Effect of cold plasma treatment on the antigenicity of peanut allergen Ara h 1

Cold Plasma Treatment of Little Millet Flour: Impact on Bioactives, Antinutritional Factors and Functional Properties

This study delves into the transformative effects of atmospheric cold plasma (CP) treatment on little millet flour (LMF), specifically exploring alterations in bioactive compounds, antinutritional factors, and functional properties. Foaming and emulsification properties experienced noteworthy enhancements with plasma treatment, manifesting in significant increases in foaming capacity (up to 51.47 ± 0.49%), foaming stability, emulsification ability, and emulsion stability (up to 47.02 ± 0.35%). The treatment also positively influenced water absorption index and swelling power. Antinutritional factors, including tannins and saponins, exhibited substantial reductions following plasma treatment. Saponin content, for instance, decreased by an impressive 58% after exposure to 20 kV for 20 min. Conversely, bioactive compounds such as phenolic content and antioxidant activity saw significant increases. Total phenolic content (TPC) rose from 527.54 ± 8.94 to 575.82 ± 3.58 mg GAE/100 g, accompanied by a remarkable 59% boost in antioxidant activity. Interestingly, plasma treatment did not exhibit a discernible effect on pasting properties. These findings collectively underscore the potential of atmospheric CP treatment as a novel and effective method for enhancing the functional and nutritional attributes of LMF, thereby opening new avenues for its application in food science and technology.

Atmospheric cold plasma reduces Ara h 1 antigenicity in roasted peanuts by altering the protein structure and amino acid profile

Ara h 1 is the major allergen in peanuts. To enhance the unique flavor, peanuts are usually roasted at high temperatures. However, roasting can increase the allergenic potential, owing to glycation of allergens. Atmospheric cold plasma (ACP) is a non-thermal processing technology that generates reactive species, enabling protein structural changes. Herein, glucose was also added to the ACP-treated peanut protein before roasting. The content and antigenicity of the advanced glycation end products were measured. The antigenicity was evaluated by ELISA and in vitro digestion assays. The amino acid profile and secondary and tertiary protein structures were also assessed. The antigenicity of Ara h 1 decreased by 91 % and 76 % after 30 min of air and nitrogen plasma treatment, respectively. The glycation degree and thermal and digestive stabilities were also reduced. These results correlated with the structural changes, denaturation, and aggregation. Therefore, cold plasma may reduce the allergic effects of peanuts.

Insights into Cold Plasma Treatment on the Cereal and Legume Proteins Modification: Principle, Mechanism, and Application

Cereal and legume proteins, pivotal for human health, significantly influence the quality and stability of processed foods. Despite their importance, the inherent limited functional properties of these natural proteins constrain their utility across various sectors, including the food, packaging, and pharmaceutical industries. Enhancing functional attributes of cereal and legume proteins through scientific and technological interventions is essential to broadening their application. Cold plasma (CP) technology, characterized by its non-toxic, non-thermal nature, presents numerous benefits such as low operational temperatures, lack of external chemical reagents, and cost-effectiveness. It holds the promise of improving proteins' functionality while maximally retaining their nutritional content. This review delves into the pros and cons of different cold plasma generation techniques, elucidates the underlying mechanisms of protein modification via CP, and thoroughly examines research on the application of cold plasma in augmenting the functional properties of proteins. The aim is to furnish theoretical foundations for leveraging CP technology in the modification of cereal and legume proteins, thereby enhancing their practical applicability in diverse industries.

Cold plasma application to fresh green leafy vegetables: Impact on microbiology and product quality

Fresh green leafy vegetables (FGLVs) are consumed either garden-fresh or by going through very few simple processing steps. For this reason, foodborne diseases that come with the consumption of fresh products in many countries have prioritized the development of new and reliable technologies to reduce food-related epidemics. Cold plasma (CP) is considered one of the sustainable and green processing approaches that inactivate target microorganisms without causing a significant temperature increase during processing. This review presents an overview of recent developments regarding the commercialization potential of CP-treated FGLVs, focusing on specific areas such as microbial inactivation and the influence of CP on product quality. The effect of CP differs according to the power of the plasma, frequency, gas flow rate, application time, ionizing gases composition, the distance between the electrodes and pressure, as well as the characteristics of the product. As well as microbial decontamination, CP offers significant potential for increasing the shelf life of perishable and short-shelf-life products. In addition, organizations actively involved in CP research and development and patent applications (2016-2022) have also been analyzed.

