Characterization of polysaccharides extracted from Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A.DC. affecting activation of chicken peritoneal macrophages

Platycodon grandiflorum root extract inhibits Aβ deposition by breaking the vicious circle linking oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease accompanied by irreversible cognitive impairment. A deleterious feedback loop between oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in early AD exacerbates AD-related pathology. Platycodon grandiflorum root extract (PGE) has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in several organs. However, the mechanisms underlying the effects of PGE in the brain remain unclear, particularly regarding its impact on oxidative/inflammatory damage and Aβ deposition. Thus, we aim to identify the mechanism through which PGE inhibits Aβ deposition and oxidative stress in the brain by conducting biochemical and histological analyses. First, to explore the antioxidant mechanism of PGE in the brain, we induced oxidative stress in mice injected with scopolamine and investigated the effect of PGE on cognitive decline and oxidative damage. We also assessed the effect of PGE on reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and the expressions of antioxidant enzymes and neurotrophic factor in H2O2- and Aβ-treated HT22 hippocampal cells. Next, we investigated whether PGE, which showed antioxidant effects, could reduce Aβ deposition by mitigating neuroinflammation, especially microglial phagocytosis. We directly verified the effect of PGE on microglial phagocytosis, microglial activation markers, and pro-inflammatory cytokines in Aβ-treated BV2 microglial cells. Moreover, we examined the effect of PGE on neuroinflammation, inducing microglial responses in Aβ-overexpressing 5XFAD transgenic mice. PGE exerts antioxidant effects in the brain, enhances microglial phagocytosis of Aβ, and inhibits neuroinflammation and Aβ deposition, ultimately preventing neuronal cell death in AD. Taken together, our findings indicate that the therapeutic potential of PGE in AD is mediated by its targeting of multiple pathological processes.

Preparation, characteristic, biological activities, and application of polysaccharide from Lilii Bulbus: a review

OBJECTIVES

This review highlights the current knowledge of polysaccharide from Lilii Bulbus, including the extraction, purification, structure, structure modification , biological activities and application, which will hopefully provide reference for further research and development of polysaccharide from Lilii Bulbus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Literature searches were conducted on the following databases: Pubmed, ACS website, Elsevier, Google Scholar, Web of Science and CNKI database. Keywords such as "Lilii Bulbus", "polysaccharide", "preparation", "biological activities" and "application" were used to search relevant journals and contents, and some irrelevant contents were excluded.

RESULTS

In general, the study of Lilium Bulbus polysaccharide extraction and purification, structure characterization and biological activity has made substantial progress, these findings highlight the lilium brownii polysaccharide enormous potential in biomedical applications, of lilium brownii polysaccharide laid a solid foundation for further research.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

However, it should be noted that the relevant mechanism of the effective effect of lily bulb polysaccharide still needs to be worked on by researchers. These findings highlight the great potential of lily polysaccharides in biomedical applications, and lay a solid foundation for further research on lily polysaccharides.

Isolation, structural characterization and immunomodulatory activity on RAW264.7 cells of a novel exopolysaccharide of Dictyophora rubrovalvata

Fungal polysaccharides have been explored by many for both structural studies and biological activities, but few studies have been done on the extracellular polysaccharides of Dictyophora rubrovalvata, so a new exopolysaccharide was isolated from Dictyophora rubrovalvata and its structure and its immunological activity were investigated. The crude exopolysaccharide (EPS) was purified by DEAE52 cellulose and Sephadex G-200 to obtain a new acidic polysaccharide (DR-EPS). DR-EPS (2.66 × 103 kDa) was consisted mainly of mannose, glucose, galactose and glucuronic acid with a molar ratio of 1: 0.86: 0.20: 0.01. In addition, DR-EPS increased the phagocytic activity of RAW264.7 cells up to 2.67 times of the blank control group. DR-EPS improved intracellular nucleic acid and glycogen metabolism as observed by AO and PAS staining. DR-EPS(40 μg/mL) promoted NO production up to 30.66 μmol, enhanced acid phosphatase (ACP) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, with activity maxima of 660 U/gprot and 96.27 U/mgprot, respectively, and DR-EPS (160 μg / mL) significantly increased the lysozyme content as 2.73 times of the control group. The good immunological activity of extracellular polysaccharides of Dictyophora rubrovalvata provides directions for the use of fermentation broths.

Polysaccharides from Platycodon grandiflorum: A review of their extraction, structures, modifications, and bioactivities

Platycodon grandiflorum (P. grandiflorum) has long been used as a food and traditional herbal medicine. As a food, P. grandiflorum is often transformed into pickles for consumption, and as a traditional Chinese medicine, P. grandiflorum clears the lung, nourishes the pharynx, dispels phlegm, and discharges pus. Polysaccharides are among the main active components of P. grandiflorum. Recent literature has described the preparation, identification, and pharmacological activity of these polysaccharides. Studies have shown that these polysaccharides exhibit a variety of significant biological effects in vitro and in vivo, such as immune stimulation and antioxidant, anti-liver injury, anti-apoptosis and antitumour effects. However, there is no systematic summary of the related research articles on P. grandiflorum polysaccharide, which undoubtedly brings some difficulties to the future research. The purpose of this review is to comprehensively describe research progress on the extraction, purification, structural characterization, modification, and biological activity of P. grandiflorum polysaccharides. The shortcomings of recent research are summarized, further research on their biological activity is proposed to provide new reference value for the application of P. grandiflorum polysaccharides in drugs and health products in the future.

Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharide inhibits the inflammatory response of 3D4/21 cells infected with PCV2

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) infection cause multi-systemic inflammation in pigs. Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharide (PGPSt) has been reported to have the effects of immune regulation and disease resistance. Nevertheless, the role and mechanism of PGPSt in the inflammatory response of 3D4/21 cells induced by PCV2 infection remain unclear. The present study aims to investigate effects of PGPSt on inflammatory response and its possible underlying mechanisms in vitro models. Cells were treated with PCV2 for 36 h to construct a cell inflammation model. The 3D4/21 cell lines were pretreated with or without PGPSt, and the changes of inflammation-related markers and the signaling pathway were detected by CCK-8, ELISA, qPCR and Western blot. The results showed that PGPSt was non-toxic to cells and protected PCV2-infected cells from inflammatory damage. PGPSt could significantly inhibit the high acetylation of histone H3 (AcH3) and histone H4 (AcH4), down-regulate HAT and up-regulate HDAC activity, and reduce the expression of pro-inflammatory enzymes iNOS and COX-2 proteins levels. Then the levels of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α were significantly inhibited, and the level of IL-10 was promoted. We also observed that PGPSt inhibited the phosphorylation of p65, p38 and Erk1/2, which subsequently inhibited nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65 to express pro-inflammatory factors. In conclusion, PGPSt can reduce the inflammatory response by regulating histone acetylation, reducing the release of inflammatory factors, reducing the expression of pro-inflammatory enzymes, and inhibiting the activation of NF-κB and MAPKs signaling pathways. This suggests that PGPSt had an anti-inflammatory effect on the inflammatory response caused by PCV2 infection, which provided theoretical data support for the research.

