Noninvasive stereotactic radiosurgery (CyberHeart) for creation of ablation lesions in the atrium

Mechanistic Insights and Knowledge Gaps in the Effects of Radiation Therapy on Cardiac Arrhythmias

Stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT) is an innovative modality for the treatment of refractory ventricular arrhythmias (VAs). Phase 1/2 clinical trials have demonstrated the remarkable efficacy of SBRT at reducing VA burden (by >85%) in patients with good short-term safety. SBRT as an option for VA treatment delivered in an ambulatory nonsedated patient in a single fraction during an outpatient session of 15 to 30 minutes, without added risks of anesthetic or surgery, is clinically relevant. However, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Currently, the clinical dosing of SBRT has been derived from preclinical studies aimed at inducing transmural fibrosis in the atria. The propitious clinical effects of SBRT appear earlier than the time course for fibrosis. This review addresses the plausible mechanisms by which radiation alters the electrophysiological properties of myocytes and myocardial conduction to impart an antiarrhythmic effect, elucidate clinical observations, and point the direction for further research in this promising area.

Stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation (STAR)-A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective trials on behalf of the STOPSTORM.eu consortium

Stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation (STAR) is a noninvasive treatment of refractory ventricular tachycardia (VT). In this study, we aimed to systematically review prospective trials on STAR and pool harmonized outcome measures in a meta-analysis. After registration in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO: CRD42023439666), we searched OVID Medline, OVID Embase, Web of Science Core Collection, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and Google Scholar on November 9, 2023, to identify reports describing results of prospective trials evaluating STAR for VT. Risk of bias was assessed using the Risk Of Bias In Non-randomized Studies of Interventions tool. Meta-analysis was performed using generalized linear mixed models. We identified 10 prospective trials in which 82 patients were treated with STAR between 2016 and 2022. The 90-day rate of treatment-related grade ≥3 adverse events was 0.10 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.04-0.2). The proportions of patients achieving given VT burden reductions were 0.61 (95% CI 0.45-0.74) for ≥95%, 0.80 (95% CI 0.62-0.91) for ≥75%, and 0.9 (95% CI 0.77-0.96) for ≥50% in 63 evaluable patients. The 1-year overall survival rate was 0.73 (95% CI 0.61-0.83) in 81 patients, 1-year freedom from recurrence was 0.30 (95% CI 0.16-0.49) in 61 patients, and 1-year recurrence-free survival was 0.21 in 60 patients (95% CI 0.08-0.46). Limitations include methodological heterogeneity across studies and moderate to significant risk of bias. In conclusion, STAR is a promising treatment method, characterized by moderate toxicity. We observed 1-year mortality of ≈27% in this population of critically ill patients suffering from refractory VT. Most patients experience a significant reduction in VT burden; however, 1-year recurrence rates are high. STAR should still be considered an investigational approach and recommended to patients primarily within the context of prospective trials.

Impact of abdominal compression on heart and stomach motion for stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation

PURPOSE

To evaluate the effectiveness of abdominal compression (AC) as a respiratory motion management method for the heart and stomach during stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation (STAR).

METHODS

4D computed tomography (4DCT) scans of patients imaged with AC or without AC (free-breathing: FB) were obtained from ventricular-tachycardia (VT) (n = 3), lung cancer (n = 18), and liver cancer (n = 18) patients. Patients treated for VT were imaged both FB and with AC. Lung and liver patients were imaged once with FB or with AC, respectively. The heart, left ventricle (LV), LV components (LVCs), and stomach were contoured on each phase of the 4DCTs. Centre of mass (COM) translations in the left/right (LR), ant/post (AP), and sup/inf (SI) directions were measured for each structure. Minimum distances between LVCs and the stomach over the respiratory cycle were also measured on each 4DCT phase. Mann-Whitney U-tests were performed between AC and FB datasets with a significance of α = 0.05.

RESULTS

No statistical difference (all p values were >0.05) was found in COM translations between FB and AC patient datasets for all contoured cardiac structures. A reduction in COM translation with AC relative to FB was patient, direction, and structure specific for the three VT patients. A significant decrease in the AP range of motion of the stomach was observed under AC compared to FB. No statistical difference was found between minimum distances to the stomach and LVCs between FB and AC.

CONCLUSIONS

AC was not a consistent motion management method for STAR, nor does not uniformly affect the separation distance between LVCs and the stomach. If AC is employed in future STAR protocols, the motion of the target volume and its relative distance to the stomach should be compared on two 4DCTs: one while the patient is FB and one under AC.

Preclinical Study of Pulsed Field Ablation of Difficult Ventricular Targets: Intracavitary Mobile Structures, Interventricular Septum, and Left Ventricular Free Wall

BACKGROUND

Endocardial catheter-based pulsed field ablation (PFA) of the ventricular myocardium is promising. However, little is known about PFA's ability to target intracavitary structures, epicardium, and ways to achieve transmural lesions across thick ventricular tissue.

METHODS

A lattice-tip catheter was used to deliver biphasic monopolar PFA to swine ventricles under general anesthesia, with electroanatomical mapping, fluoroscopy and intracardiac echocardiography guidance. We conducted experiments to assess the feasibility and safety of repetitive monopolar PFA applications to ablate (1) intracavitary papillary muscles and moderator bands, (2) epicardial targets, and (3) bipolar PFA for midmyocardial targets in the interventricular septum and left ventricular free wall.

RESULTS

(1) Papillary muscles (n=13) were successfully ablated and then evaluated at 2, 7, and 21 days. Nine lesions with stable contact measured 18.3±2.4 mm long, 15.3±1.5 mm wide, and 5.8±1.0 mm deep at 2 days. Chronic lesions demonstrated preserved chordae without mitral regurgitation. Two targeted moderator bands were transmurally ablated without structural disruption. (2) Transatrial saline/carbon dioxide assisted epicardial access was obtained successfully and epicardial monopolar lesions had a mean length, width, and depth of 30.4±4.2, 23.5±4.1, and 9.1±1.9 mm, respectively. (3) Bipolar PFA lesions were delivered across the septum (n=11) and the left ventricular free wall (n=7). Twelve completed bipolar lesions had a mean length, width, and depth of 29.6±5.5, 21.0±7.3, and 14.3±4.7 mm, respectively. Chronically, these lesions demonstrated uniform fibrotic changes without tissue disruption. Bipolar lesions were significantly deeper than the monopolar epicardial lesions.

CONCLUSIONS

This in vivo evaluation demonstrates that PFA can successfully ablate intracavitary structures and create deep epicardial lesions and transmural left ventricular lesions.

Stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation and its implications for modern cardiac electrophysiology: results of an EHRA survey

Stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation (STAR) is a treatment option for recurrent ventricular tachycardia/fibrillation (VT/VF) in patients with structural heart disease (SHD). The current and future role of STAR as viewed by cardiologists is unknown. The study aimed to assess the current role, barriers to application, and expected future role of STAR. An online survey consisting of 20 questions on baseline demographics, awareness/access, current use, and the future role of STAR was conducted. A total of 129 international participants completed the survey [mean age 43 ± 11 years, 25 (16.4%) female]. Ninety-one (59.9%) participants were electrophysiologists. Nine participants (7%) were unaware of STAR as a therapeutic option. Sixty-four (49.6%) had access to STAR, while 62 (48.1%) had treated/referred a patient for treatment. Common primary indications for STAR were recurrent VT/VF in SHD (45%), recurrent VT/VF without SHD (7.8%), or premature ventricular contraction (3.9%). Reported main advantages of STAR were efficacy in the treatment of arrhythmias not amenable to conventional treatment (49%) and non-invasive treatment approach with overall low expected acute and short-term procedural risk (23%). Most respondents have foreseen a future clinical role of STAR in the treatment of VT/VF with or without underlying SHD (72% and 75%, respectively), although only a minority expected a first-line indication for it (7% and 5%, respectively). Stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation as a novel treatment option of recurrent VT appears to gain acceptance within the cardiology community. Further trials are critical to further define efficacy, patient populations, as well as the appropriate clinical use for the treatment of VT.