Efficacy of cold plasma technology on the constituents of plant-based food products: Principles, current applications, and future potentials

Cold plasma (CP) is one of the novel non-thermal food processing technologies, which has the potential to extend the shelf-life of plant-based food products without adversely affecting the nutritional value and sensory characteristics. Besides microbial inactivation, this technology has been explored for food functionality, pesticide control, and allergen removals. Cold plasma technology presents positive results in applications related to food processing at a laboratory scale. This review discusses applications of CP technology and its effect on the constituents of plant-based food products including proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and polar and non-polar secondary plant metabolites. As proven by the publications in the food field, the influence of CP on the food constituents and sensory quality of various food materials are mainly based on CP-related factors such as processing time, voltage level, power, frequency, type of gas, gas flow rate as well as the amount of sample, type, and content of food constituents. In addition to these, changes in the secondary plant metabolites depend on the action of CP on both cell membrane breakdown and increase/decrease in the scavenging compounds. This technology offers a good alternative to conventional methods by inactivating enzymes and increasing antioxidant levels. With a waterless and chemical-free property, this sustainable and energy-efficient technology presents several advantages in food applications. However, scaling up CP by ensuring uniform plasma treatment is a major challenge. Further investigation is required to provide information regarding the toxicity of plasma-treated food products.

Enhanced properties of non-starch polysaccharide and protein hydrocolloids through plasma treatment: A review

Hydrocolloids are important ingredients in food formulations and their modification can lead to novel ingredients with unique functionalities beyond their nutritional value. Cold plasma is a promising technology for the modification of food biopolymers due to its non-toxic and eco-friendly nature. This review discusses the recent published studies on the effects of cold plasma treatment on non-starch hydrocolloids and their derivatives. It covers the common phenomena that occur during plasma treatment, including ionization, etching effect, surface modification, and ashing effect, and how they contribute to various changes in food biopolymers. The effects of plasma treatment on important properties such as color, crystallinity, chemical structure, rheological behavior, and thermal properties of non-starch hydrocolloids and their derivatives are also discussed. In addition, this review highlights the potential of cold plasma treatment to enhance the functionality of food biopolymers and improve the quality of food products. The mechanisms underlying the effects of plasma treatment on food biopolymers, which can be useful for future research in this area, are also discussed. Overall, this review paper presents a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge in the field of cold plasma treatment of non-starch hydrocolloids and their derivatives and highlights the areas that require further investigation.

New Perspectives on Food Matrix Modulation of Food Allergies: Immunomodulation and Component Interactions

Food allergy is a multifactorial interplay process influenced not only by the structure and function of the allergen itself but also by other components of the food matrix. For food, before it is thoroughly digested and absorbed, numerous factors make the food matrix constantly change. This will also lead to changes in the chemistry, biochemical composition, and structure of the various components in the matrix, resulting in multifaceted effects on food allergies. In this review, we reveal the relationship between the food matrix and food allergies and outline the immune role of the components in the food matrix, while highlighting the ways and pathways in which the components in the food matrix interact and their impact on food allergies. The in-depth study of the food matrix will essentially explore the mechanism of food allergies and bring about new ideas and breakthroughs for the prevention and treatment of food allergies.

A comprehensive review on infant formula: nutritional and functional constituents, recent trends in processing and its impact on infants' gut microbiota

Human milk is considered the most valuable form of nutrition for infants for their growth, development and function. So far, there are still some cases where feeding human milk is not feasible. As a result, the market for infant formula is widely increasing, and formula feeding become an alternative or substitute for breastfeeding. The nutritional value of the formula can be improved by adding functional bioactive compounds like probiotics, prebiotics, human milk oligosaccharides, vitamins, minerals, taurine, inositol, osteopontin, lactoferrin, gangliosides, carnitine etc. For processing of infant formula, diverse thermal and non-thermal technologies have been employed. Infant formula can be either in powdered form, which requires reconstitution with water or in ready-to-feed liquid form, among which powder form is readily available, shelf-stable and vastly marketed. Infants' gut microbiota is a complex ecosystem and the nutrient composition of infant formula is recognized to have a lasting effect on it. Likewise, the gut microbiota establishment closely parallels with host immune development and growth. Therefore, it must be contemplated as an important factor for consideration while developing formulas. In this review, we have focused on the formulation and manufacturing of safe and nutritious infant formula equivalent to human milk or aligning with the infant's needs and its ultimate impact on infants' gut microbiota.

Effects of dielectric barrier discharge cold plasma on structure, surface hydrophobicity and allergenic properties of shrimp tropomyosin

Effects of dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) cold plasma (CP) on structure, surface hydrophobicity and allergenic properties of tropomyosin (TM) in shrimp were investigated in this study. Results showed that the molecular weight of TM increased and the protein concentration decreased with CP treatment time increased. The content of free amino acids was increased by 74.7 % and the distribution of aromatic amino acids was altered. The content of α-helix was decreased by 69 % and the surface hydrophobicity increased by 57.8 % after 20 min treatment. Allergenicity analysis showed that the IgE binding capacity decreased by 96 % after 20 min treatment, and the degranulation indexes of KU812 cells like the β-HEX release rate, the intracellular calcium ion intensity, the release of histamine and inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, TNF-α) were decreased by 32.5 %, 31.0 %, 37.3 %, 51.7 %, and 70.2 %, respectively. The current study confirmed that DBD CP could reduce the TM allergenicity through structural changes.