The great potential of polysaccharides from natural resources in the treatment of asthma: A review

Despite significant progress in diagnosis and treatment, asthma remains a serious public health challenge. The conventional therapeutic drugs for asthma often have side effects and unsatisfactory clinical efficacy. Therefore, it is very urgent to develop new drugs to overcome the shortcomings of conventional drugs. Natural polysaccharides provide enormous resources for the development of drugs or health products, and they are receiving a lot of attention from scientists around the world due to their safety, effective anti-inflammatory and immune regulatory properties. Increasing evidence shows that polysaccharides have favorable biological activities in the respiratory disease, including asthma. This review provides an overview of primary literature on the recent advances of polysaccharides from natural resources in the treatment of asthma. The mechanisms and practicability of polysaccharides, including polysaccharides from plants, fungus, bacteria, alga, animals and others are reviewed. Finally, the further research of polysaccharides in the treatment of asthma are discussed. This review can provide a basis for further study of polysaccharides in the treatment of asthma and provides guidance for the development and clinical application of novel asthma treatment drugs.

Preparation methods, structural characteristics, and biological activity of polysaccharides from Platycodon grandiflorus

Platycodon grandiflorus (P. grandiflorus), a traditional Chinese medicinal herb used for both medicine and food, has a long history of treating respiratory infections, bronchitis, pneumonia, and other lung-related diseases. The therapeutic effects of P. grandiflorus are attributed to its chemical components, including polysaccharides. Among these components, Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharides (PGP) are recognized as one of the most important and abundant active ingredients, exhibiting various biological activities such as prebiotic, antioxidant, antiviral, anticancer, antiangiogenic, and immune regulatory properties. Incorporating the principles of traditional Chinese medicine, carrier concepts, and modern targeted drug delivery technologies, PGP can influence the target sites and therapeutic effects of other drugs while also serving as a drug carrier for targeted and precise treatments. Therefore, it is essential to provide a comprehensive review of the extraction, separation, purification, physicochemical properties, and biological activities of PGP. In the future, by integrating new concepts, technologies, and processes, further references and guidance can be provided for the comprehensive development of PGP. This will contribute to the advancement of P. grandiflorus in various fields such as pharmaceuticals, health products, and food.

Recent advances in Platycodon grandiflorum polysaccharides: Preparation techniques, structural features, and bioactivities

Platycodon grandiflorum, a globally recognized medicinal and edible plant, possesses significant nutritional value and pharmacological value. In traditional Chinese medicine, it has the effects of tonifying the spleen and replenishing the Qi, moistening the lung and relieving the cough, clearing the heat and detoxifying, and relieving the pain. Accumulating evidence has revealed that the polysaccharides from P. grandiflorum (PGPs) are one of the major and representative biologically active macromolecules and have diverse biological activities, such as immunomodulatory activity, anti-inflammatory activity, anti-tumor activity, regulation of the gut microbiota, anti-oxidant activity, anti-apoptosis activity, anti-angiogenesis activity, hypoglycemic activity, anti-microbial activity, and so on. Although the polysaccharides extracted from P. grandiflorum have been extensively studied for the extraction and purification methods, structural characteristics, and pharmacological activities, the knowledge of their structures and bioactivity relationship, toxicologic effects, and pharmacokinetic profile is limited. The main purpose of the present review is to provide comprehensively and systematically reorganized information on extraction and purification, structure characterizations, and biological functions as well as toxicities of PGPs to support their therapeutic potentials and sanitarian functions. New valuable insights for future research regarding PGPs were also proposed in the fields of therapeutic agents and functional foods.

The traditional use, structure, and immunostimulatory activity of bioactive polysaccharides from traditional Chinese root medicines: A review

As research on traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has expanded, our understanding of the role it can have in controlling the immune system has increased. Polysaccharides from medicinal plants exhibit numerous beneficial therapeutic properties, presumably owing to their modulation of innate immunity and macrophage function. Numerous studies have demonstrated the multiple ways whereby certain polysaccharides can affect the immune system. In addition to stimulating immune cells, such as T cells, B lymphocytes, macrophages, and natural killer cells, polysaccharides stimulate complements and increase cytokine secretion. The biological functions of polysaccharides are directly correlated with their structures. This paper summarizes the sources, TCM uses, extraction and purification methods, structural characterization, in vitro and in vivo immune activities, and underlying molecular mechanisms of TCM root polysaccharides. Moreover, the structure-activity relationships of TCM root polysaccharides are emphasized and discussed. This review can provide a scientific basis for the research and industrial utilization of TCM root polysaccharides.

Identification and expression analysis of YABBY family genes in Platycodon grandiflorus

Platycodon grandiflorus set ornamental, edible, and medicinal plant with broad prospects for further application development. However, there are no reports on the YABBY transcription factor in P. grandiflorus. Identification and analysis of the YABBY gene family of P. grandiflorus using bioinformatics means. Six YABBY genes were identified and divided into five subgroups. Transcriptome data and qRT-PCR were used to analyze the expression patterns of YABBY. YABBY genes exhibited organ-specific patterns in expression in P grandiflorus. Upon salt stress and drought induction, P. grandiflorus presented different morphological and physiological changes with some dynamic changes. Under salt treatment, the YABBY gene family was down-regulated; PgYABBY5 was up-regulated in leaves at 24 h. In drought treatment, PgYABBY1, PgYABBY2, and PgYABBY3 were down-regulated to varying degrees, but PgYABBY3 was significantly up-regulated in the roots. PgYABBY5 was up-regulated gradually after being down-regulated. PgYABBY5 was significantly up-regulated in stem and leaf at 48 h. PgYABBY6 was down-regulated at first and then significantly up-regulated. The dynamic changes of salt stress and drought stress can be regarded as the responses of plants to resist damage. During the whole process of salt and drought stress treatment, the protein content of each tissue part of P grandiflorus changed continuously. At the same time, we found that the promoter region of the PgYABBY gene contains stress-resistant elements, and the regulatory role of YABBY transcription factor in the anti-stress mechanism of P grandiflorus remains to be studied. PgYABBY1, PgYABBY2, and PgYABBY5 may be involved in the regulation of saponins in P. grandiflorus. PgYABBY5 may be involved in the drought resistance mechanism in P. grandiflorus stems and leaves. This study may provide a theoretical basis for studying the regulation of terpenoids by the YABBY transcription factor and its resistance to abiotic stress.