Radiation therapy for ventricular arrhythmias

Ventricular arrhythmias (VA) can be life-threatening arrhythmias that result in significant morbidity and mortality. Catheter ablation (CA) is an invasive treatment modality that can be effective in the treatment of VA where medications fail. Recurrence occurs commonly following CA due to an inability to deliver lesions of adequate depth to cauterise the electrical circuits that drive VA or reach areas of scar responsible for VA. Stereotactic body radiotherapy is a non-invasive treatment modality that allows volumetric delivery of energy to treat circuits that cannot be reached by CA. It overcomes the weaknesses of CA and has been successfully utilised in small clinical trials to treat refractory VA. This article summarises the current evidence for this novel treatment modality and the steps that will be required to bring it to the forefront of VA treatment.

Cardiac stereotactic radiation therapy for refractory ventricular arrhythmias in patients with left ventricular assist devices

Left ventricular assist device (LVAD) implantation is an established treatment for patients with advanced heart failure refractory to medical therapy. However, the incidence of ventricular arrhythmias (VAs) is high in this population, both in the acute and delayed phases after implantation. About one-third of patients implanted with an LVAD will experience sustained VAs, predisposing these patients to worse outcomes and complicating patient management. The combination of pre-existing myocardial substrate and complex electrical remodeling after LVAD implantation account for the high incidence of VAs observed in this population. LVAD patients presenting VAs refractory to antiarrhythmic therapy and catheter ablation procedures are not rare. In such patients, treatment options are extremely limited. Stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT) is a technique that delivers precise and high doses of radiation to highly defined targets, reducing exposure to adjacent normal tissue. Cardiac SBRT has recently emerged as a promising alternative with a growing number of case series reporting the effectiveness of the technique in reducing the VA burden in patients with arrhythmias refractory to conventional therapies. The safety profile of cardiac SBRT also appears favorable, even though the current clinical experience remains limited. The use of cardiac SBRT for the treatment of refractory VAs in patients implanted with an LVAD are even more scarce. This review summarizes the clinical experience of cardiac SBRT in LVAD patients and describes technical considerations related to the implementation of the SBRT procedure in the presence of an LVAD.

A target definition based on electroanatomic maps for stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation

PURPOSE

Identifying the target region is critical for successfully treating ventricular tachycardia (VT) with single fraction stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation (STAR). We report the feasibility of target definition based on direct co-registration of electroanatomic maps (EAM) and radioablation planning images.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The EAM consists of 3D cardiac anatomy representation with electrical activity at endocardium and is acquired by a cardiac electrophysiologist (CEP) during electrophysiology study. The CEP generates an EAM using a 3D cardiac mapping system anticipating radioablation planning. Our in-house software read these non-DICOM EAMs, registered them to a planning image set, and converted them to DICOM structure files. The EAM based target volume was finalized based on a consensus of CEPs, radiation oncologists and medical physicists, then expanded to ITV and PTV. The simulation, planning, and treatment is performed with a standard STAR technique: a single fraction of 25 Gy using volumetric-modulated arc therapy or dynamic conformal arc therapy depending on the target shape.

RESULTS

Seven patients with refractory VT were treated by defining the target based on registering EAMs on the planning images. Dice similarity indices between reference map and reference contours after registration were 0.814 ± 0.053 and 0.575 ± 0.199 for LV and LA/RV, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The quality of the transferred EAMs on the MR/CT images was sufficient to localize the treatment region. Five of 7 patients demonstrated a dramatic reduction in VT events after 6 weeks. Longer follow-up is required to determine the true safety and efficacy of this therapy using EAM-based direct registration method.

Recurrences of ventricular tachycardia after stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation arise outside the treated volume: analysis of the Swiss cohort

AIMS

Stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation (STAR) has been recently introduced for the management of therapy-refractory ventricular tachycardia (VT). VT recurrences have been reported after STAR but the mechanisms remain largely unknown. We analysed recurrences in our patients after STAR.

METHODS AND RESULTS

From 09.2017 to 01.2020, 20 patients (68 ± 8 y, LVEF 37 ± 15%) suffering from refractory VT were enrolled, 16/20 with a history of at least one electrical storm. Before STAR, an invasive electroanatomical mapping (Carto3) of the VT substrate was performed. A mean dose of 23 ± 2 Gy was delivered to the planning target volume (PTV). The median ablation volume was 26 mL (range 14-115) and involved the interventricular septum in 75% of patients. During the first 6 months after STAR, VT burden decreased by 92% (median value, from 108 to 10 VT/semester). After a median follow-up of 25 months, 12/20 (60%) developed a recurrence and underwent a redo ablation. VT recurrence was located in the proximity of the treated substrate in nine cases, remote from the PTV in three cases and involved a larger substrate over ≥3 LV segments in two cases. No recurrences occurred inside the PTV. Voltage measurements showed a significant decrease in both bipolar and unipolar signal amplitude after STAR.

CONCLUSION

STAR is a new tool available for the treatment of VT, allowing for a significant reduction of VT burden. VT recurrences are common during follow-up, but no recurrences were observed inside the PTV. Local efficacy was supported by a significant decrease in both bipolar and unipolar signal amplitude.

Stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation: A novel therapy for cardiac arrhythmia

Cardiac arrhythmia is a global health problem, and catheter ablation has been one of its main treatments for decades. However, catheter ablation is an invasive method that cannot reach the deep myocardium, and it carries a considerable risk of side effects and recurrence. Therefore, it is necessary to explore a novel approach. Stereotactic body radiotherapy, which has been widely used in the field of radiation oncology, has recently expanded in the treatment of cardiac arrhythmia; when used in this context, it is known as stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation (STAR). As a noninvasive, effective, and well-tolerated treatment, STAR may be a suitable alternative method for patients with cardiac arrhythmia who are resistant or intolerant to catheter ablation. The main particles used to deliver energy in STAR are photons, protons, and carbon ions. Most studies have shown the short-term effectiveness of STAR, but problems such as a high long-term recurrence rate with a cumulative ventricular tachycardia-free survival rate from the published literature of 38.6% and related complications have also emerged. Therefore, in this article, we review the application of stereotactic body radiotherapy in cardiac arrhythmia, analyze its potential problems, and explore methods for improvement.

Stereotactic Arrhythmia Radioablation Treatment of Ventricular Tachycardia: Current Technology and Evolving Indications

Ventricular tachycardia in patients with structural heart disease is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. According to current guidelines, cardioverter defibrillator implantation, antiarrhythmic drugs, and catheter ablation are established therapies in the management of ventricular arrhythmias but their efficacy is limited in some cases. Sustained ventricular tachycardia can be terminated by cardioverter-defibrillator therapies although shocks in particular have been demonstrated to increase mortality and worsen patients' quality of life. Antiarrhythmic drugs have important side effects and relatively low efficacy, while catheter ablation, even if it is actually an established treatment, is an invasive procedure with intrinsic procedural risks and is frequently affected by patients' hemodynamic instability. Stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation for ventricular arrhythmias was developed as bail-out therapy in patients unresponsive to traditional treatments. Radiotherapy has been mainly applied in the oncological field, but new current perspectives have developed in the field of ventricular arrhythmias. Stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation provides an alternative non-invasive and painless therapeutic strategy for the treatment of previously detected cardiac arrhythmic substrate by three-dimensional intracardiac mapping or different tools. Since preliminary experiences have been reported, several retrospective studies, registries, and case reports have been published in the literature. Although, for now, stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation is considered an alternative palliative treatment for patients with refractory ventricular tachycardia and no other therapeutic options, this research field is currently extremely promising.