Effect of atmospheric pin-to-plate cold plasma on oat protein: Structural, chemical, and foaming characteristics

The impact of novel pin-to-plate atmospheric cold plasma was investigated with input voltage (170 V, 230 V) and exposure time (15 & 30 min) on oat protein by studying structural (FTIR, circular dichroism (CD), UV-vis, Fluorescence), morphological (particle size analysis, SEM, turbidity), chemical (pH, redox potential (ORP), ζ potential, carbonyl, sulfhydryl, surface hydrophobicity), and foaming characteristics. The plasma treatment reduced the pH while increasing the ORP of the dispersions. These ionic environment changes affected the ζ potential and particle size leading to the formation of larger aggregates (170-15; 230-15) and distorted smaller ones (170-30; 230-30) as confirmed by SEM. The FTIR spectra showed reduced intensity at specific amide bands (1600-1700 cm^-1) and also an increase in carbonyl stretching (1743 cm^-1) representing oxidative carbonylation (increase in carbonyl content). Thus, the partial exposure of hydrophobic amino acids increases surface hydrophobicity. The altered secondary structure (rise in α-helix, decrement in β-sheets and turns), and tertiary structures were observed in circular dichroism (CD) and UV absorbance and fluorescence characteristics of proteins respectively. Furthermore, the increase in free sulfhydryl content and disulfide content was highly affected by the plasma treatments due to observed protein unfolding and aggregations. Besides, the increased solubility and reduced surface tension contributed to the improved foaming characteristics. Thus, plasma processing influences protein structure affecting their characteristics and other functionalities.

Structural and Functional Changes in Soybean Protein via Remote Plasma Treatments

To the best of our knowledge, few studies have utilized cold plasma to improve soybean protein extraction yield and the functional properties of soybean protein. In this study, we aimed to assess the benefits of remote plasma treatments on soybean with respect to the utilization of soybean protein. This study involved two different sample forms (whole and crushed beans), two different plasma chemistry modes (ozone and nitrogen oxides [NO_x = NO + NO₂]), and a novel pressure-swing reactor. Crushed soybeans were significantly affected by NO_x-mode plasma treatment. Crushed soybeans treated with NO_x-mode plasma had the best outcomes, wherein the protein extraction yield increased from 31.64% in the control to 37.90% after plasma treatment. The water binding capacity (205.50%) and oil absorption capacity (267.67%) of plasma-treated soybeans increased to 190.88% and 246.23 % of the control, respectively. The emulsifying activity and emulsion stability slightly increased compared to those of the control. The secondary structure and surface hydrophobicity were altered. The remote plasma treatment of crushed soybeans increased soybean protein extraction yield compared to plasma-treated whole beans as well as untreated beans and altered the structural and physicochemical properties of soybean proteins.

Insight into the IgE-binding sites of allergenic peptides of tropomyosin in shrimp (Penaeus chinensis) induced by cold plasma active particles

Tropomyosin (TM) is a major allergen in crustaceans, and its allergenicity mainly depends on epitopes. In this study, the locations of IgE-binding sites between plasma active particles and allergenic peptides of TM in shrimp (Penaeus chinensis) during cold plasma (CP) treatment were explored. Results showed that the IgE-binding ability of two critical peptides (P1 and P2) increased and then decreased by 9.97 % and 19.50 % after 15 min of CP treatment. It was the first time to show that the contribution rate of target active particles was •O > e_(aq)^- > •OH for reducing IgE-binding ability by 23.51 %-45.40 %, and the contribution rates of other long-lived particles including NO₃^- and NO₂^- was about 54.60 %-76.49 %. In addition, Glu131 and Arg133 in P1 and Arg255 in P2 were certified as the IgE sites. These results were helpful for accurately controlling TM allergenicity, shedding more light on allergenicity mitigation during food processing.

Mitigating the allergenicity of peanut allergen Ara h 1 by cold atmospheric pressure argon plasma jet

BACKGROUND

Peanut allergy is recognized as a major food allergy that triggers severe and even fatal symptoms. Avoidance of peanuts in the diet is the main option for current safety management. Processing techniques reducing peanut allergenicity are required to develop other options. Cold plasma is currently considered as a novel non-thermal approach to alter protein structure and has the potential to alleviate immunoreactivity of protein allergen.