Optimization of ultrasonic-assisted extraction of Platycodon grandiflorum polysaccharides and evaluation of its structural, antioxidant and hypoglycemic activity

The study aimed to improve the extraction rate of Platycodon grandiflorum roots polysaccharides (PGPs) using ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE). A comparative analysis was undertaken to evaluate polysaccharides content, molecular weight distribution, monosaccharide composition, preliminary structure, antioxidant, and hypoglycemic activity of UAE in comparison with heating water extraction (HWE). The optimum extraction conditions included a liquid-to-material ratio of 20 mL/g, ultrasonic power of 150 W, extraction temperature of 70 ℃, and extraction time of 20 min, resulting in a significantly greater polysaccharides (12.011 ± 0.91 %) compared to HWE (7.62 ± 0.18 %). Through Sephacryl S-100 column elution, two homogenous fraction (PGP-U extracted with UAE and PGP-H extracted with HAE) were obtained. The molecular weight of PGP-U and PGP-H was 3.14 kDa and 3.44 kDa, respectively, mainly composed of different proportions of fourteen monosaccharides. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectra experiment results showed that the two polysaccharides were pyranose ring with α- and β-glycoside bond. PGP-U and PGP-H exhibited specific antioxidant activities, encompassing total reducing force, scavenging of DPPH radicals, ABTs radicals and hydroxyl radicals in vitro, along with mitigation of H2O2-induced damage in HepG2 cells. Moreover, PGP-U exerted significantly stronger inhibitory activities against α-amylase and α-glucosidase and could significantly enhances the glucose uptake capacity and intracellular glycogen content of insulin-resistant HepG2 (IR-HepG2) cells.

Polysaccharides from Platycodon grandiflorus attenuates high-fat diet induced obesity in mice through targeting gut microbiota

The root of Platycodon grandiflorus (PG), abundant in soluble polysaccharides, has a long history in traditional Asian diets and herbal medicine due to its anti-inflammatory activity and anti-obesity effects. Our previous study was the first to establish a link between the beneficial effects of PG and changes in the gut microbiota, and suggested potential roles that the polysaccharide components play. However, more evidence was needed to understand the anti-obesity functions of polysaccharides from PG (PS) and their relationship with the regulation of the gut microbiota. In this study, we first performed an experiment to explore the anti-obesity activities of PS: Male C57BL/6 mice (six-weeks-old) were fed either a standard control diet (CON), or a high-fat diet (HFD) to induce obesity, or a HFD supplemented with PS (HFPS) for 8 weeks. Body weight and food intake were monitored throughout. Lipid metabolism were determined and related gene expression changes in adipose tissues were analyzed by RNA-seq. Amplicon sequencing of the bacterial 16 S rRNA gene was used to explore gut microbiota structure in fecal samples. Then, we performed the second experiment to explore whether the anti-obesity activities of PS were dependent on the regulation of the gut microbiota: Male C57BL/6 mice (six-weeks-old), treated with an antibiotic cocktail to reduce the gut microbial load, were fed either a HFD (A-HFD) or a HFPS (A-HFPS) diet for 8 weeks. Finally, we used in vitro fermentation experiments to verify the effects of PS on the growth and metabolic activities of the gut microbes. We found that PS significantly reduced HFD-induced weight gain and excessive fat accumulation, changed the expression of key genes involved in lipid metabolism, and attenuated HFD-induced changes in the gut microbiota. However, PS did not affect fat accumulation or lipid metabolism in the gut microbiota depleted mice. Overall, our results show that PS has significant effects on the gut microbiota in the mouse model, and the anti-obesity effects of PS are mediated via changes in the gut microbiota composition and metabolic activity.

Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharide regulates colonic immunity through mesenteric lymphatic circulation to attenuate ulcerative colitis

Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharide (PGP) is one of the main components of P. grandiflorus, but the mechanism of its anti-inflammatory effect has not been fully elucidated. The aim of this study was to evaluate the therapeutic effect of PGP on mice with dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced ulcerative colitis (UC) and explore the underlying mechanisms. The results showed that PGP treatment inhibited the weight loss of DSS-induced UC mice, increased colon length, and reduced DAI, spleen index, and pathological damage within the colon. PGP also reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and inhibited the enhancement of oxidative stress and MPO activity. Meanwhile, PGP restored the levels of Th1, Th2, Th17, and Treg cell-related cytokines and transcription factors in the colon to regulate colonic immunity. Further studies revealed that PGP regulated the balance of colonic immune cells through mesenteric lymphatic circulation. Taken together, PGP exerts anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effect and regulates colonic immunity to attenuate DSS-induced UC through mesenteric lymphatic circulation.

Research progress on the mechanisms underlying poultry immune regulation by plant polysaccharides

With the rapid development of poultry industry and the highly intensive production management, there are an increasing number of stress factors in poultry production. Excessive stress will affect their growth and development, immune function, and induce immunosuppression, susceptibility to a variety of diseases, and even death. In recent years, increasing interest has focused on natural components extracted from plants, among which plant polysaccharides have been highlighted because of their various biological activities. Plant polysaccharides are natural immunomodulators that can promote the growth of immune organs, activate immune cells and the complement system, and release cytokines. As a green feed additive, plant polysaccharides can not only relieve stress and enhance the immunity and disease resistance of poultry, but also regulate the balance of intestinal microorganisms and effectively alleviate all kinds of stress faced by poultry. This paper reviews the immunomodulatory effects and molecular mechanisms of different plant polysaccharides (Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz polysaccharide, Astragalus polysaccharides, Taishan Pinus massoniana pollen polysaccharide, and alfalfa polysaccharide) in poultry. Current research results reveal that plant polysaccharides have potential uses as therapeutic agents for poultry immune abnormalities and related diseases.

