“I want it all and I want it now!” An examination of the etiology, expression, and escalation of excessive employee entitlement

The Role of Leader-Member Exchange Relations and Individual Differences on Counterproductive Work Behavior

Although researchers have documented relations between abusive supervision and subordinate counterproductive work behavior (CWB), might CWB result from non-abusive treatment? We address the question by examining the relation between leader-member relations (LMX) and CWB as well as potential mediators and moderators of that relation. One hundred and eighty subordinates completed surveys assessing their LMX quality, entitlement, negative emotions, self-control, and CWB. Twenty-six supervisors also provided CWB data on 88 of those subordinates. We found that subordinates reporting lower quality relations with their supervisors were more likely to experience CWB than other subordinates and that anger mediated that relation. There was some support for the moderating effect of self-control on the negative emotion - CWB relation. Entitlement did not moderate the LMX - anger relation as hypothesized. One implication is that supervisors do not have to treat their subordinates poorly for the subordinates to react negatively and engage in behavior detrimental to their organization.

Academic entitlement and Ratemyprofessors.com evaluations bias student teaching evaluations: Implications for faculty evaluation and policy-lenient professors' occupational health

This study explored relationships between academic entitlement (AE) and Ratemyprofessors.com (RMP) use. It also investigated, while controlling for AE, if RMP evaluation positivity influences students' intentions to ask for policy exemptions, beliefs professors would provide them, intentions to reward and punish professors contingent upon provision of policy exemptions by improving or lowering their student teaching evaluations, and intentions to evaluate and reenroll with professors. Following exposure to RMP evaluations, participants (n = 320) rated their intentions and beliefs toward a fictional professor. They also completed an AE measure. AE was related to frequency of writing RMP evaluations as well as participants' intentions to ask for exemptions, beliefs they would receive them, and intentions to reward and punish professors. RMP evaluation positivity affected participants' intentions to ask for and beliefs they would receive policy exemptions as well as intention to evaluate and reenroll with professors. Effects did not differ by professor or student gender. Participants reported intention to improve the evaluation of professors who provide any policy exemption. This study's findings suggest that student attitudes related to AE and impacted by RMP evaluations have significant implications for professors' occupational health via requests for policy exemptions and the consequences of professors' responses to them. These findings also contribute to the body of evidence that student teaching evaluations do not exclusively measure teaching effectiveness. Similar to grade leniency, policy leniency may bias student teaching evaluations. These contribute to the ongoing discussion of the use of student teaching evaluations in faculty personnel decisions and underscore the need for robust approaches to professor evaluation.

Psychological entitlement and conspiracy beliefs: evidence from the COVID-19 pandemic

Psychological entitlement describes the dispositional tendency to claim excessive and unearned rewards and resources, and to demand undeserved special treatment. In one experiment, one cross-sectional survey, and one time-separated survey (total n = 721), we show that psychological entitlement is associated with general conspiracy theory endorsement, COVID-19 specific conspiracy theory endorsement, and conspiracy theorizing as an overarching cognitive style. We find those high in entitlement are more likely to report having made discretionary visits to non-essential venues and services (e.g. buffets, spas, casinos) during the pandemic, and that these risky public health behaviors are mediated through beliefs in conspiracy theories. We identify consequences for public health behavior and conclude with a research agenda for better understanding the underlying mechanisms linking entitlement and conspiracy beliefs.

Exploring the critical factors influencing the outlying island talent recruitment and selection evaluation model: Empirical evidence from Penghu, Taiwan