RESULTS

The application of a cold argon plasma jet to peanut protein extract could reduce the amount of a 64 kDa protein band corresponding to a major peanut allergen Ara h 1 using sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, but the overall protein size distribution did not change significantly. A decrease in peanut protein solubility was a possible cause that led to the loss of protein content in the soluble fraction. Immunoblotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay elucidated that the immunoreactivity of Ara h 1 was significantly decreased with the time treated with plasma. Ara h 1 antigenicity reduced by 38% after five scans (approximately 3 min) of cold argon plasma jet treatment, and the reduction was up to 66% after approximately 15 min of treatment.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that cold argon plasma jet treatment could be a suitable platform for alleviating the immunoreactivity of peanut protein. This work demonstrates an efficient, compact, and rapid platform for mitigating the allergenicity of peanuts, and shows great potential for the plasma platform as a non-thermal technique in the food industry. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Changing the IgE Binding Capacity of Tropomyosin in Shrimp through Structural Modification Induced by Cold Plasma and Glycation Treatment

Tropomyosin (TM) is the major allergen of shrimp (Penaeus chinensis). Previous studies showed that separate cold plasma or glycation have their drawback in reducing allergenicity of TM, including effectiveness and reliability. In the current study, a new processing combining cold plasma (CP) and glycation was proposed and its effect on changing IgE binding capacity of TM from shrimp was investigated. Obtained results showed the IgE binding capacity of TM was reduced by up to 40% after CP (dielectric barrier discharge, 60 kV, 1.0 A) combined with glycation treatment (4 h, 80 °C), compared with the less than 5% reduction after single CP or glycation treatment. Notably, in contrast to the general way of CP prompting glycation, this study devised a new mode of glycation with ribose after CP pretreatment. The structural changes of TM were explored to explain the decreased IgE binding reactivity. The results of multi-spectroscopies showed that the secondary and tertiary structures of TM were further destroyed after combined treatment, including the transformation of 50% α-helix to β-sheet and random coils, the modification and exposure of aromatic amino acids, and the increase of surface hydrophobicity. The morphology analysis using atomic force microscope revealed that the combined processing made the distribution of TM particles tend to disperse circularly, while it would aggregate after either processing treatment alone. These findings confirmed the unfolding and reaggregation of TM during combined processing treatment, which may result in the remarkable reduction of IgE binding ability. Therefore, the processing of CP pretreatment combined with glycation has the potential to reduce or even eliminate the allergenicity of seafood.

Evaluating the influence of cold plasma bubbling on protein structure and allergenicity in sesame milk

BACKGROUND

Sesame is a traditional oilseed comprising essential amino acids. However, the presence of allergens in sesame is a significant problem in its consumption; thus, this study attempted to reduce these allergens in sesame oilseeds.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of cold plasma processing on structural changes in proteins, and thereby the alteration of allergenicity in sesame milk. Method: Sesame milk (300 mL) was processed using atmospheric pressure plasma bubbling unit (dielectric barrier discharge, power: 200 V, and airflow rate: 16.6 mL/min) at different exposure times (10, 20, and 30 min).

RESULTS

The efficiency of plasma-bubbling unit as measured by electron paramagnetic resonance in terms of producing reactive hydroxyl (OH) radicals proved that generation of reactive species increased with exposure time. Further, the plasma-processed sesame milk subjected to sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and differential scanning calorimetery analysis revealed that plasma bubbling increased the oxidation of proteins with respect to bubbling time. The structural analysis by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and circular dichroism revealed that the secondary structure of proteins was altered after plasma application. This change in the protein structure helped in changing the immunoglobulin E (IgE)-binding epitopes of the protein, which in turn reduced the allergen-binding capacity by 23% at 20-min plasma bubbling as determined by the sandwich-type enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. However, 30-min plasma bubbling intended to increase allergenicity, possibly because of increase in IgE binding due to the generation of neo epitopes.

CONCLUSION

These changes proved that plasma bubbling is a promising technology in oxidizing protein structure, and thereby reducing the allergenicity of sesame milk. However, increase in binding at 30-min bubbling is to be studied to facilitate further reduction of the binding capacity of IgE antibodies.

Atmosferic pressure non-thermal plasma: Preliminary investigation

Antibacterial activity of atmosferic pressure non-thermal plasma (APNTP) was assessed for bacterial, yeast and mold strains. This investigation is to be considered preliminary: a second step is envisaged in which the efficacy of the technique and the device will be assessed directly on food of animal and plant origin. The strains (ATCC or wild type) of Listeria innocua, Escherichia coli, Salmonella thyphimurium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Proteus mirabilis (bacteria); Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus flavus, Cladosporium herbarum, Fusarium graminearum, Geotrichum candidum, Penicillium roqueforti, Rhizopus nigricans (moulds); Candida parapsilosis and Candida albicans (yeasts) were subjected to plasma plume generated by the action of electric fields with a gas mixture (oxygen and helium) delivered for 5 min at a distance of 2 cm. Types of experiments were listed as following: microorganism at concentration 1×10^8 and 1×10⁴ cfu on PCA (Plate Count Agar); Listeria innocua and Salmonella thiphymurium at concentration 1×10^4 cfu on semi-synthetic and synthetic medium; mycetes (moulds and yeasts) at concentration 1×10^8 and 1×10^4 cfu on SDA (Sabouraud Dextrose Agar). The results obtained on the bacteria subjected to atmospheric cold plasma were evident on all the strains tested except for Proteus mirabilis (1×10^8 cfu), most evident at a concentration of 1×10^4 cfu, not only on culture media PCA but also on semi-synthetic medium and jelly meat-PCA medium. In spite of bacterial results, treatment with plasma plume did not decrease or inhibit of fungal growth. That means plasma plume was neither fungicidal nor fungistatic activities.