STereotactic Arrhythmia Radioablation (STAR): the Standardized Treatment and Outcome Platform for Stereotactic Therapy Of Re-entrant tachycardia by a Multidisciplinary consortium (STOPSTORM.eu) and review of current patterns of STAR practice in Europe

The EU Horizon 2020 Framework-funded Standardized Treatment and Outcome Platform for Stereotactic Therapy Of Re-entrant tachycardia by a Multidisciplinary (STOPSTORM) consortium has been established as a large research network for investigating STereotactic Arrhythmia Radioablation (STAR) for ventricular tachycardia (VT). The aim is to provide a pooled treatment database to evaluate patterns of practice and outcomes of STAR and finally to harmonize STAR within Europe. The consortium comprises 31 clinical and research institutions. The project is divided into nine work packages (WPs): (i) observational cohort; (ii) standardization and harmonization of target delineation; (iii) harmonized prospective cohort; (iv) quality assurance (QA); (v) analysis and evaluation; (vi, ix) ethics and regulations; and (vii, viii) project coordination and dissemination. To provide a review of current clinical STAR practice in Europe, a comprehensive questionnaire was performed at project start. The STOPSTORM Institutions' experience in VT catheter ablation (83% ≥ 20 ann.) and stereotactic body radiotherapy (59% > 200 ann.) was adequate, and 84 STAR treatments were performed until project launch, while 8/22 centres already recruited VT patients in national clinical trials. The majority currently base their target definition on mapping during VT (96%) and/or pace mapping (75%), reduced voltage areas (63%), or late ventricular potentials (75%) during sinus rhythm. The majority currently apply a single-fraction dose of 25 Gy while planning techniques and dose prescription methods vary greatly. The current clinical STAR practice in the STOPSTORM consortium highlights potential areas of optimization and harmonization for substrate mapping, target delineation, motion management, dosimetry, and QA, which will be addressed in the various WPs.

Cardiac motion and its dosimetric impact during radioablation for refractory ventricular tachycardia

INTRODUCTION

Cardiac radioablation (CR) is a noninvasive treatment option for patients with refractory ventricular tachycardia (VT) during which high doses of radiation, typically 25 Gy, are delivered to myocardial scar. In this study, we investigate motion from cardiac cycle and evaluate the dosimetric impact in a cohort of patients treated with CR.

METHODS

This retrospective study included eight patients treated at our institution who had respiratory-correlated and ECG-gated 4DCT scans acquired within 2 weeks of CR. Deformable image registration was applied between maximum systole (SYS) and diastole (DIAS) CTs to assess cardiac motion. The average respiratory-correlated CT (AVG_resp ) was deformably registered to the average cardiac (AVG_cardiac ), SYS, and DIAS CTs, and contours were propagated using the deformation vector fields (DVFs). Finally, the original treatment plan was recalculated on the deformed AVG_resp CT for dosimetric assessment.

RESULTS

Motion magnitudes were measured as the mean (SD) value over the DVFs within each structure. Displacement during the cardiac cycle for all chambers was 1.4 (0.9) mm medially/laterally (ML), 1.6 (1.0) mm anteriorly/posteriorly (AP), and 3.0 (2.8) mm superiorly/inferiorly (SI). Displacement for the 12 distinct clinical target volumes (CTVs) was 1.7 (1.5) mm ML, 2.4 (1.1) mm AP, and 2.1 (1.5) SI. Displacements between the AVG_resp and AVG_cardiac scans were 4.2 (2.0) mm SI and 5.8 (1.4) mm total. Dose recalculations showed that cardiac motion may impact dosimetry, with dose to 95% of the CTV dropping from 27.0 (1.3) Gy on the AVG_resp to 20.5 (7.1) Gy as estimated on the AVG_cardiac .

CONCLUSIONS

Cardiac CTV motion in this patient cohort is on average below 3 mm, location-dependent, and when not accounted for in treatment planning may impact target coverage. Further study is needed to assess the impact of cardiac motion on clinical outcomes.

Short-term and long-term effects of noninvasive cardiac radioablation for ventricular tachycardia: A single-center case series

Background

Noninvasive cardiac radioablation is reported to be effective and safe for the treatment of ventricular tachycardia (VT).

Objective

This study aimed to analyze the acute and long-term effects of VT radioablation.

Methods

Patients with intractable VT or premature ventricular contraction (PVC)-induced cardiomyopathy were included in this study and treated using a single-fraction 25-Gy dose of cardiac radioablation. To quantitatively analyze the acute response after treatment, continuous electrocardiography monitoring was performed from 24 hours before to 48 hours after irradiation and at the 1-month follow-up. Long-term clinical safety and efficacy were assessed 1-year follow-up.

Results

From 2019 to 2020, 6 patients were treated with radioablation for ischemic VT (n = 3), nonischemic VT (n = 2), or PVC-induced cardiomyopathy (n = 1). In the short-term assessment, the total burden of ventricular beats decreased by 49% within 24 hours after radioablation and further decreased by 70% at 1 month. The VT component decreased earlier and more dramatically than the PVC component (decreased by 91% and 57% at 1 month, respectively). In the long-term assessment, 5 patients showed complete (n = 3) or partial (n = 2) remission of ventricular arrhythmias. One patient showed recurrence at 10 months, which was successfully suppressed with medical treatment. The posttreatment PVC coupling interval was prolonged (+38 ms at 1 month). Ischemic VT burden decreased more markedly than nonischemic VT burden after radioablation.

Conclusion

In this small case series of 6 patients, without a comparison group, cardiac radioablation appeared to decrease the intractable VT burden. A therapeutic effect was apparent within 1-2 days after treatment but was variable by etiology of cardiomyopathy.

Inflammation and fibrosis characterize different stages of myocardial remodeling in patients after stereotactic body radiotherapy of ventricular myocardium for recurrent ventricular tachycardia

We performed a histological and immunohistochemical analysis of myocardia from 3 patients who underwent radiosurgery and died for various reasons 3 months to 9 months after radiotherapy. In Case 1 (death 3 months after radiotherapy) we observed a sharp transition between relatively intact and irradiated regions. In the myolytic foci, only scattered cardiomyocytes were left and the area was infiltrated by immune cells. Using immunohistochemistry we detected numerous inflammatory cells including CD68+/CD11c+ macrophages, CD4+ and CD8+ T-lymphocytes and some scattered CD20+ B-lymphocytes. Mast cells were diminished in contrast to viable myocardium. In Case 2 and Case 3 (death 6 and 9 months after radiotherapy, respectively) we found mostly fibrosis, infiltration by adipose tissue and foci of calcification. Inflammatory infiltrates were less pronounced. Our observations are in accordance with animal experimental studies and confirm a progress from myolysis to fibrosis. In addition, we demonstrate a role of pro-inflammatory macrophages in the earlier stages of myocardial remodeling after stereotactic radioablation for ventricular tachycardia.

Stereotactic Radiotherapy in the Management of Ventricular Tachycardias: More Questions than Answers?