The declining birth rate, population ageing and the outbound migration of young people in recent years have created obstacles for local companies in recruiting skilled personnel. Similar factors have also affected recruitment in the outlying island of Penghu, Taiwan. Multiple-attribute decision-making (MADM) techniques for evaluation model development were incorporated in the present research to investigate the key determinants of talent recruitment by the coffee house operators in the outlying island of Penghu. The decision-making trial and evaluation laboratory (DEMATEL) approach was first implemented to (i) examine the extent of mutual impact between evaluation predictors and (ii) develop an influential network relation map (NRM) for indicator and sub-indicator assessments. Subsequently, the DEMATEL-based analytic network process (DANP) technique was utilised to compute the weights of every indicator and sub-indicator. Additionally, the modified VlseKriterijumska Optimizcija I Kaompromisno Resenje or VIKOR (in Serbian) approach evaluated every indicator and sub-indicator performance gap for empirical data analysis with suggested conclusions and recommendations. The results showed that the first dimension that should be improved is past experience, followed by personality traits and professional competence, according to the causal diagram of the NRM. The weights acquired through the DANP indicated that professional competence was the most influential dimension, followed by personality traits, whereas past experience was the least influential. Past experience revealed that the highest gap value is the most important for development if coffee house operators want to attain the appropriate levels. Finally, the theoretical, managerial, and practical implications were discussed. Notably, the research outcomes could optimise talent recruitment, establish appropriate talent recruitment methods for coffee house operators, and enhance the human resource quality in the outlying island of Penghu.

Post-traumatic Growth: The Roles of the Sense of Entitlement, Gratitude and hope

People believe that they are entitled to well-being and safety, and their responses to unexpected traumatic events reveal individual differences. Their reactions vary, from feeling blocked and distressed to feeling proactive towards new growth, depending on their personal resources. The current study sought to identify the role of entitlement in explaining post-traumatic growth (PTG) while considering the role of gratitude and hope as personal resources. We used a community-based sample of Israeli adults (n = 182) who reported experiencing a traumatic event during the preceding year. The relationships between PTG and their sense of entitlement, gratitude, and hope were examined. A stepwise multiple hierarchical regression revealed that all the three variables were associated with PTG. However, the effect of hope turned insignificant with the inclusion of sense of entitlement and gratitude in the regression. Sense of entitlement and gratitude were independently associated with PTG. The theoretical contribution of these findings is discussed, as well as their interventional implications and future directions.

The Double-Edged Sword Effect of Paradoxical Leadership to Organizational Citizenship Behavior

Purpose

Drawing on social exchange theory and attribution theory, this study aims to explore the influencing mechanism of paradoxical leadership on organizational citizenship behavior.

Participants and Methods

According to the research purpose, this study selects enterprises in the manufacturing, financial and high-tech industries in Shandong Province as the research objects, and collects data on the leaders and employees of the human resources departments and marketing departments in the enterprises. Data were collected from 77 leaders and 473 employees in China by a two-wave questionnaire survey. Hierarchical regression analysis and structural equation model approach were employed to test hypotheses.

Results

This study found that perceived insider status and psychological entitlement play mediating roles about paradoxical leadership and organizational citizenship behavior; Collectivism moderates the relationship between paradoxical leadership and perceived insider status, and moderates the positive mediating role played by perceived insider status in the relationship of paradoxical leadership and organizational citizenship behavior; Leader-member exchange differentiation moderates the relationship about paradoxical leadership and psychological entitlement, and moderates negative mediating role played by psychological entitlement in the relationship of paradoxical leadership's and organizational citizenship behavior.

Conclusion

The findings of this study offer guidance for managers to better undermine the negative effects of paradoxical leadership, and improve organizational citizenship behavior.

Innovations

First, this study extends the literature on paradoxical leadership by verifying the double-edged sword effect of paradoxical leadership to organizational citizenship behavior. Second, this study enriches one's understanding of the "black box" underlying the link between paradoxical leadership and its consequences by demonstrating the mediating roles of perceived insider status and psychological entitlement. Third, by verifying the moderating roles of collectivism and leader-member exchange differentiation, this study provides insights into the boundary conditions of the impact of paradoxical leadership.

Technostress and the entitled employee: impacts on work and family

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to understand the impact of techno-overload and techno-invasion on work and family. Specifically, we focus on intention to turnover in the work domain, work-family conflict in the work-family domain, and family burnout in the family domain. Furthermore, this study examines the moderating role of entitlement, a personality variable, in this process.

Design/methodology/approach

Using a sample of 253 people who were using technology to complete their work over two time periods, the relationships were examined using hierarchical moderated regression analysis.

Findings

The results revealed that both techno-overload and techno-invasion were significantly related to greater turnover intentions, higher work-family conflict, and greater family burnout. In addition, entitlement played a moderating role such that those who were higher in entitlement had stronger techno-overload-outcome and technostress invasion-outcome relationships.