Effects of neutral polysaccharide from Platycodon grandiflorum on high-fat diet-induced obesity via the regulation of gut microbiota and metabolites

The obesity epidemic has become a global problem with far-reaching health and economic impact. Despite the numerous therapeutic efficacies of Platycodon grandiflorum, its role in modulating obesity-related metabolic disorders has not been clarified. In this study, a purified neutral polysaccharide, PGNP, was obtained from Platycodon grandiflorum. Based on methylation and NMR analyses, PGNP was found to be composed of 2,1-β-D-Fruf residues ending with a (1→2)-bonded α-D-Glcp. The protective effects of PGNP on high-fat HFD-induced obesity were assessed. According to our results, PGNP effectively alleviated the signs of metabolic syndrome, as demonstrated by reductions in body weight, hepatic steatosis, lipid profile, inflammatory response, and insulin resistance in obese mice. Under PGNP treatment, intestinal histomorphology and the tight junction protein, ZO-1, were well maintained. To elucidate the underlying mechanism, 16S rRNA gene sequencing and LC-MS were employed to assess the positive influence of PGNP on the gut microbiota and metabolites. PGNP effectively increased species diversity of gut microbiota and reversed the HFD-induced imbalance in the gut microbiota by decreasing the Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio. The abundance of Bacteroides and Blautia were increased after PGNP treatment, while the relative abundance of Rikenella, Helicobacter were reduced. Furthermore, PGNP notably influenced the levels of microbial metabolites, including the increased levels of cholic and gamma-linolenic acid. Overall, PGNP might be a potential supplement for the regulation of gut microbiota and metabolites, further affecting obesity.

Platycodon grandiflorus Polysaccharides Alleviate Cr(VI)-Induced Apoptosis in DF-1 Cells via ROS-Drp1 Signal Pathway

Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) is a widespread heavy metal that has been identified as a human carcinogen, and acute or chronic exposure to Cr(VI) can cause organ damage. Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharide (PGPS) is a constituent extracted from the Chinese herb Platycodon grandiflorus, which has various pharmacological effects. Therefore, the author investigated the role of PGPSt in Cr(VI)-induced apoptosis in chicken embryo fibroblast cell lines (DF-1 cells). Firstly, this study infected DF-1 cells using Cr(VI) to set up a model for cytotoxicity and then added PGPSt. Then, the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and apoptosis rate were evaluated. The results showed that PGPSt could inhibit Cr(VI)-induced mitochondrial damage and increase the apoptosis rate. For further exploration of the mechanism of regulation of PGPSt, the ROS-Drp1 pathway was investigated. The antioxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) and mitochondrial division inhibitor 1(Mdivi-1) were added, respectively. The results showed that the NAC and Mdivi-1 restored abnormal mitochondrial fission and cell apoptosis. Thus, PGPSt can alleviate Cr(VI)-induced apoptosis of DF-1 cells through the ROS-Drp1 signaling pathway, which may suggest new research ideas for developing new drugs to alleviate Cr(VI) toxicity.

Novel Pectic Polysaccharides Isolated from Immature Honey Pomelo Fruit with High Immunomodulatory Activity

A novel pectic polysaccharide (HPP-1) with high immunomodulatory activity was extracted and isolated from the immature honey pomelo fruit (Citrus grandis). Characterization of its chemical structure indicated that HPP-1 had a molecular weight of 59,024 D. In addition, HPP-1 was primarily composed of rhamnose, arabinose, fucose, mannose, and galactose at a molar ratio of 1.00:11.12:2.26:0.56:6.40. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, periodic acid oxidation, and Smith degradation results showed that HPP-1 had α- and β-glycosidic linkages and 1 → 2, 1 → 4, 1 → 6, and 1 → 3 glycosidic bonds. ¹³C NMR and ¹H NMR analyses revealed that the main glycogroups included 1,4-D-GalA, 1,6-β-D-Gal, 1,6-β-D-Man, 1,3-α-L-Ara, and 1,2-α-L-Rha. Immunomodulatory bioactivity analysis using a macrophage RAW264.7 model in vitro revealed that NO, TNF-α, and IL-6 secretions were all considerably increased by HPP-1. Moreover, RT-PCR results showed that HPP-1-induced iNOS, TNF-α, and IL-6 expression was significantly increased in macrophages. HPP-1-mediated activation in macrophages was due to the stimulation of the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways based on western blot analyses. HPP-1 extracted from immature honey pomelo fruit has potential applications as an immunomodulatory supplement.

Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC.: A review of phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology and traditional use

BACKGROUND

The traditional Chinese medicine Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC. (PG, balloon flower) has medicinal and culinary value. It consists of a variety of chemical components including triterpenoid saponins, polysaccharides, flavonoids, polyphenols, polyethylene glycols, volatile oils and mineral components, which have medicinal and edible value.

PURPOSE

The ultimate goal of this review is to summarize the phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, safety and uses of PG in local and traditional medicine.

METHODS

A comprehensive search of published literature up to March 2022 was conducted using the PubMed, China Knowledge Network and Web of Science databases to identify original research related to PG, its active ingredients and pharmacological activities.

RESULTS

Triterpene saponins are the primary bioactive compounds of PG. To date, 76 triterpene saponin compounds have been isolated and identified from PG. In addition, there are other biological components, such as flavonoids, polyacetylene and phenolic acids. These extracts possess antitussive, immunostimulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor, antiobesity, antidepressant, and cardiovascular system activities. The mechanisms of expression of these pharmacological effects include inhibition of the expression of proteins such as MDM and p53, inhibition of the activation of enzymes, such as AKT, the secretion of inflammatory factors, such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2 and IL-1β, and activation of the AMPK pathway.

CONCLUSION

This review summarizes the chemical composition, pharmacological activities, molecular mechanism, toxicity and uses of PG in local and traditional medicine over the last 12 years. PG contains a wide range of chemical components, among which triterpene saponins, especially platycoside D (PD), play a strong role in pharmacological activity, representing a natural phytomedicine with low toxicity that has applications in food, animal feed and cosmetics. Therefore, PG has value for exploitation and is an excellent choice for treating various diseases.