Stereotactic body radiotherapy is a recent promising therapeutic alternative in cases of failed catheter ablation for recurrent ventricular tachycardias (VTs) in patients with structural heart disease. Initial clinical experience with a single radiation dose of 25 Gy shows reasonable efficacy in the reduction of VT recurrences with acceptable acute toxicity. Many unanswered questions remain, including unknown mechanism of action, variable time to effect, optimal method of substrate targeting, long-term safety, and definition of an optimal candidate for this treatment."

Combined clustered scan-based metal artifact reduction algorithm (CCS-MAR) for ultrasound-guided cardiac radioablation

Cardiac radioablation is a promising treatment for cardiac arrhythmias, but accurate dose delivery can be affected by heart motion. For this reason, real-time cardiac motion monitoring during radioablation is of paramount importance. Real-time ultrasound (US) guidance can be a solution. The US-guided cardiac radioablation workflow can be simplified by the simultaneous US and planning computed tomography (CT) acquisition, which can result in US transducer-induced metal artifacts on the planning CT scans. To reduce the impact of these artifacts, a new metal artifact reduction (MAR) algorithm (named: Combined Clustered Scan-based MAR [CCS-MAR]) has been developed and compared with iMAR (Siemens), O-MAR (Philips) and MDT (ReVision Radiology) algorithms. CCS-MAR is a fully automated sinogram inpainting-based MAR algorithm, which uses a two-stage correction process based on a normalized MAR method. The second stage aims to correct errors remaining from the first stage to create an artifact-free combined clustered scan for the process of metal artifact reduction. To evaluate the robustness of CCS-MAR, conventional CT scans and/or dual-energy CT scans from three anthropomorphic phantoms and transducers with different sizes were used. The performance of CCS-MAR for metal artifact reduction was compared with other algorithms through visual comparison, image quality metrics analysis, and HU value restoration evaluation. The results of this study show that CCS-MAR effectively reduced the US transducer-induced metal artifacts and that it improved HU value accuracy more or comparably to other MAR algorithms. These promising results justify future research into US transducer-induced metal artifact reduction for the US-guided cardiac radioablation purposes.

Case report: Stereotactic body radiation therapy with 12 Gy for silencing refractory ventricular tachycardia

BACKGROUND

Encouraging results have been reported for the treatment of ventricular tachycardia (VT) with stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT) with 25 Gy. SBRT with 12 Gy for refractory VT was designed to reduce long-term cardiac toxicity.

METHODS

Stereotactic body radiation therapy-VT simulation, planning, and treatment were performed using standard techniques. A patient was treated with a marginal dose of 12 Gy in a single fraction to the planning target volume (PTV). The goal was for at least ≥ 95% of the PTV to be covered by at least 95% of 12 Gy radiation.

RESULTS

From April 2021 through June 2022, a patient with refractory VT underwent treatment. The volume for PTV was 65.8 cm3. The mean radiation dose administered to the heart (the heart volume excluding the PTV) was 2.2 Gy. No acute or late toxicity was observed after SBRT. Six months after SBRT, the patient experienced new monomorphic right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) VT. Interestingly, the substrate of the left ventricular basal to middle posteroseptal wall before SBRT was turned into scar zones with a local voltage < 0.5 mV. Catheter ablation to treat RVOT VT was performed, and the situation remains stable to date.

CONCLUSION

This study reports the first patient with refractory VT successfully treated with 12.0 Gy SBRT, suggesting that 12 Gy is a potential dose to treat refractory VT. Further investigations and enrollment of more patients are warranted to assess the long-term efficacy and side effects of this treatment.

The Use of Cardiac Stereotactic Radiation Therapy (SBRT) to Manage Ventricular Tachycardia: A Case Report, Review of the Literature and Technical Notes

BACKGROUND

among cardiac arrhythmias, ventricular tachycardia (VT) is one that can lead to cardiac death, although significant progress has been made in its treatment, including the use of implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICD) and radiofrequency catheter ablation. Nevertheless, long-term recurrence rates remain in about half of patients and drastically impact the patient's quality of life. Moreover, recurrent ICD shocks are painful and are associated with higher mortality and worsening of heart failure. Recently, more and more experiences are demonstrating potential efficacy in the use of stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) (also called cardiac radio-ablation) to treat this condition. In this paper, we report our experience in the use of cardiac radio-ablation for the treatment of refractory ventricular tachycardia with a focus on the technique used, along with a review of the literature and technical notes.

CASE PRESENTATION

an 81-year-old male patient with a long history of non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy and mechanical mitral prosthesis underwent a biventricular cardioverter defibrillator implant after atrial ventricular node ablation. At the end of 2021, the number of tachycardias increased significantly to about 10 episodes per day. After failure of medical treatment and conventional RT catheter ablation, the patient was treated with SBRT for a total dose of 25 Gy in a single session at the site of the ectopic focus. No acute toxicity was recorded. After SBRT (follow-up 7 months) no other VT episodes were recorded.

CONCLUSION

SBRT appears to be safe and leads to a rapid reduction in arrhythmic storms as treatment for VT without acute toxicity, representing one of the most promising methods for treating VT storms.

The effect of ionizing radiation through cardiac stereotactic body radiation therapy on myocardial tissue for refractory ventricular arrhythmias: A review

Cardiac stereotactic body radiation therapy (cSBRT) is a non-invasive treatment modality that has been recently reported as an effective treatment for ventricular arrhythmias refractory to medical therapy and catheter ablation. The approach leverages tools developed and refined in radiation oncology, where experience has been accumulated in the treatment of a wide variety of malignant conditions. However, important differences exist between rapidly dividing malignant tumor cells and fully differentiated myocytes in pathologically remodeled ventricular myocardium, which represent the respective radiation targets. Despite its initial success, little is known about the radiobiology of the anti-arrhythmic effect cSBRT. Pre-clinical data indicates a late fibrotic effect of that appears between 3 and 4 months following cSBRT, which may result in conduction slowing and block. However, there is clear clinical evidence of an anti-arrhythmic effect of cSBRT that precedes the appearance of radiation induced fibrosis for which the mechanism is unclear. In addition, the data to date suggests that even the late anti-arrhythmic effect of cSBRT is not fully attributable to radiation.-induced fibrosis. Pre-clinical data has identified upregulation of proteins expected to result in both increased cell-to-cell coupling and excitability in the early post cSBRT period and demonstrated an associated increase in myocardial conduction velocity. These observations indicate a complex response to radiotherapy and highlight the lack of clarity regarding the different stages of the anti-arrhythmic mechanism of cSBRT. It may be speculated that in the future cSBRT therapy could be planned to deliver both early and late radiation effects titrated to optimize the combined anti-arrhythmic efficacy of the treatment. In addition to these outstanding mechanistic questions, the optimal patient selection, radiation modality, radiation dose and treatment planning strategy are currently being investigated. In this review, we consider the structural and functional effect of radiation on myocardium and the possible anti-arrhythmic mechanisms of cSBRT. Review of the published data highlights the exciting prospects for the development of knowledge and understanding in this area in which so many outstanding questions exist.

Stereotactic Radioablation for Ventricular Tachycardia in the Setting of Electrical Storm

BACKGROUND

Stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) has been reported as a safe and efficient therapy for treating refractory ventricular tachycardia (VT) despite optimal medical treatment and catheter ablation. However, data on the use of SBRT in patients with electrical storm (ES) is lacking. The aim of this study was to assess the clinical outcomes associated with SBRT in the context of ES.

METHODS

This retrospective study included patients who underwent SBRT in the context of ES from March 2020 to March 2021 in one tertiary center (CHU Lille). The target volume was delineated according to a predefined workflow. The efficacy was assessed with the following end points: sustained VT recurrence, VT reduced with antitachycardia pacing, and implantable cardioverter defibrillator shock.