Practical implications

These findings may provide managers key insights to help manage employees, especially those with an inflated sense of entitlement, to mitigate the serious negative outcomes associated with techno-overload and techno-invasion. In particular, both techno- overload and techno-invasion had minimal impact on negative outcomes when employee entitlement was lower. However, when employee entitlement was higher, techno-overload and techno-invasion had considerable negative effects.

Originality/value

Due to the ubiquitous nature of information-communication technology (ICT) in organizations today, individuals often experience techno-overload and techno-invasion. This research utilized conservation of resources theory to examine these relationships. This study established the relationships of both techno-overload and techno-invasion with key organizational and family outcomes and points to the critical role of the personality variable, entitlement, in this process. The results provide theoretical and practical advancement in the role of technology with people in organizations today.

A Systematic Review of Negative Work Behavior: Toward an Integrated Definition

The objective of this systematic review was to identify the overlapping and unique aspects of the operationalizations of negative work behaviors (NWBs) to specify a new integrative definition of NWB. More specifically, we examined (1) how many operationalizations and conceptualizations of NWB can be identified, (2) whether these operationalizations can be categorized into facets, i. e., the nature of NWB, harm, actor types, and roles, with subcategories, (3) what the meaningful overlap in these operationalizations was, (4) whether the operationalizations tapped unique and meaningful elements, i.e., positive labels and dynamic processes, and (5) how the overlapping and unique elements of the operationalizations could be integrated into a new theory-based research model for NWB for future research. In the literature search based on the Prisma framework, Pubmed, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar, we identified k = 489 studies that met the inclusion criteria of our review. The results of these studies revealed 16 frequently studied NWB labels, e.g., bullying and aggression. Many of these could be categorized in the same way, namely, in terms of the type of behavior, type of harm, and type of actor involved in the NWB. In our new definition of NWB, we integrated the content of the overlapping and meaningful unique elements of the 16 labels.

Entitlement: friend or foe of work-family conflict?

Purpose

Guided by Hobfoll’s (1989) conservation of resources theory, we examined how psychological entitlement moderates the negative relationship between work-family conflict (WFC) and job satisfaction.

Design/methodology/approach

Using a sample of 119 accountants from the Midwestern United States, we tested our hypotheses with hierarchical regression analysis.

Findings

Results indicate a strong, negative relationship between WFC and job satisfaction for employees low in psychological entitlement, but an insignificant relationship for entitled employees.

Practical implications

The results suggest that some entitlement may be beneficial to employees when coping with WFC. However, organizations should limit WFC in order to foster their least entitled employees’ job satisfaction.

Originality/value

This is the first study that investigates how psychological entitlement affects employees' reactions to WFC. Not only does it contribute to the growing body of research that examines how this individual difference affects workplace functioning, but it suggests there may be some benefits to entitlement, which largely has been disparaged.

Psychological entitlement predicts noncompliance with the health guidelines of the COVID-19 pandemic

In this research, we examined whether psychological entitlement predicted noncompliance with the health guidelines of the COVID-19 pandemic. People higher in psychological entitlement typically try to avoid behaviors that might cause themselves harm, but their high expectations, lack of concern about others, and distrust of authority figures could affect their perceptions of the threat of the coronavirus and their views on the benefits of following the health guidelines. Across three studies (N = 1004, online samples from the United States), people higher in psychological entitlement reported less compliance with the health guidelines of the COVID-19 pandemic than people lower in psychological entitlement. Moreover, people higher in psychological entitlement believed that the threat of the virus was overblown and were less concerned about harming others, views that may partly explain their noncompliance. People higher in psychological entitlement were also more likely to report that they had contracted COVID-19, and thus their refusal to follow the health guidelines may have had negative consequences for them. An appeal to self-image concerns did not lead individuals higher in entitlement to be more likely to comply with the health guidelines.

Supervisor narcissistic rage: political support as an antidote

Purpose

This research examines how perceived supervisor political support (SPS) moderates the relationship between perceived supervisor narcissistic rage (SNR) and relevant employee work outcomes.

Design/methodology/approach

Across three studies (Study 1: 604 student-recruited working adults; Study 2: 156 practicing lawyers: Study 3: 161 municipality employees), employees provided ratings for SPS, SNR and ratings of their job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), depressed work mood and work neglect.