Evaluation of the antiviral effect of four plant polysaccharides against duck circovirus

Recently, outbreaks of duck circovirus (DuCV) are frequently occurring worldwide due to secondary infections caused by post infection-induced immunosuppression. Due to a lack of preventive drugs and vaccines, the waterfowl industry losses are ever increasing. In this study, we extracted Astragalus polysaccharides (APS), pine pollen polysaccharides (PPPS), Aloe vera polysaccharides (AVE), and Ficus carica polysaccharides (FCPS) from Astragalus, pine pollen, aloe, and F. carica leaves, respectively. We randomly divided 150 one-day-old Cherry Valley ducks into five groups, which were inoculated with the DuCV solution and orally administered APS, PPPS, AVE, FCPS, and phosphate buffer saline (PBS), respectively. We collected the duck immune organs and serum samples at 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, and 48 days post-infection (dpi). Using clinical symptom analysis, molecular biology experiments, and serological experiments, we proved that plant polysaccharides could (a) improve the duck immunity, (b) reduce the viral load, and (c) mitigate DuCV-induced damage to immune organs, with both APS and PPPS having significant effects. Moreover, we detected viral load and cytokines within the first 8 dpi. Since the body's innate immunity could inhibit viral replication within five days of virus infection, 1-5 dpi was the best treatment time. Among the four polysaccharides showing in vitro anti-apoptotic activity, APS and PPPS significantly inhibited the DuCV infection-induced apoptosis of peripheral blood lymphocytes. Overall, since our findings show APS and PPPS having significant anti-DuCV effects both in vivo and in vitro, they can be promising candidates for preventing DuCV infection in ducks.

Progress of Research into Novel Drugs and Potential Drug Targets against Porcine Pseudorabies Virus

Pseudorabies virus (PRV) is the causative agent of pseudorabies (PR), infecting most mammals and some birds. It has been prevalent around the world and caused huge economic losses to the swine industry since its discovery. At present, the prevention of PRV is mainly through vaccination; there are few specific antivirals against PRV, but it is possible to treat PRV infection effectively with drugs. In recent years, some drugs have been reported to treat PR; however, the variety of anti-pseudorabies drugs is limited, and the underlying mechanism of the antiviral effect of some drugs is unclear. Therefore, it is necessary to explore new drug targets for PRV and develop economic and efficient drug resources for prevention and control of PRV. This review will focus on the research progress in drugs and drug targets against PRV in recent years, and discuss the future research prospects of anti-PRV drugs.

The surface morphology of Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharide and its anti-apoptotic effect by targeting autophagy

BACKGROUND

Fumonisin B1 is categorised as possible carcinogenic to humans which commonly contaminate maize and maize-based products worldwide, FB1, like other environmental pollutants, may activate apoptosis, autophagy, the inflammatory response and oxidative stress. Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharide (PGPS_t) is prepared from a traditional herbal medicine in Asia with tremendous pharmacological activities. However, whether PGPS_t could relieve FB1-induced apoptosis has not been elucidated. The study aimed to evaluate the surface morphology of PGPS_t and its protective effect on fumonisin B1-induced apoptosis.

METHODS

The surface morphology of PGPS_t was evaluated by SEM and AFM. Expressions of proteins involved in autophagy and apoptosis were detected by western blot analysis. Western blot, transient transfection, JC-1 and Annexin V-FITC/PI staining, CCK8, Live-cell imaging and autophagy inhibitor were used to observe the effect and explore the mechanism of PGPS_t on FB1-induced apoptosis of 3D4/21 cells.

RESULTS

PGPS_t had triple helix conformation, and had the characteristics of compact, polyporous and agglomerated morphology. PGPS_t promoted the expression of LC3-II and Beclin1, reduced the expression of p62, and significantly activated autophagy. PGPS_t inhibited the Akt/mTOR signaling pathway at 24 h. Besides, PGPS_t increased the expression of Bcl-2 and decreased the expression of Cleaved Caspase-3. PGPS_t-mediated autophagy was inhibited by 3-MA, accompanied by the upregulation of Caspase-3 and Cleaved Caspase-3, suggesting that enhanced autophagy inhibited apoptosis.

CONCLUSION

PGPS_t can activate autophagy, which in turn protects FB1-induced apoptosis. Targeting autophagy may provide a new way to improve the health of humans or animals in FB1 contaminated areas.

Effect of Platycodon grandiflorus Polysaccharide on M1 Polarization Induced by Autophagy Degradation of SOCS1/2 Proteins in 3D4/21 Cells

M1-polarized macrophages can improve the body’s immune function. This study aimed to explore the mechanism of Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharide (PGPS_t) degrading SOCS1/2 protein through autophagy and promoting M1 polarization in 3D4/21 cells. Immunoprecipitation, confocal laser scanning microscopy, flow cytometry, and intracellular co-localization were used to detect the expression of related phenotypic proteins and cytokines in M1-polarized cells. The results showed that PGPS_t significantly promoted the mRNA expression of IL-6, IL-12, and TNF-α and enhanced the protein expression of IL-6, IL-12, TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, CD80, and CD86, indicating that PGPS_t promoted M1 polarization in 3D4/21 cells. Next, the effect of the PGPS_t autophagy degradation of SOCS1/2 on the M1 polarization of 3D4/21 cells was detected. The results showed that PGPS_t significantly downregulated the expression level of SOCS1/2 protein, but had no obvious effect on the mRNA expression level of SOCS1/2, indicating that PGPS_t degraded SOCS1/2 protein by activating the lysosome system. Further research found that under the action of 3-MA and BafA1, PGPS_t upregulated LC3B II and downregulated SOCS1/2 protein expression, which increased the possibility of LC3B, the key component of autophagy, bridging this connection and degrading SOCS1/2. The interaction between SOCS1/2 and LC3 was identified by indirect immunofluorescence and Co-IP. The results showed that the co-localization percentage of the two proteins increased significantly after PGPS_t treatment, and LC3 interacted with SOCS1 and SOCS2. This provides a theoretical basis for the application of PGPS_t in the treatment or improvement of diseases related to macrophage polarization by regulating the autophagy level.