RESULTS

Seventeen patients underwent SBRT to treat refractory VT in the context of ES (mean 67±12.8 age, 59% presenting ischemic heart disease, mean left ventricular ejection fraction: 33.7± 9.7%). Five patients presented with ES related to incessant VT. Among these 5 patients, the time to effectiveness ranged from 1 to 7 weeks after SBRT. In the 12 remaining patients, VT recurrences occurred in 7 patients during the first 6 weeks following SBRT. After a median 12.5 (10.5-17.8) months follow-up, a significant reduction of the VT burden was observed beyond 6 weeks (-91% [95% CI, 78-103]), P<0.0001). The incidence of implantable cardioverter defibrillator shock and antitachycardia pacing was 36% at 1 year.

CONCLUSIONS

SBRT is associated with a significant reduction of the VT burden in the event of an ES; however, prospective randomized control trials are needed. In patients without incessant VT, recurrences are observed in half of patients during the first 6 weeks. VT tolerance and implantable cardioverter defibrillator programming adjustments should be integrated as part of an action plan defined before SBRT for each patient.

Safety and Efficacy of Stereotactic Arrhythmia Radioablation for the Treatment of Ventricular Tachycardia: A Systematic Review

Catheter ablation (CA) is a fundamental therapeutic option for the treatment of recurrent ventricular arrhythmias. Notwithstanding the tremendous improvements in the available technology and the increasing amount of evidence in support of CA, in some patients the procedure fails, or is absolutely contraindicated due to technical or clinical issues. In these cases, the clinical management of patients is highly challenging, and mainly involves antiarrhythmic drugs escalation. Over the last 5 years, stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation (STAR) has been introduced into clinical practice, with several small studies reporting favorable arrhythmia-free outcomes, without severe side effects at a short to mid-term follow-up. In the present systematic review, we provide an overview of the available studies on stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation, by describing the potential indications and technical aspects of this promising therapy.

Towards Accurate and Precise Image-Guided Radiotherapy: Clinical Applications of the MR-Linac

Advances in image-guided radiotherapy have brought about improved oncologic outcomes and reduced toxicity. The next generation of image guidance in the form of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) will improve visualization of tumors and make radiation treatment adaptation possible. In this review, we discuss the role that MRI plays in radiotherapy, with a focus on the integration of MRI with the linear accelerator. The MR linear accelerator (MR-Linac) will provide real-time imaging, help assess motion management, and provide online adaptive therapy. Potential advantages and the current state of these MR-Linacs are highlighted, with a discussion of six different clinical scenarios, leading into a discussion on the future role of these machines in clinical workflows.

Stereotactic Radiotherapy: An Alternative Option for Refractory Ventricular Tachycardia to Drug and Ablation Therapy

Refractory ventricular tachycardia (VT) often occurs in the context of organic heart disease. It is associated with significantly high mortality and morbidity rates. Antiarrhythmic drugs and catheter ablation represent the two main treatment options for refractory VT, but their use can be associated with inadequate therapeutic responses and procedure-related complications. Stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) is extensively applied in the precision treatment of solid tumors, with excellent therapeutic responses. Recently, this highly precise technology has been applied for radioablation of VT, and its early results demonstrate a favorable safety profile. This review presents the potential value of SBRT in refractory VT.

Stereotactic Radiotherapy Ablation and Atrial Fibrillation: Technical Issues and Clinical Expectations Derived From a Systematic Review

Aim

The purpose of this study is to collect available evidence on the feasibility and efficacy of stereotactic arrhythmia radio ablation (STAR), including both photon radiotherapy (XRT) and particle beam therapy (PBT), in the treatment of atrial fibrillation (AF), and to provide cardiologists and radiation oncologists with a practical overview on this topic.

Methods

Three hundred and thirty-five articles were identified up to November 2021 according to preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses criteria; preclinical and clinical studies were included without data restrictions or language limitations. Selected works were analyzed for comparing target selection, treatment plan details, and the accelerator employed, addressing workup modalities, acute and long-term side-effects, and efficacy, defined either by the presence of scar or by the absence of AF recurrence.

Results

Twenty-one works published between 2010 and 2021 were included. Seventeen studies concerned XRT, three PBT, and one involved both. Nine studies (1 in silico and 8 in vivo; doses ranging from 15 to 40 Gy) comprised a total of 59 animals, 12 (8 in silico, 4 in vivo; doses ranging from 16 to 50 Gy) focused on humans, with 9 patients undergoing STAR: average follow-up duration was 5 and 6 months, respectively. Data analysis supported efficacy of the treatment in the preclinical setting, whereas in the context of clinical studies the main favorable finding consisted in the detection of electrical scar in 4/4 patients undergoing specific evaluation; the minimum dose for efficacy was 25 Gy in both humans and animals. No acute complication was recorded; severe side-effects related to the long-term were observed only for very high STAR doses in 2 animals. Significant variability was evidenced among studies in the definition of target volume and doses, and in the management of respiratory and cardiac target motion.

Conclusion

STAR is an innovative non-invasive procedure already applied for experimental treatment of ventricular arrhythmias. Particular attention must be paid to safety, rather than efficacy of STAR, given the benign nature of AF. Uncertainties persist, mainly regarding the definition of the treatment plan and the role of the target motion. In this setting, more information about the toxicity profile of this new approach is compulsory before applying STAR to AF in clinical practice.

Stereotactic ablative radiotherapy in patients with refractory ventricular tachyarrhythmia

Stereotactic ablative body radiotherapy (SABR) is an innovative therapeutic approach in patients (pts) with a diagnosis of refractory ventricular tachyarrhythmia (VT) after the use of drugs, radiofrequency catheter ablation, and/or defibrillator (ICD) implant. The current efficacy data of SABR are limited and several prospective clinical studies are ongoing to support the use of ablative radiation dose to control VT. The aim of the current prospective pilot study is to report the efficacy and tolerability of SABR in ICD implanted pts with refractory VT in our centre. Non-invasive electroanatomical mapping (EAM), cardiac computed tomography (CT), and 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission (FDG-PET)-CT scan were used and combined with a radiation CT scan. A dose prescription of 25 Gy in a single dose was delivered by volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) Linac-based. The primary endpoint was efficacy, defined as a reduction in ICD shocks after SABR treatment, while the secondary endpoint was safety. Six consecutive pts (five males and one female) implanted with an ICD and with three or more VT were enrolled. One pts died after 1 month, due to end-stage heart failure. Two pts experienced ICD shocks in VT 2 and 5 months after treatment. Three pts experienced no more ICD shocks on VT after therapy. Our data suggest the efficacy and safety of SABR treatment in pts with VT. Larger dataset of pts and longer follow-up are otherwise required to validate the impact of SABR as a standardized treatment in these pts.

Contemporary Management of Complex Ventricular Arrhythmias

Percutaneous catheter ablation is an effective and safe therapy that can eliminate ventricular tachycardia, reducing the risks of both recurrent arrhythmia and shock therapies from a defibrillator. Successful ablation requires accurate identification of arrhythmic substrate and the effective delivery of energy to the targeted tissue. A thorough pre-procedural assessment is needed before considered 3D electroanatomical mapping can be performed. In contemporary practice, this must combine traditional electrophysiological techniques, such as activation and entrainment mapping, with more novel physiological mapping techniques for which there is an ever-increasing evidence base. Novel techniques to maximise energy delivery to the tissue must also be considered and balanced against their associated risks of complication. This review provides a comprehensive appraisal of contemporary practice and the evidence base that supports recent developments in mapping and ablation, while also considering potential future developments in the field.