Food preservation by cold plasma from dielectric barrier discharges in agri-food industries

BACKGROUND

Cold plasma (CP) can be defined as partially or wholly ionized gas carrying myriads of highly reactive products, such as electrons, negative ions, positive ions, free radicals, excited or non-excited atoms, and photons at ambient temperature. It is generated at 30-60°C under atmospheric or reduced pressure (vacuum). In contrast to thermal plasma, it requires less power, exhibits electron temperatures much higher than the corresponding gas (macroscopic temperature), and does not present a local thermodynamic equilibrium. Dielectric barrier discharges (DBD) are one of the most convenient and efficient methods to produce CP.

SCOPE AND APPROACH

Cold plasma technology has the potential to replace traditional agri-food processing purification methods because of its low energy requirements and flexible system design. CP technology works by reducing bacteria levels and removing pests and mycotoxins from your produce at harvest. It can also catalyze physiological and biochemical reactions and modify materials. It can meet microbial food safety standards, improve the physical, nutritional, and sensory characteristics of the products, preserve unstable bioactive compounds, and modulate enzyme activities. This manuscript also discusses the quality characteristics of food components before/after CP treatment.

KEY FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION

In the past decade, CP treatments of food products have experienced increased popularity due to their potential contributions to non-thermal food processing. There is no doubt that CP treatment is a flexible approach with demonstrated efficacy for controlling many risks across food and agricultural sustainability sectors. In addition, CP technologies also can be applied in food-related areas, including modification of chemical structures and desensitization treatments. There is a need to fully assess the benefits and risks of stand-alone CP unit processes or their integration as a processing chain as soon as the economic, ecological, and consumer benefits and acceptability are considered.

Effects of non-thermal atmospheric plasma on protein

Currently, the advancement in non-thermal atmospheric plasma technology enables plasma treatments on some heat-sensitive targets, including biological substances, without unspecific damage caused by thermal effect. The significant effects of non-thermal atmospheric plasma modulating biological events have been demonstrated by considerable studies. Protein, one of the most important biomolecules, participates in the majority of the life-sustaining activities in all organisms, whose functions are derived from the diverse biochemical properties of amino acid compositions and four-tiered protein structure hierarchy. Therefore, the knowledge of how non-thermal atmospheric plasma affects protein greatly benefits the understanding and application of the non-thermal atmospheric plasma's effect in biological area. In this review, we summarize recent research progress on the effects of non-thermal atmospheric plasma, particularly its reactive species, on biochemical and biophysical characteristics of proteins at different structural levels that leads to their functional changes. Moreover, the physiological effects of non-thermal atmospheric plasma at cellular or organism level driven by the manipulations on protein and their relative application prospects are reviewed. Despite the exceptional application potential, the exploration of the non-thermal atmospheric plasma's effect on protein still confronts with difficulties due to the limited knowledge of the underlying mechanisms and the complexity of non-thermal atmospheric plasma operation systems, which requires further studies and standardization of non-thermal atmospheric plasma treatments.

Comprehensive Review on Banana Fruit Allergy: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, Management, and Potential Modification of Allergens through Food Processing

The pulp of the banana fruit is rich in bioactive compounds like dietary fibers, low glycemic carbohydrates, natural sugars, vitamins, minerals and antioxidants. These beneficial compounds are responsible for the proper functioning of immune system and enhance prevention against various deadly diseases like cancer, diabetes and heart diseases. Despite having, positive effects, the fruit are recognized as an important source for causing allergy to 0.6% of people in general population and up to 67 and 46% for people with asthma or atopic dermatitis. Fruit allergy is one of the most common food allergies witnessed worldwide. Banana fruit allergy results from the abnormal immune response to the banana proteins soon after its consumption. Symptoms range from oral allergy syndrome (OAS) to the life-threatening anaphylaxis. IgE reactivity of banana is associated with different proteins of which six proteins have been identified as major allergens, viz., Mus a1 (Profilin-actin binding protein), Mus a 2 (Class 1 chitinase), Mus a 3 (Nonspecific lipid transfer protein), Mus a 4 (Thaumatin like protein), Mus a 5 (Beta 1,3 glucanase) and Mus a 6 (Ascorbate peroxidase). This review focuses on pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnosis, and different food processing methods to mitigate the allergenicity of banana fruit.