Jiegeng Decoction Potentiates the Anticancer Efficacy of Paclitaxel in vivo and in vitro

Paclitaxel (PTX) has been the first-line treatment for lung cancer; however, its clinical use is limited due to multidrug resistance (MDR) and adverse effects. Thus, there is an urgent need to explore agents that can enhance the anticancer efficacy of PTX by reducing drug resistance and adverse reactions. Jiegeng decoction (JG) was used as the meridian guide drug and adjuvant drug in treatment of lung cancer. However, the mechanism of adjuvant effect was unclear. The aim of this study was to determine whether JG could potentiate the anticancer effect of PTX. Tissue distribution of PTX was detected using HPLC-MS/MS. The anti-lung cancer effect of the combination of PTX and JG in Lewis lung cancer C57BL/6J mice was evaluated based on the body weight and tumor-inhibition rate. PTX concentration in tumors was determined using HPLC-MS and in vivo imaging. Biochemical indices were detected using biochemical analyzer and ELISA. The anticancer mechanism of the PTX-JG combination in A549/PTX cells was elucidated based on cell proliferation, annexin V-FITC apoptosis assay, and western blotting. Tissue distribution analysis showed that the distribution of PTX increased in the lungs, liver, and heart upon administering the combination of PTX and JG. JG remarkably enhanced the anticancer effect of PTX by increasing the red blood cell and platelet counts; increasing hemoglobin, interleukin (IL)-2, and tumor necrosis factor-α levels; increasing CD4+T cells and the CD4+/CD8+ ratio; and decreasing IL-10 levels. JG administration led to the increased distribution of PTX at the tumor lesion sites and also potentiated the anticancer effect of PTX by inhibiting tumor cell proliferation and promoting apoptosis. Moreover, JG reversed PTX resistance by inhibiting the expression of lung resistance-related proteins, multiresistance protein 1, P-glycoprotein, and breast cancer-resistant protein. Furthermore, the combination of JG and PTX decreased alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase levels and did not affect creatine kinase-MB levels. Therefore, our discovery suggests that JG increased the anticancer effect of PTX by downregulating the MDR-related protein and demonstrated a synergistic enhancement of immunity. Thus, the combination of PTX with JG shows potential in the management of lung cancer owing to its synergistic and detoxifying effects.

A novel LC-MS/MS method for complete composition analysis of polysaccharides by aldononitrile acetate and multiple reaction monitoring

Carbohydrate analysis has always been a challenging task due to the occurrence of high polarity and multiple isomers. Aldoses are commonly analyzed by gas liquid chromatography (GLC) following aldononitrile acetate derivatization (AND). However, the GLC technique cannot be applied for the simultaneous determination of aldoses, ketoses, and uronic acids. In this study, a new method based on the combination of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and AND is developed for the complete characterization of monosaccharide composition (i.e., aldoses, ketoses, alditols, amino sugars, and uronic acids) in plant-derived polysaccharides. In addition to discussing the possible byproducts, the study optimizes the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) parameters and LC conditions. The final separation of 17 carbohydrates is performed on a BEH Shield RP18 column (150 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm) within 25 min, without using any buffer salt. Notably, the complex polysaccharides extracted from Ligusticum chuanxiong, Platycodon grandiflorum, Cyathula officinalis Kuan, Juglans mandshurica Maxim, and Aralia elata (Miq.). Seem bud can be successfully characterized using the developed method. Overall, the results demonstrated that the newly established LC-MS/MS MRM method is more effective and powerful than the GLC-based methods reported previously, and it is more suitable for the analysis of highly complex natural polysaccharides, including complex pectins, fructosans, and glycoproteins.

Immunomodulatory effects of Radix isatidis polysaccharides in vitro and in vivo

Radix isatidis (R. isatidis) is a commonly used traditional Chinese herbal medicine, which has been used for thousands of years in China and is believed to have the pharmacological properties of heat-clearing and detoxification. Heat-clearing and detoxification are theories of traditional Chinese medicine meaning that R. isatidis could treat febrile disease by clearing heat and reducing swelling. Polysaccharides isolated from R. isatidis by water extraction and alcohol precipitation have exhibited numerous biological activities, including antiviral and immunomodulatory effects. The present study was performed to investigate the immunomodulatory effects of water-soluble R. isatidis polysaccharides (RIPs) on RAW264.7 macrophages and murine splenocytes, and attempt to preliminarily identify the mechanism of immunomodulation. In vitro, RIPs had a low cytotoxicity, as shown by CellTiter 96^® AQ_ueous One Solution Cell Proliferation Assay. RAW264.7 cells treated with different concentrations of RIP displayed different morphological changes, from a round shape and aggregation to polygonal shape and dispersion in a dose-dependent manner. In the 5 mg/ml RIP-treated group, the changes of morphology were as same as the lipopolysaccharide-treated group. RIP also significantly enhanced the release of nitric oxide as shown by Griess method, and the secretion of TNF-α and IL-6 in RAW264.7 cells was confirmed by ELISA assay. Western blotting revealed a significant increase of toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4) in RIP-treated RAW264.7, suggesting that TLR-4 may be associated with the immunomodulatory mechanism of RIP. Animal experiments also demonstrated through ELISA assays a significant increase in IFN-γ and IL-10 levels after the splenocytes of RIP-immunized mice were stimulated by inactivated herpes simplex virus type 2. The immune function of RIP-immunized mice was improved. The present study suggested that RIP could be potentially used as a novel immunomodulator.

Comprehensive characterization of the chemical constituents in Platycodon grandiflorum by an integrated liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry strategy

Platycodon grandiflorum (PG), as a well-known medicine food homology species, possess various pharmacological effects and health benefits. Aiming to facilitate in-depth and global characterization of the chemical compositions of PG, a profiling method based on ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with ion mobility quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC/IM-QTOF-MS) was conducted. Consequently, as many as 187 compounds were plausibly or unambiguously identified. Most importantly, phospholipids (PLs) were first observed and identified in PG. Due to their widely confirmed bioactivities, an analysis scheme was developed by hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry combined with the online Paternò-Büchi reaction (HILIC-PB-MS/MS). The fatty acyl chains and C=C locations of 180 PLs molecular species, which fell into four classes, were unprecedently characterized. This exposure strategy of multi-type constituents greatly enriches the chemical profiling of PG, and helps promoting the further development of therapeutic agents and nutraceutical products from PG.

Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharides inhibit Pseudorabies virus replication via downregulating virus-induced autophagy

Pseudorabies virus (PRV) is one of the common pathogens in farms. Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharide (PGPS) has been reported with a variety of biological activities. Autophagy is one of the vital mechanisms for cells to cope with virus infection, and it may also inhibit or promote virus replication. This study was conducted to investigate the antiviral activity of total PGPS(PGPS_t) against PRV and the role of virus-induced autophagy in the anti-PRV effect of PGPS_t in PK-15 cells. First, we established an infection model and detected the autophagy induced by PRV in PK-15 cells. Then, the protective effect of PGPS_t against PRV was evaluated, and the effect of PGPS_t on PRV replication and virus-induced autophagy were analysed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, Western blot and confocal immunofluorescence. Results showed that PGPS_t can reduce the PRV replication. PRV infection resulted in the accumulation of autophagosomes, which were inhibited by PGPS_t. Moreover, PGPS_t upregulated the Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling pathway repressed by PRV infection, whereas rapamycin attenuated the anti-PRV effect of PGPS_t. These findings suggest that PGPS_t possess a protective effect against PRV infection and can inhibit PRV replication through relieving PRV-induced autophagy. This article can provide ideas for the development of antiviral drugs.

A candidate gene identified in converting platycoside E to platycodin D from Platycodon grandiflorus by transcriptome and main metabolites analysis

Platycodin D and platycoside E are two triterpenoid saponins in Platycodon grandiflorus, differing only by two glycosyl groups structurally. Studies have shown β-Glucosidase from bacteria can convert platycoside E to platycodin D, indicating the potential existence of similar enzymes in P. grandiflorus. An L₉(3⁴) orthogonal experiment was performed to establish a protocol for calli induction as follows: the optimal explant is stems with nodes and the optimum medium formula is MS + NAA 1.0 mg/L + 6-BA 0.5 mg/L to obtain callus for experimental use. The platycodin D, platycoside E and total polysaccharides content between callus and plant organs varied wildly. Platycodin D and total polysaccharide content of calli was found higher than that of leaves. While, platycoside E and total polysaccharide content of calli was found lower than that of leaves. Associating platycodin D and platycoside E content with the expression level of genes involved in triterpenoid saponin biosynthesis between calli and leaves, three contigs were screened as putative sequences of β-Glucosidase gene converting platycoside E to platycodin D. Besides, we inferred that some transcription factors can regulate the expression of key enzymes involved in triterpernoid saponins and polysaccharides biosynthesis pathway of P. grandiflorus. Totally, a candidate gene encoding enzyme involved in converting platycoside E to platycodin D, and putative genes involved in polysaccharide synthesis in P. grandiflorus had been identified. This study will help uncover the molecular mechanism of triterpenoid saponins biosynthesis in P. grandiflorus.

Characterization of an antioxidant pectic polysaccharide from Platycodon grandiflorus

Platycodonis Radix is widely used as homology of medicine and food in China; polysaccharides are thought to be one of its functional constituents. In this study, a pectic polysaccharide, PGP-I-I, was obtained from the root of the traditional medicine plant Platycodon grandiflorus through ion exchange chromatography and gel filtration. This was characterized being mainly composed of 1,5-α-L-arabinan and both arabinogalactan type I (AG-I) and II chains linked to rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I) backbone linked to longer galacturonan chains. In vitro bioactivity study showed that PGP-I-I could restore the intestinal cellular antioxidant defense under the condition of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) treatment through promoting the expressions of cellular antioxidant genes and protect against oxidative damages.

Structural characterization of enzymatic modification of Hericium erinaceus polysaccharide and its immune-enhancement activity

In this study, the enzyme degradation of Hericium erinaceus polysaccharide (HEP) was successfully modified with endo-rhamnosidase to obtain the enzymatic hydrolysis of Hericium erinaceus polysaccharide product (EHEP). The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), high performance gel permeation chromatography (HPGPC), Fourier transformed infrared spectrometry (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic particle microscopy (AFM), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and particle size distribution were used to characterize polysaccharides. In vitro, EHEP significantly enhanced the phagocytosis, NO, CD40 and CD86 by macrophage than HEP. In vivo, female Balb/c mice were injected respectively with EHEP and HEP after administrated with cyclophosphamide, once a day for 7 days. On days 11, the morphology and structure of jejunal sections, immunofluorescence of spleen and peritoneal macrophages were determined. These results indicated that the enzymatic hydrolysis product could enhance the activation of peritoneal macrophages, and enhance the immunomodulation function of HEP. This study demonstrated that enzymatic modification was an effective method to improve the activities of HEP, and could be developed as a potential technology for use in pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industry.

Screening active fractions from Pinus massoniana pollen for inhibiting ALV-J replication and their structure activity relationship investigation

The objective was to identify the active fractions of polysaccharide against replication of ALV-J and elucidate their structure activity relationship. The optimal extraction conditions were extracting temperature 90℃, pH 9 and the ratio of liquid to solid 30:1. Under these conditions, extraction yield of total polysaccharide was 6.5 % ± 0.19 %. Total polysaccharide was then purified by DEAE-52 cellulose and Sephadex G-200 gel. Three fractions, PPP-1, PPP-2, and PPP-3, were identified with molecular weight of 463.70, 99.41, and 26.97 kDa, respectively. Three polysaccharide fractions were all composed of 10 monosaccharides in different proportions. Compared with PPP-1, which was mainly composed of glucose, PPP-2 and PPP-3 contained a higher proportion of galactose, glucuronic acid and galacturonic acid. The Congo red assay indicated that the PPP-2 may have a triple helical structure, while PPP-1 and PPP-3 were absent. In vitro assay showed that there was no significant cytotoxicity among the polysaccharide fractions under the concentration of 800 μg mL^-1 (P > 0.05). The antiviral test showed that PPP-2 had the strongest activity, indicating PPP-2 was the major antiviral component. The structure-activity relationship showed that the antiviral activities of polysaccharide fractions were affected by their monosaccharide composition, molecular weight, and triple helical structure, which was a result of a combination of multiple molecular structural factors. These results showed that the PPP-2 could be exploited as a valued product for replacing synthetic antiviral drugs, and provided support for future applications of polysaccharide from Pinus massoniana pollen as a useful source for antiviral agent.