Findings

Results supported the authors’ argument that SPS moderates the relationship between SNR and work outcomes. Specifically, SNR was associated with unfavorable outcomes only when SPS was low. When SPS was high, SNR had little effect on job satisfaction, OCBs, depressed mood and neglect.

Research limitations/implications

Results affirm that supervisor characteristics considered toxic do not always provoke adverse reactions when considering other leader features simultaneously.

Practical implications

Supervisors capable of offering political support can positively influence subordinate attitudes, behaviors and well-being even when other aspects of their personality potentially initiate antagonism.

Originality/value

This study is the first to examine SNR features and informal support activities concurrently.

A Status-Seeking Account of Psychological Entitlement

We propose that people high in entitlement are characterized by motivation to attain status. Five studies (total N = 2,372) support that entitlement promotes motivation to seek status. This motivation, in turn, relates to affective processes when facing upward comparisons and contributes to status attainment. Specifically, entitlement fostered prestige and dominance motivation. These, in turn, predicted greater benign and malicious envy, respectively, when encountering high-status others. The indirect effects occurred when entitlement was measured (Studies 1A and 1B) and manipulated (Studies 2A and 2B). Finally, entitlement related to status attainment, yet not always in line with more entitled people's motivation. Although they ascribed themselves both more prestige and dominance, others ascribed them only more dominance, yet less prestige (Studies 3A, 3B, and 3C). These findings suggest that a status-seeking account offers important insights into the complexities of entitled behavior and its social consequences.

Entitlement at work: Linking positive behaviors to employee entitlement

Perceptions of employee entitlement are reported to be increasing in organizations and have been linked to negative outcomes at work. Employee entitlement is an employee’s belief in deserving preferential treatment or reward without regard to performance. Arguments, however, are emerging that entitlement may also be linked to positive behaviors. In this article, we outline a study that examines the moderating effect of self-monitoring on the relationship between employee entitlement and organizational citizenship behavior and affective organizational commitment. Based on survey data collected from 167 individuals, we found that self-monitoring moderated the relationship between the specific subscales of employee entitlement and organizational citizenship behavior but had no relationship to commitment. Although previous studies have addressed entitlement perceptions as a negative outcome for the organization, in this article we outline the potential for positive outcomes. Limitations and future research directions are outlined.

Measurement of Psychological Entitlement in 28 Countries

Abstract. This article presents the cross-cultural validation of the Entitlement Attitudes Questionnaire, a tool designed to measure three facets of psychological entitlement: active, passive, and revenge entitlement. Active entitlement was defined as the tendency to protect individual rights based on self-worthiness. Passive entitlement was defined as the belief in obligations to and expectations toward other people and institutions for the fulfillment of the individual’s needs. Revenge entitlement was defined as the tendency to protect one’s individual rights when violated by others and the tendency to reciprocate insults. The 15-item EAQ was validated in a series of three studies: the first one on a general Polish sample (N = 1,900), the second one on a sample of Polish students (N = 199), and the third one on student samples from 28 countries (N = 5,979). A three-factor solution was confirmed across all samples. Examination of measurement equivalence indicated partial metric invariance of EAQ for all national samples. Discriminant and convergent validity of the EAQ was also confirmed.

What about ‘MEE’: A Measure of Employee Entitlement and the impact on reciprocity in the workplace

A basic underlying assumption of the psychological contract is that both parties come to a mutual agreement about the expectations and obligations of a contract of employment. Recent research provides evidence of the potential for employees to develop unrealistic expectations from this contract and this has been described as a sense of entitlement. In this article, we outline two studies. In the first study, we test the internal structure and reliability of a scale we developed and named the Measure of Employee Entitlement. In the second study, we test the predictive validity of the Measure of Employee Entitlement against a measure of reciprocity. The development and validation of the Measure of Employee Entitlement extends our knowledge of sense of entitlement in the workplace and situates entitlement as a factor that may impact on the development of psychological contracts. This research provides a platform from which researchers and practitioners can continue to coherently and consistently investigate the phenomenon of employee entitlement.

