection. Viral dissemination and propagation in spleen were subsequently determined. The results showed that the viral loads in fish administered with pNKEF were significantly reduced. To examine the potential of Hsp70, Mx, and NKEF as immunological adjuvant, turbot were immunized with a DNA vaccine in the presence of pHsp70, pMx, or pNKEF. Subsequent analysis showed that the presence of pNKEF and pHsp70, but not pMx, significantly reduced viral infection and enhanced fish survival. Taken together, these results indicate that NKEF exhibits antiviral property against megalocytivirus, and that both NKEF and Hsp70 may be used in DNA vaccine-based control of megalocytivirus infection.

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

This study provides the first proteomic picture of turbot in response to megalocytivirus infection. We demonstrated that megalocytivirus infection modulates the expression of turbot proteins associated with various cellular functions, and that one of the upregulated proteins, NKEF, exhibits antiviral effect when overexpressed in vivo, while another upregulated protein, Hsp70, exhibits adjuvant effect when co-immunized with a DNA vaccine. These results add molecular insights into turbot immune response induced by megalocytivirus and provide candidate proteins with application potentials in the control of megalocytivirus-associated disease.