Development of Noninvasive Technology of Stereotaxic Radioablation Using Linear Accelerators for the Treatment of Life-Threatening Ventricular Tachycardias in Experiment

We developed a new technique of noninvasive stereotactic radioablation for the treatment of life-threatening tachyrhythmias. The study is performed on pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus). The zones of planned exposure were atrioventricular node (heart loading dose 40 Gy) and the apex of the left ventricle with a part of the interventricular septum (35 Gy) in animal No. 1 and atrioventricular node (45 Gy) and free wall of the left ventricle (40 Gy) in animal No. 2. The study was conducted on the Varian TrueBeam linear accelerator. The planned follow-up duration was 6 months. Delivery of 40 Gy to the atrioventricular node did not lead to persistent electrophysiological effect due to the development of transient third-degree atrioventricular block. The dose of 45 Gy resulted in permanent third-degree atrioventricular block followed by development of ventricular standstill on day 21 of observation. Histological examination confirmed transmurality and high precision of performed intervention.

Non-invasive Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy for Refractory Ventricular Arrhythmias: Venturing into the Unknown

Stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT) is a promising new method for non-invasive management of life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias. Numerous case reports and case series have provided encouraging short-term results suggesting good efficacy and safety, but randomized data and long-term outcomes are not yet available. The primary hypothesis as to the mechanism of action for SBRT relates to the development of cardiac fibrosis in arrhythmogenic myocardial substrate; however, limited animal model data offer conflicting insights into this theory. The use of SBRT for patients with refractory ventricular arrhythmias is rapidly increasing, but ongoing translational science work and randomized clinical trials will be critical to address many outstanding questions regarding this novel therapy.

Report of AAPM Task Group 290: Respiratory motion management for particle therapy

Dose uncertainty induced by respiratory motion remains a major concern for treating thoracic and abdominal lesions using particle beams. This Task Group report reviews the impact of tumor motion and dosimetric considerations in particle radiotherapy, current motion‐management techniques, and limitations for different particle‐beam delivery modes (i.e., passive scattering, uniform scanning, and pencil‐beam scanning). Furthermore, the report provides guidance and risk analysis for quality assurance of the motion‐management procedures to ensure consistency and accuracy, and discusses future development and emerging motion‐management strategies. This report supplements previously published AAPM report TG76, and considers aspects of motion management that are crucial to the accurate and safe delivery of particle‐beam therapy. To that end, this report produces general recommendations for commissioning and facility‐specific dosimetric characterization, motion assessment, treatment planning, active and passive motion‐management techniques, image guidance and related decision‐making, monitoring throughout therapy, and recommendations for vendors. Key among these recommendations are that: (1) facilities should perform thorough planning studies (using retrospective data) and develop standard operating procedures that address all aspects of therapy for any treatment site involving respiratory motion; (2) a risk‐based methodology should be adopted for quality management and ongoing process improvement.

SBRT of ventricular tachycardia using 4pi optimized trajectories

PURPOSE

To investigate the possible advantages of using 4pi-optimized arc trajectories in stereotactic body radiation therapy of ventricular tachycardia (VT-SBRT) to minimize exposure of healthy tissues.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Thorax computed tomography (CT) data for 15 patients were used for contouring organs at risk (OARs) and defining realistic planning target volumes (PTVs). A conventional trajectory plan, defined as two full coplanar arcs was compared to an optimized-trajectory plan provided by a 4pi algorithm that penalizes geometric overlap of PTV and OARs in the beam's-eye-view. A single fraction of 25 Gy was prescribed to the PTV in both plans and a comparison of dose sparing to OARs was performed based on comparisons of maximum, mean, and median dose.

RESULTS

A significant average reduction in maximum dose was observed for esophagus (18%), spinal cord (26%), and trachea (22%) when using 4pi-optimized trajectories. Mean doses were also found to decrease for esophagus (19%), spinal cord (33%), skin (18%), liver (59%), lungs (19%), trachea (43%), aorta (11%), inferior vena cava (25%), superior vena cava (33%), and pulmonary trunk (26%). A median dose reduction was observed for esophagus (40%), spinal cord (48%), skin (36%), liver (72%), lungs (41%), stomach (45%), trachea (53%), aorta (45%), superior vena cava (38%), pulmonary veins (32%), and pulmonary trunk (39%). No significant difference was observed for maximum dose (p = 0.650) and homogeneity index (p = 0.156) for the PTV. Average values of conformity number were 0.86 ± 0.05 and 0.77 ± 0.09 for the conventional and 4pi optimized plans respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

4pi optimized trajectories provided significant reduction to mean and median doses to cardiac structures close to the target but did not decrease maximum dose. Significant improvement in maximum, mean and median doses for noncardiac OARs makes 4pi optimized trajectories a suitable delivery technique for treating VT.

Cardiac radioablation in the treatment of ventricular tachycardia

Cardiac radioablation with SBRT is a very promising non-invasive modality for the treatment of refractory VT and potentially other cardiac arrhythmias. Initial reports indicate that it is relatively safe and associated with excellent responses, particularly in reduction of ICD-related events, need for anti-arrhythmic medications, and resulting in significantly improved quality of life for patients. Establishment of objective criteria for candidates for cardiac radioablation will accelerate the adoption of this important radiation therapy modality in the treatment of refractory VT and other cardiac arrhythmias in the coming years. In addition, in order to develop more prospective safety and efficacy data, treatment of patients should ideally be performed in the context of clinical trials or prospective registries at, or in collaboration with, experienced centers. Taken together, the future of cardiac radioablation is rich and worthy of further investigation to become a standard treatment in the armamentarium against refractory VT.

Stereotactic Arrhythmia Radioablation as a Novel Treatment Approach for Cardiac Arrhythmias: Facts and Limitations

Stereotactic ablative radiotherapy (SABR) is highly focused radiation therapy that targets well-demarcated, limited-volume malignant or benign tumors with high accuracy and precision using image guidance. Stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation (STAR) applies SABR to treat cardiac arrhythmias, including ventricular tachycardia (VT) and atrial fibrillation (AF), and has recently been a focus in research. Clinical studies have demonstrated electrophysiologic conduction blockade and histologic fibrosis after STAR, which provides a proof of principle for its potential for treating arrhythmias. This review will present the basic STAR principles, available clinical study outcomes, and how the technique has evolved since the first pre-clinical study. In addition to the clinical workflow, focus will be given on the process for stereotactic radiotherapy Quality Assurance (QA) tests, as well as the need for establishing a standardized QA protocol. Future implications and potential courses of research will also be discussed.

Cardiac stereotactic ablative radiotherapy for refractory ventricular arrhythmias: A radical alternative? A narrative review of rationale and cardiological aspects

Ventricular arrhythmias are serious life-threatening cardiac disorders. Despite many technological improvements, a non-negligible number of patients present refractory ventricular tachycardias, resistant to a catheter ablation procedure, placing these patients in a therapeutic impasse. Recently, a cardiac stereotactic radioablative technique has been developed to treat patients with refractory ventricular arrhythmias, as a bail out strategy. This new therapeutic option historically brings together two fields of expertise unknown to each other, pointing out the necessity of an optimal partnership between cardiologists and radiation oncologists. As described in this narrative review, the understanding of cardiological aspects of the technique for radiation oncologists and treatment technical aspects comprehension for cardiologists represent a major challenge for the application and the future development of this promising treatment.