Impacts of cold plasma treatment on physicochemical, functional, bioactive, textural, and sensory attributes of food: A comprehensive review

Cold plasma processing is a technique that uses electricity and reactive carrier gases, such as oxygen, nitrogen, or helium, to inactivate enzymes, destroy microorganisms, preserve food, and maintain quality without employing chemical antimicrobial agents.The review collates the latest information on the interaction mechanism and impact of non-thermal plasma, as an emerging processing technology, on selected physical properties, low-molecular-weight functional components, and bioactive properties of food. Significant changes observed in the physicochemical and functional properties. For example, changes in pH, total soluble solids, water and oil absorption capacities, sensory properties such as color, aroma, and texture, bioactive components (e.g., polyphenols, flavonoids, and antioxidants), and food enzymes, antinutrients, and allergens were elaborated in the present manuscript. It was highlighted that the plasma reactive species result in both constructive and antagonistic outcomes on specific food components, and the associated mechanism was different in each case. However, the design's versatility, characteristic non-thermal nature, better economic standards, and safer environmental factors offer matchless benefits for cold plasma over conventional processing methods. Even so, a thorough insight on the impact of cold plasma on functional and bioactive food constituents is still a subject of imminent research and is imperative for its broad recognition as a modern non-conventional processing technique.

An overview of tropomyosin as an important seafood allergen: Structure, cross-reactivity, epitopes, allergenicity, and processing modifications

Tropomyosin (TM) is a major allergen in crustaceans, which often causes allergy and is fatal to some consumers. Currently, the most effective treatment is to avoid ingesting TM, although most adverse events occur in accidental ingestion. In this review, the molecular characterization, epitopes, cross-reactivity, and pathogenesis of TM are introduced and elucidated. Modification of TM by traditional processing methods such as heat treatment and enzymatic hydrolysis, and innovative processing technologies including high-pressure treatment, cold plasma (CP), ultrasound, pulsed electric field (PEF), pulsed ultraviolet, microwave and irradiation are discussed in detail. Particularly, enzymolysis, PEF, and CP technologies show great potential for modifying TM and more studies are needed to verify their effectiveness for the seafood industry. Possible mechanisms and the advantages/disadvantages of these technologies for the mitigation of TM allergenicity are also highlighted. Further work should be conducted to investigate the allergenicity caused by protein segments such as epitopes, examine the interaction sites between the allergen and the processing techniques and reveal the reduction mechanism of allergenicity.

Feasibility of atmospheric cold plasma for the elimination of food hazards: Recent advances and future trends

In recent decades, food safety has emerged as a worldwide public health issue with economic and political implications. Pesticide residues, mycotoxins, allergens, and antinutritional factors are the primary concerns associated with food products due to their potential adverse health effects. Although various conventional processing methods (such as washing, peeling, and cooking) have been used to reduce or eliminate these hazards from agricultural food materials, the results obtained are not quite satisfactory. Recently, atmospheric cold plasma (ACP), an emerging low -temperature and green processing technology, has shown great potential for mitigating food hazards. However, detailed descriptions of the effects of ACP treatment on food hazards are still not available. Thus, the current review aims to highlight recent studies on the efficacy and application of ACP in the reduction or elimination of pesticide residues, mycotoxins, allergens, and antinutritional factors in various food products. The possible working mechanisms of ACP and its effect on food quality, and the toxicity of degradation products are emphatically discussed. In addition, multiple factors affecting the efficacy of ACP are summarized in detail. At the same time, the major technical challenges for practical application and future development prospects of this emerging technology are also highlighted.

Chemical changes of food constituents during cold plasma processing: A review

There is a growing demand for the consumption of nutritious and safe food products. Cold plasma is a novel non-thermal technology that in recent years, has found numerous applications in the food industry. Study on the applications of this technology and its effects on food quality is increasing. Like any other technology, using cold plasma for the processing of foods can be associated with food quality challenges. This paper reviews the effect of cold plasma on the chemical structure of different food constituents as well as its influence on food characteristics. The emphasis is on the recent studies about the plasma mechanisms of action and chemical alterations of different food components. The studies show that the interaction of plasma-reactive species with food components depends on process conditions. Developing the functional characteristics and reducing the anti-nutritional compounds are of promising potentials of cold plasma. Finally, the research gaps, the salient drawbacks, and future prospects of this technology are highlighted.