Performance, Stress, and Attitudinal Outcomes of Perceptions of Others’ Entitlement Behavior: Supervisor–Subordinate Work Relationship Quality as Moderator in Two Samples

Supervisor–subordinate work relationships are based on a series of potentially fluctuating resource allocation episodes. Building on this reality, we hypothesized in the present research that supervisor–subordinate work relationship quality will neutralize the negative attitudinal and behavioral strain effects associated with perceptions of others’ entitlement behavior. We draw upon the transactional theory of stress, and the social exchange and support features of leader–member exchange theory, to explain our expected neutralizing effects on job tension, job satisfaction, and contextual performance/citizenship behavior. Results supported study hypotheses in Sample 1. Findings were replicated in Sample 2 and extended by also demonstrating the interaction effect on task performance. Contributions to theory and research, strengths and limitations, directions for future work, and practical implications are discussed.

Wanting it all: the challenges of managing young talent in transition economies

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to identify challenges of talent management (TM) of transition economies, based on a study of employee and employer obligations as elements of anticipatory psychological contracts (APC) among young entrants to labor market. The authors aim to analyze how APC differ between transitional and non-transitional countries and also if there are differences between transitional countries.

Design/methodology/approach

The authors used a quantitative research design and conducted a survey using the PC inventory among business students in Poland and Slovenia and the UK (as a control group).

Findings

The authors found that APC in transitional countries differ significantly from the control group, with Polish and Slovenian APCs being more transactional and less relational than in the UK. Also, there are several differences between Poland and Slovenia, suggesting that Central and Eastern Europe transitional countries cannot be considered a single region in this respect.

Practical implications

The authors identified challenges related to TM in transitional countries based on APC characteristics and proposed several ways in which employers and educators could help to build more realistic expectations and thus helping young talents with their transition from education to labor market. By increasing the understanding of APC employers can improve their TM practices for the young talents.

Originality/value

The study offers unique insights into APC of the young entrants to labor market in transitional countries, with regard to both employee and employer obligations. The three types of APC were studied along with particular dimensions of APC. The authors linked TM to the APC characteristics. Based on the results, the authors propose that socio-economic context as well as national culture should be considered as antecedents of APC formation and given more attention in both psychological contract and TM research.

Employee Entitlement and Proactive Work Behaviors

Organizations are concerned that the newest generation of workers believe they are entitled to positive organizational outcomes, regardless of their level of effort. To better understand employee entitlement and organizational outcomes, we tested whether entitlement was directly related to the proactive work behaviors of voice and taking charge. We also examined whether narcissism and organizational identification moderated these relationships. Results suggest that entitlement is not directly related to either of the proactive work behaviors examined. However, support was found for a model where narcissism moderated the relationship between entitlement and taking charge behaviors. Low narcissism employees are less likely to exhibit taking charge behaviors when they report low levels of entitlement. When employees are high in narcissism, low entitlement employees are actually more likely to take charge than employees high in entitlement. Organizational identification was also found to moderate the relationship between entitlement and voice as well as between entitlement and taking charge. Highly entitled individuals will engage in more voice and taking charge when they demonstrate high levels of organizational identification. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

A review of entitlement

Interest in employee entitlement perceptions is increasing in academia and in organizations. Entitlement has a long history of being conceptualized as a personality trait in psychology closely aligned with narcissism. Research on workplace entitlement has generally revealed links with negative workplace behaviors, indicating costly outcomes for individuals, teams, and organizations. Our aim in this article is to review the literature on workplace entitlement perceptions, identifying how the construct has changed definition over time, and indicating related constructs that impact on research within industrial and organizational psychology. This review progresses research in this field by examining the nomological network around entitlement and resolving current inconsistencies in the construct definition of entitlement in the workplace, and establishing a set of firm future research directions for entitlement research.

Antecedents and consequences of upward and downward social comparisons

Purpose

– The purpose of this paper is to extend and test a theory of uncertainty and directional social comparisons. Prior studies have posited that uncertainty leads to increased upward and downward social comparisons. The authors ' view is that uncertainty affects upward and downward comparisons differentially. They test their theory in the Chinese workplace, and focus specifically on employees’ comparisons of career progress. Workplace consequences of social comparisons are also investigated.