Ventricular Arrhythmias in Ischemic Cardiomyopathy-New Avenues for Mechanism-Guided Treatment

Ischemic heart disease is the most common cause of lethal ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death (SCD). In patients who are at high risk after myocardial infarction, implantable cardioverter defibrillators are the most effective treatment to reduce incidence of SCD and ablation therapy can be effective for ventricular arrhythmias with identifiable culprit lesions. Yet, these approaches are not always successful and come with a considerable cost, while pharmacological management is often poor and ineffective, and occasionally proarrhythmic. Advances in mechanistic insights of arrhythmias and technological innovation have led to improved interventional approaches that are being evaluated clinically, yet pharmacological advancement has remained behind. We review the mechanistic basis for current management and provide a perspective for gaining new insights that centre on the complex tissue architecture of the arrhythmogenic infarct and border zone with surviving cardiac myocytes as the source of triggers and central players in re-entry circuits. Identification of the arrhythmia critical sites and characterisation of the molecular signature unique to these sites can open avenues for targeted therapy and reduce off-target effects that have hampered systemic pharmacotherapy. Such advances are in line with precision medicine and a patient-tailored therapy.

Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Atrioventricular Node Ablation in Swine: A Study on Efficacy and Dosimetric Evaluation of Organs at Risk

Introduction Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) delivered to arrhythmogenic foci within the heart is a promising treatment modality. We dosimetrically evaluated the radiation dose to the organs at risk of four swine that were successfully treated with linear-accelerator-based SRS for atrioventricular (AV) node ablation. Materials and methods Single-chamber pacemakers were implanted in four large white breed swine. Cardiac computed tomography simulation scans were performed to localize the AV node and organs at risk. SRS (35-40 Gy) was delivered to the AV node, and the pigs were followed up with pacemaker interrogations. One-sample t-tests were used to evaluate Dmax of great vessels, esophagus, and chest wall as compared to known normal tissue constraints as per RTOG 0631 and AAPM Task Group 101. Results All pigs had disturbances of AV conduction with progressive transition into complete heart block. Macroscopic and microscopic evaluation showed fibrosis in the AV node but did not reveal any changes in non-nodal cardiac tissue or vessels. The mean Dmax±SD (p-value) of the chest wall (14.7±3.3 (0.02)), esophagus (10.7±1.1 (<0.01)) superior vena cava (3.3±4.1 (<0.01)), right pulmonary artery (16.1±6.4 (<0.01)), right pulmonary vein (15.7± 5 (<0.01)), left pulmonary artery (11.1±1.7 (<0.01)) and left pulmonary vein (14.1±2.6 (<0.01)), and the inferior vena cava (33.68±1.6 (0.026)) were significantly below the normal tissue constraint cutoffs. Mean±SD (p-value) of the ascending aorta (19.4±16.1 (0.12)) was not significantly different than normal tissue constraint cutoffs. One swine model treated at 40 Gy had small area of hotspot in the ascending aorta (40.65 (0.4 cc)). Conclusion We have demonstrated in our swine models that SRS using 35-40 Gy can be done without exceeding known human normal tissue constraints to the chest wall, esophagus, and great vessels.

Cardiac stereotactic body radiation therapy for ventricular tachycardia: Current experience and technical gaps

INTRODUCTION

Despite advances in drug and catheter ablation therapy, long-term recurrence rates for ventricular tachycardia remain suboptimal. Cardiac stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) is a novel treatment that has demonstrated reduction of arrhythmia episodes and favorable short-term safety profile in treatment-refractory patients. Nevertheless, the current clinical experience is early and limited. Recent studies have highlighted variable duration of treatment effect and substantial recurrence rates several months postradiation. Contributing to these differential outcomes are disparate approaches groups have taken in planning and delivering radiation, owing to both technical and knowledge gaps limiting optimization and standardization of cardiac SBRT.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

In this report, we review the historical basis for cardiac SBRT and existing clinical data. We then elucidate the current technical gaps in cardiac radioablation, incorporating the current clinical experience, and summarize the ongoing and needed efforts to resolve them.

CONCLUSION

Cardiac SBRT is an emerging therapy that holds promise for the treatment of ventricular tachycardia. Technical gaps remain, to be addressed by ongoing research and growing clincial experience.

Cardiac radiotherapy induces electrical conduction reprogramming in the absence of transmural fibrosis

Cardiac radiotherapy (RT) may be effective in treating heart failure (HF) patients with refractory ventricular tachycardia (VT). The previously proposed mechanism of radiation-induced fibrosis does not explain the rapidity and magnitude with which VT reduction occurs clinically. Here, we demonstrate in hearts from RT patients that radiation does not achieve transmural fibrosis within the timeframe of VT reduction. Electrophysiologic assessment of irradiated murine hearts reveals a persistent supraphysiologic electrical phenotype, mediated by increases in NaV1.5 and Cx43. By sequencing and transgenic approaches, we identify Notch signaling as a mechanistic contributor to NaV1.5 upregulation after RT. Clinically, RT was associated with increased NaV1.5 expression in 1 of 1 explanted heart. On electrocardiogram (ECG), post-RT QRS durations were shortened in 13 of 19 patients and lengthened in 5 patients. Collectively, this study provides evidence for radiation-induced reprogramming of cardiac conduction as a potential treatment strategy for arrhythmia management in VT patients.

Leveraging Radiobiology for Arrhythmia Management: A New Treatment Paradigm?

Radiation therapy is a well-established approach for safely and non-invasively treating solid tumours and benign diseases with high precision and accuracy. Cardiac radiation therapy has recently emerged as a non-invasive treatment option for the management of refractory ventricular tachycardia. Here we summarise existing clinical and preclinical literature surrounding cardiac radiobiology and discuss how these studies may inform basic and translational research, as well as clinical treatment paradigms in the management of arrhythmias.

Proof-of-concept for x-ray based real-time image guidance during cardiac radioablation

Cardiac radioablation offers non-invasive treatments for refractory arrhythmias. However, treatment delivery for this technique remains challenging. In this paper, we introduce the first method for real-time image guidance during cardiac radioablation for refractory atrial fibrillation on a standard linear accelerator. Our proposed method utilizes direct diaphragm tracking on intrafraction images to estimate the respiratory component of cardiac substructure motion. We compare this method to treatment scenarios without real-time image guidance using the 4D-XCAT digital phantom. Pre-treatment and intrafraction imaging was simulated for 8 phantoms with unique anatomies programmed using cardiorespiratory motion from healthy volunteers. As every voxel in the 4D-XCAT phantom is labelled precisely according to the corresponding anatomical structure, this provided ground-truth for quantitative evaluation. Tracking performance was compared to the ground-truth for simulations with and without real-time image guidance using the left atrium as an exemplar target. Differences in target volume size, mean volumetric coverage, minimum volumetric coverage and geometric error were recorded for each simulation. We observed that differences in target volume size were statistically significant (p < 0.001) across treatment scenarios and that real-time image guidance enabled reductions in target volume size ranging from 11% to 24%. Differences in mean and minimum volumetric coverage were statistically insignificant (bothp = 0.35) while differences in geometric error were statistically significant (p = 0.039). The results of this study provide proof-of-concept for x-ray based real-time image guidance during cardiac radioablation.

Substrate Modification Using Stereotactic Radioablation to Treat Refractory Ventricular Tachycardia in Patients With Ischemic Cardiomyopathy

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to determine the feasibility of using radioablation for arrhythmogenic a substrate modification.

BACKGROUND

Stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT) is a promising therapy for ventricular tachycardia (VT) refractory to catheter ablation.