Effects of Non-Thermal Plasma Treatment on Seed Germination and Early Growth of Leguminous Plants-A Review

The legumes (Fabaceae family) are the second most important agricultural crop, both in terms of harvested area and total production. They are an important source of vegetable proteins and oils for human consumption. Non-thermal plasma (NTP) treatment is a new and effective method in surface microbial inactivation and seed stimulation useable in the agricultural and food industries. This review summarizes current information about characteristics of legume seeds and adult plants after NTP treatment in relation to the seed germination and seedling initial growth, surface microbial decontamination, seed wettability and metabolic activity in different plant growth stages. The information about 19 plant species in relation to the NTP treatment is summarized. Some important plant species as soybean (Glycine max), bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), mung bean (Vigna radiata), black gram (V. mungo), pea (Pisum sativum), lentil (Lens culinaris), peanut (Arachis hypogaea), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), and chickpea (Cicer aruetinum) are discussed. Likevise, some less common plant species i.g. blue lupine (Lupinus angustifolius), Egyptian clover (Trifolium alexandrinum), fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum), and mimosa (Mimosa pudica, M. caesalpiniafolia) are mentioned too. Possible promising trends in the use of plasma as a seed pre-packaging technique, a reduction in phytotoxic diseases transmitted by seeds and the effect on reducing dormancy of hard seeds are also pointed out.

Oxidation induced by dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma treatment reduces IgG/IgE binding capacity and improves the functionality of glycinin

The effect of dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma treatment times from 2 to 5 min at 40 kV on IgG/IgE binding capacity and functionality of soybean glycinin was examined. A substantial reduction in the binding capacity (91.64% for IgG and 81.49% for IgE) was obtained after 5 min of plasma treatment, as determined by western-blot and ELISA analyses. Further studies demonstrated that the elimination of antigenicity and allergenicity of glycinin was directly related to plasma-induced structural changes on two aspects. A conformational alteration caused by oxidation of peptide bond amino groups, accompanied with an oxidation of Trp, Tyr, and Phe amino acid residues, which was confirmed by surface hydrophobicity, multi-spectroscopic analysis, and amino acid analysis. The cleavage of polypeptide chains inevitably partially diminished the linear epitopes, resulting in a primary decline in IgG/IgE binding capacity. Additionally, an increase in the solubility from 10.78 ± 0.35 to 65.96 ± 1.86% and significant increase in the emulsifying ability from 21.08 ± 2.64 to 160.29 ± 4.12 m²/g were observed after treatment of the plasma for 2 min. The present results confirm the potential use of DBD for the production of hypoallergenic soy protein-based products and improving their technical functions such as solubility and emulsifying ability.

Dielectric-barrier discharge (DBD) plasma treatment reduces IgG binding capacity of β-lactoglobulin by inducing structural changes

The present study investigated the effects of dielectric-barrier-discharge (DBD) plasma treatment (12 kHz, 40 kV) at 1, 2, 3, and 4 min on the reduction of the immunoglobulin G (IgG) binding capacity of β-lactoglobulin (β-LG). The IgG binding capacity of β-LG was reduced by 58.21% following a plasma treatment time of 4 min, as confirmed by western-blot and ELISA analyses. The reduction in IgG binding capacity of β-LG was directly related to a stepwise change in its structure. The initial drop in the IgG binding capacity of β-LG was found to be caused by conformational alteration, free sulfhydryl exposure and cross-linkage of molecules induced by oxidation of NH-/NH₂- functional groups of peptide bonds and of sensitive amino acid residues (Tyr, Trp) as confirmed by SDS-PAGE, surface hydrophobicity and multi-spectroscopic analyses. Plasma treatment of more than 3 min resulted in cleavage of disulfidebonds and fragmentation of β-LG that was confirmed by LC-MS/MS analysis, which resulted a further decline in the IgG binding capacity of β-LG. Plasma treatment therefore has great potential as a substitute treatment for enzymatic hydrolysis for the production of hypoallergenic milk protein-based products.

Atmospheric cold plasma treatment of soybean protein isolate: insights into the structural, physicochemical, and allergenic characteristics

Currently, there has been a surge of interest in revealing the interactions between plasma and food matrices. In this study, we investigated the impacts of atmospheric cold plasma (ACP) treatment on the structural, physicochemical and allergenic characteristics of soybean protein isolate (SPI). SPI dispersions were subjected to ACP treatments at different frequencies (80 to 100 Hz) and durations (1 to 10 min) to investigate the effects of exposing conditions. Results showed that ACP induced reactive oxygen species-mediated oxidation of soy proteins, resulting in modifications in the secondary and ternary structures of SPI. As a consequence, functional properties of SPI, such as emulsifying (56 to 168%, compared with control) and foaming properties (60 to 194%) were influenced by varying degrees. In addition, under certain circumstance (120 Hz, 5 min), the IgE-binding level of SPI was decreased by up to 75%, when compared to the control. Moderate treatment yielded products with improved functionality and reduced allergenicity, while extensive exposure induced a loss of vendibility due to protein aggregation. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: In this study, we demonstrated for the first time, that plasma species reacted with soybean proteins, resulting in spatial structural changes which are closely related with protein functionality and allergenicity. ACP interacts with macromolecules in aqueous systems and thus can be an alternative and promising nonthermal approach in modifying soybean proteins, whereas the exact role of different processing parameters needs to be well-elaborated.