Design/methodology/approach

– The authors achieve their objectives by collecting data from respondents in China that measure uncertainty, directional social comparisons, organizational commitment and job satisfaction. They use a longitudinal design to assess causality.

Findings

– This paper found that perceived organizational support, an antecedent that lowers uncertainty in the workplace, is related to upward social comparison, whereas psychological entitlement, an uncertainty-raising antecedent, is related to downward social comparison. Upward social comparison positively affected organizational commitment, whereas downward social comparison positively impacted job satisfaction.

Research limitations/implications

– The data collection relied on self-reports and hence the findings may be adversely affected by common method bias. Another limitation involves the generalizability of results, given that the respondents were drawn from three large firms in China.

Originality/value

– This paper indicates that directional social comparison processes serve as an important mechanism for understanding how employees’ work attitudes are developed. It also demonstrates the applicability of social comparison theory to the study of organizational behavior in China.

Entitlement and organizational behaviors: the moderating role of narcissism

<b>Background</b><br /> The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between psychological entitlement (active, passive, and revenge), narcissism and two types of organizational behaviors in employees. Interactions between narcissism and psychological entitlement as predictors of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB) and counterproductive work behaviors (CWB) were explored. Predictors were analyzed in an effort to determine whether psychological entitlement plays a more destructive role among narcissistic employees than among non-narcissistic ones and whether the effects of narcissism on OCB and CWB are mediated by entitlement.<br /> <br /> <b>Participants and procedure</b><br /> Data were obtained from 100 employees (34% men) aged 22 to 59 years (M = 37.00, SD = 9.30) from public and private companies. Participants were asked to complete the Organizational Citizenship Behavior Scale (OCBS), the Counterproductive Organizational Behaviors Scale (COBS), the Entitlement Questionnaire, and the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI).<br /> <br /> <b>Results</b><br /> Positive aspects of entitlement were positively associated with OCB only among narcissistic employees, and active entitlement mediated the effects of narcissism on CWB. Active entitlement was negatively related to CWB. Negative aspects of entitlement were negatively related to OCB and unrelated to CWB.<br /> <br /> <b>Conclusions</b><br /> This study provides evidence for positive (healthy) aspects of entitlement for organizations. The unexpected interaction between narcissism and entitlement in predicting higher levels of OCB suggests that among narcissistic employees, healthy aspects of entitlement are desirable and profitable for an organization. Psychological entitlement was observed to be an important predictor of organizational behaviors beyond narcissism itself.

Team Pay-For-Performance

Teams are an important part of most organizations. As such, it is necessary that organizational leaders make a number of decisions regarding how to pay teams. In this article, prominent themes in the teams literature and the pay-for-performance literature are integrated to develop a framework of team pay-for-performance effectiveness. Using this framework as a guide, the literature on team pay-for-performance is reviewed. Important dimensions of the team pay-for-performance construct are identified, and mediating paths between these dimensions and team outcomes are clarified. This integration leads to identification and discussion of valuable areas for future work.

Psychological entitlement and abusive supervision: political skill as a self-regulatory mechanism

BACKGROUND

Abusive supervision in the workplace is steadily increasing. Such behavior has been linked to a host of negative individual and organizational consequences. In a health care environment particularly, such behavior can have detrimental effects.

PURPOSES

This study advances self-regulation theory by framing the entitlement-abusive supervision relationship in terms of a motive to obtain resources via a behavior that is not socially sanctioned. Furthermore, we argue that political skill serves as a self-regulating mechanism that reduces the motivation to secure personal resources through abusive behavior.

METHODOLOGY/APPROACH

Our hypotheses were tested using a sample of nurses and their supervisors who were asked to complete a survey. A final sample of 132 supervisor-subordinate dyads was obtained.

FINDINGS

Analysis suggests that supervisors high in psychological entitlement are more likely to be perceived by their subordinates as abusive. Political skill, however, moderated this relationship by serving as a regulatory mechanism that thwarts entitled supervisors from engaging in abusive behaviors.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Our findings underscore the common concern that entitlement and abuse can be harmful for organizations. Entitled supervisors who are high in political skill may recognize that engaging in less aggressive influence behaviors may be more effective in achieving self-serving motives. Consequently, health care organizations need to be proactive in order to reduce entitlement and prevent abusive behaviors in the workplace.