METHODS

A total of 6 male patients (median age 72 years) with ischemic cardiomyopathy (left ventricular ejection fraction 20% [interquartile range (IQR): 16%-25%]) and VT refractory to antiarrhythmic medications and catheter ablations underwent SBRT to extensive scar substrate. In addition to electroanatomical mapping, 5 of 6 patients had computed tomography segmentation using MUSIC (Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire l'Institut de Rythmologie et Modélisation Cardiaque, Bordeaux, France). Regions of wall thinning <5 mm, calcification, and intramyocardial fat were targeted for radioablation at 25 Gy.

RESULTS

The median planning target volume was 319 (IQR: 280-330) mL. Device-treated or sustained VT episodes were not significantly reduced by radioablation (median 42 [IQR: 19-269] to 29 [IQR: 0-81]; P = 0.438). However, a reduction in device shocks was observed from 12 (IQR: 3-19) to 0 (IQR: 0-1) (P = 0.046). Over a follow-up period of 231 (IQR: 212-311) days, 3 patients died of end-stage heart failure and 3 of 6 patients had possible adverse events (heart failure exacerbation, pneumonia, and an asymptomatic pericardial effusion).

CONCLUSIONS

Substrate modification using SBRT assisted by computed tomography segmentation is feasible for treatment of VT in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy. Although a significant reduction in device shocks was observed, suboptimal VT burden reduction and significant mortality rate in this cohort of patients with advanced cardiomyopathy underscore the need to improve mechanistic understanding for antiarrhythmic effects to guide dosing and targeting of scar substrates.

The Rapidly-Developing Area of Radiocardiology: Principles, Complications and Applications of Radiotherapy on the Heart

Ventricular arrhythmias are the leading cause of sudden cardiac death. Current treatment strategies for VT, including antiarrhythmic drugs and catheter ablation, have limited efficacy in patients with structural heart disease. Non-invasive ablation with the use of externally applied radiation (cardiac radio-ablation) has emerged as a promising and novel approach to treating recurrent VTs. However, the heart is generally an "organ at risk" for radiation treatments, such that very little is known on the effects of radiotherapy on cardiac ultrastructure and electrophysiological properties. Furthermore, there has been limited interaction between the fields of cardiology and radiation oncology and physics. The advent of cardiac radio-ablation will undoubtedly increase interactions between cardiologists, cardiac electrophysiologists, radiation oncologists and physicists There is an important knowledge gap separating these specialties while scientific developments, technical optimization and improvements are dependent on intense multidisciplinary collaboration. This manuscript seeks to review the basic of radiation physics and biology for cardiovascular specialists in an effort to facilitate constructive scientific and clinical collaborations to improve patient outcomes.

Feasibility study on stereotactic radiotherapy for total pulmonary vein isolation in a canine model

We tested the feasibility of pulmonary vein (PV) and left atrial (LA) posterior wall isolation using non-invasive stereotactic ablative body radiotherapy (SABR) and investigated pathological changes in irradiated lesions in a canine model. Seven male Mongrel dogs received single-fraction 33 Gy SABR. We designed the en-bloc circular target of total PVs and LA posterior wall to avoid the esophagus. The circular box lesion included the LA roof and ridge, low posterior wall, and posterior interatrial septum. At 6 weeks or 4 months post-SABR, electrical isolation of the SABR lesion was confirmed using LA posterior wall pacing, and histopathological review was performed. Electrical isolation of all PVs and the LA posterior wall was achieved in three of five dogs in the 4-month group. There was one target failure and one sudden death at 15 weeks. Although two dogs in the 6-week group failed to achieve electrical lesion isolation, the irradiated atrial myocardium showed diffuse hemorrhage with inflammatory cell infiltration. In successfully isolated 4-month model dogs, we observed transmural fibrotic scarring with extensive fibrosis on irradiated atrial tissue. The findings suggest that this novel circular box-design radiotherapy technique using SABR could be applied to humans after further studies are conducted to confirm safety.

Non-invasive ablation of arrhythmias with stereotactic ablative radiotherapy

Stereotactic ablative radiotherapy (SABR), or stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT), has recently been applied in the field of arrhythmia management. It has been most widely assessed in the treatment of ventricular tachycardia (VT) but may also have potential in the treatment of other arrhythmias as well, often termed stereotactic arrhythmia radiotherapy (STAR). The non-invasive delivery of treatment for VT has the potential to spare an often physiologically vulnerable group of patients the burden of long catheter ablation procedures with the potential for prolonged periods of hemodynamic instability. Cardiac SABR also has the capacity to direct ablative therapy at substrate that is inaccessible using current transchatheter techniques. For these reasons cardiac SABR has generated significant enthusiasm as an emerging treatment modality for VT. We consider in review the pre-clinical data pertaining to the use of SABR in cardiac tissue and recent clinical evidence regarding the application of SABR in the field of arrhythmia management.

Dosimetric feasibility of stereotactic ablative radiotherapy in pulmonary vein isolation for atrial fibrillation using intensity-modulated proton therapy

Purpose

To evaluate dosimetric properties of intensity‐modulated proton therapy (IMPT) for simulated treatment planning in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF) targeting left atrial‐pulmonary vein junction (LA‐PVJ), in comparison with volumetric‐modulated arc therapy (VMAT) and helical tomotherapy (TOMO).

Methods

Ten thoracic 4D‐CT scans with respiratory motion and one with cardiac motion were used for the study. Ten respiratory 4D‐CTs were planned with VMAT, TOMO, and IMPT for simulated AF. Targets at the LA‐PVJ were defined as wide‐area circumferential ablation line. A single fraction of 25 Gy was prescribed to all plans. The interplay effects from cardiac motion were evaluated based on the cardiac 4D‐CT scan. Dose‐volume histograms (DVHs) of the ITV and normal tissues were compared. Statistical analysis was evaluated via one‐way Repeated‐Measures ANOVA and Friedman’s test with Bonferroni’s multiple comparisons test.

Results

The median volume of ITV was 8.72cc. All plans had adequate target coverage (V_23.75Gy ≥ 99%). Compared with VMAT and TOMO, IMPT resulted in significantly lower dose of most normal tissues. For VMAT, TOMO, and IMPT plans, D_mean of the whole heart was 5.52 ± 0.90 Gy, 5.89 ± 0.78 Gy, and 3.01 ± 0.57 Gy (P < 0.001), mean dose of pericardium was 4.74 ± 0.76 Gy, 4.98 ± 0.62 Gy, and 2.59 ± 0.44 Gy (P < 0.001), and D_0.03cc of left circumflex artery (LCX) was 13.96 ± 5.45 Gy, 14.34 ± 5.91 Gy, and 8.43 ± 7.24 Gy (P < 0.001), respectively. However, no significant advantage for one technique over the others was observed when examining the D_0.03cc of esophagus and main bronchi.

Conclusions

IMPT targeting LA‐PVJ for patients with AF has high potential to reduce dose to surrounding tissues compared to VMAT or TOMO. Motion mitigation techniques are critical for a particle‐therapy approach.

Clinical Evidence behind Stereotactic Radiotherapy for the Treatment of Ventricular Tachycardia (STAR)-A Comprehensive Review

The electrophysiology-guided noninvasive cardiac radioablation, also known as STAR (stereotactic arrhythmia radioablation) is an emerging treatment method for persistent ventricular tachycardia. Since its first application in 2012 in Stanford Cancer Institute, and a year later in University Hospital Ostrava, Czech Republic, the authors from all around the world have published case reports and case series, and several prospective trials were established. In this article, we would like to discuss the available clinical evidence, analyze the potentially clinically relevant differences in methodology, and address some of the unique challenges that come with this treatment method.