Impact of cold plasma processing on major peanut allergens

Cold plasma is emerging as a novel food processing technology, with demonstrated efficacies for microbial inactivation and residual chemical dissipation of food products. Given the technology's multimodal action it has the potential to reduce allergens in foods, however data on the efficacy and mechanisms of action are sparse. This study investigates the efficacy of cold plasma on major peanut allergens (Ara h 1 and Ara h 2). For this purpose, dry, whole peanut (WP) and defatted peanut flour (DPF) were subjected to an atmospheric air discharge using a pin to plate cold plasma reactor for different treatment durations. With increases in plasma exposure, SDS-PAGE analysis revealed reduced protein solubility of the major peanut allergens. Alterations in allergenicity and structure of Ara h 1 and Ara h 2 were examined using ELISA and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. Competitive ELISA with proteins purified from plasma treated WP or DPF revealed reduced antigenicity for both Ara h 1 and Ara h 2. The highest reduction in antigenicity was 65% for Ara h 1 and 66% Ara h 2 when purified from DPF. Results from CD spectroscopy analysis of purified proteins strongly suggests the reduction in antigenicity is due to modifications in the secondary structure of the allergens induced by plasma reactive species. Cold plasma is effective at reducing peanut protein solubility and causes changes in allergen structure leading to reduced antigenicity.

The effect of atmospheric cold plasma treatment on the antigenic properties of bovine milk casein and whey proteins

Casein, β-lactoglobulin and α-lactalbumin are major milk protein allergens. In the present study, the structural modifications and antigenic response of these bovine milk allergens as induced by non-thermal treatment by atmospheric cold plasma were investigated. Spark discharge (SD) and glow discharge (GD), as previously characterized cold plasma systems, were used for protein treatments. Casein, β-lactoglobulin and α-lactalbumin were analyzed before and after plasma treatment using SDS-PAGE, FTIR, UPLC-MS/MS and ELISA. SDS-PAGE results revealed a reduction in the casein and α-lactalbumin intensity bands after SD or GD treatments; however, the β-lactoglobulin intensity band remained unchanged. FTIR studies revealed alterations in protein secondary structure induced by plasma, particularly contents of β-sheet and β-turn. The UPLC-MS/MS results showed that the amino acid compositions decreased after plasma treatments. ELISA of casein and α-lactalbumin showed a decrease in antigenicity post plasma treatment, whereas ELISA of β-lactoglobulin showed an increase in antigenicity. The study indicates that atmospheric cold plasma can be tailored to mitigate the risk of bovine milk allergens in the dairy processing and ingredients sectors.

Oxidation induced by dielectric-barrier discharge (DBD) plasma treatment reduces soybean agglutinin activity

In this study, potential of dielectric-barrier discharge (DBD) plasma treatment (40 kV, 12 kHz at 1, 2, 3 and 4 min) to eliminate soybean agglutinin (SBA) activity was investigated in a SBA model system and soymilk. The plasma treatment decreased the SBA in the model system and hemagglutination activity was decreased by 87.31%. SDS-PAGE analysis confirmed the degradation of the SBA polypeptide chain. The multi-spectroscopic analysis revealed a two-stage structure alteration in the SBA upon exposure to the plasma treatment. Oxidation of NH-/NH₂- at the peptide bond disrupted the hydrogen bonds and altered the secondary structure of SBA. Further oxidation of aromatic amino acid, cleavage of peptide bonds and the breakage of polypeptide led to the SBA fragmentation and complete unfolding of the protein. The SBA inactivation by the plasma treatment was confirmed in soymilk. Plasma treatment is a promising technology for the elimination of SBA in soybean product.

Critical reviews and recent advances of novel non-thermal processing techniques on the modification of food allergens

Nowadays, the increasing prevalence of food allergy has become a public concern related to human health worldwide. Thus, it is imperative and necessary to provide some efficient methods for the management of food allergy. Some conventional processing methods (e.g., boiling and steaming) have been applied in the reduction of food immunoreactivity, while these treatments significantly destroy nutritional components present in food sources. Several studies have shown that novel processing techniques generally have better performance in retaining original characteristics of food and improving the efficiency of eliminating allergens. This review has focused on the recent advances of novel non-thermal processing techniques including high-pressure processing, ultrasound, pulsed light, cold plasma, fermentation, pulsed electric field, enzymatic hydrolysis, and the combination processing of them. Meanwhile, general information on global food allergy prevalence and food allergy pathology are also described. Hopefully, these findings regarding the modifications on the food allergens through various novel food processing techniques can provide an in-depth understanding in the mechanism of food allergy, which in turn possibly provides a strategy to adapt in the reduction of food immunoreactivity for the food industries.