Platycodon grandifloras polysaccharides inhibit mitophagy injury induced by Cr (VI) in DF-1 cells

This study aimed to investigate the role of Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharide (PGPS) in chromium (VI)-induced autophagy in a chicken embryo fibroblast cell lines (DF-1 cells). DF-1 cells were exposed to Cr (VI), PGPS_t, and Cr (VI) + PGPS_t, and their effects on cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and autophagy-related proteins were examined. The results showed that the cell viability was reduced after Cr (VI) treatment, and 3-MA, CsA or PGPS_t suppressed this decrease. Cr (VI) treatment increased the ROS levels and decreased the MMP, thereby enhancing the expression of mitochondrial autophagy marker proteins (PINK1, Parkin, and LC3-II), inhibiting mitophagy autophagy protein TOMM20 expression, and promoting the degradation of autophagy-related marker p62. These changes led to exceeding mitochondrial autophagy and cell trauma and could be mitigated by PGPS_t. Overall, our research showed that Cr (VI) can induce exceeding mitochondrial autophagy in DF-1 cells, whereas PGPS_t can improve Cr (VI)-induced mitochondrial autophagy by inhibiting ROS and restoring MMP.

Effects of carboxymethyl chitosan oligosaccharide on regulating immunologic function and inhibiting tumor growth

Herein, the effects of carboxymethyl chitosan oligosaccharide (CM-COS) on regulating immunologic function and inhibiting hepatocellular tumor growth were evaluated. Results showed that CM-COS caused dramatic viability loss of hepatocellular carcinoma BEL-7402 with non-toxicity towards normal liver L-02 cells. CM-COS repressed tumor growth of hepatoma-22, and elevated the spleen index and thymus index of tumor-bearing mice. Contents of VEGF and MMP-9 were significantly down-regulated by CM-COS. Histological analyses revealed that CM-COS promoted tumor cell necrosis and produced no significant toxicity to spleen tissues. Moreover, expressions of Caspase-3 in tumor tissues and IL-2 in spleen tissues were significantly activated by CM-COS. Additionally, in vitro cell viability, phagocytic capability and NO production of mouse peritoneal macrophages exposed to CM-COS were significantly higher. CM-COS remarkably increased the in vivo phagocytosing capacity of peritoneal macrophages of Kunming mice. Taken together, our findings suggested that CM-COS might be potentially effective and non-toxic candidate as anti-hepatoma agents.

PRP1, a heteropolysaccharide from Platycodonis Radix, induced apoptosis of HepG2 cells via regulating miR-21-mediated PI3K/AKT pathway

Two polysaccharides (PRP1 and PRP2) were isolated from Platycodonis Radix. Preliminary structural analysis indicated that PRP1 was composed of glucose, fructose, and arabinose in a molar ratio of 1:1.91:1.59 with a molecular weight of 440 kDa, whereas PRP2 was composed of arabinose, fructose, and galactose in a molar ratio of 1:1.39:1.18 with a molecular weight of 2.85 kDa. Compared with PRP2, PRP1 exerted stronger anticancer activity in vitro. Treatment with 5-30 μg/ml of PRP1 significantly inhibited the proliferation of HepG2 cells in vitro, and oral administration at the doses of 75-300 mg/kg also reduced the tumor growth in vivo. The miRNA expression patterns of human liver cancer cells HepG2 in vivo under PRP1 treatment were established, and microRNA-21 (miR-21) as the onco-miRNA was appreciably downregulated. PRP1 repressed the expression of miR-21, which directly targeted and suppressed PTEN (a negative regulator of the PI3K/Akt signaling cascade), and subsequently upregulated the expression of PTEN but downregulated the PI3K/AKT pathway, thereby promoting liver cancer cell apoptosis. These findings indicated that PRP1 inhibited the proliferation and induced the apoptosis of HepG2 mainly via inactivating the miR-21/PI3K/AKT pathway. Therefore, PRP1 could be used as a food supplement and candidate for the treatment of liver cancer.

Protective effects of Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharides against apoptosis induced by carbonyl cyanide 3-chlorophenylhydrazone in 3D4/21 cells

This study aimed to investigate the potential protective effects of Platycodon grandiflorus polysaccharide (PGPS) on carbonyl cyanide 3-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP)-induced mitochondrial apoptosis in 3D4/21 cells. Apoptosis-related indicators such as cell viability, apoptosis rate, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and apoptosis-related protein were examined. Results indicated that PGPS_t can inhibit CCCP-induced cell damage, with cell-survival rate reaching 81% and apoptotic rate decreasing to 23%. Nuclear deformation was also significantly reduced in the PGPS_t group, and changes in MMP were inhibited by PGPS_t. Further analyses showed that the protein expression of Caspase-9 and Bcl-2 increased and the expression of cleaved Caspase-3 decreased, indicating that PGPS_t significantly inhibited the CCCP-induced change in apoptotic protein expression. All these results suggested that PGPS_t can antagonize 3D4/21 cell apoptosis by restoring MMP, protecting the integrity of nuclear morphology, and increasing Bcl-2 expression.

Characterization of Inulin-Type Fructan from Platycodon grandiflorus and Study on Its Prebiotic and Immunomodulating Activity

Platycodon grandiflorus is a plant widely used in traditional Chinese medicine, of which polysaccharides are reported to be the main components responsible for its bio-functions. In this work, the inulin-type fructan (PGF) was obtained by DEAE anion exchange chromatography from the water extracted from P. grandifloras. Characterization was performed with methanolysis, methylation, and NMR and the results showed that PGF is a β-(2-1) linked fructan, with terminal glucose and with a degree of polymerization of 2–10. In order to study its biofunctions, the prebiotic and immunomodulation properties were assayed. We found that PGF exhibited good prebiotic activity, as shown by a promotion on six strains of lactobacillus proliferation. Additionally, the PGF also displayed direct immunomodulation on intestinal epithelial cells and stimulated the expressions of anti-inflammatory factors. These results indicated that the inulin from P. grandiflorus is a potential natural source of prebiotics as well as a potential intestinal immunomodulator, which will be valuable for further studies and new applications.

Advances in Research on Immunoregulation of Macrophages by Plant Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are among the most important members of the biopolymer family. They are natural macromolecules composed of monosaccharides. To date, more than 300 kinds of natural polysaccharide compounds have been identified. They are present in plants, animals, and microorganisms, and they engage in a variety of physiological functions. In the 1950s, due to the discovery of their immunoregulatory and anti-tumor activities, polysaccharides became a popular topic of research in pharmacology, especially in immunopharmacology. Plants are an important source of natural polysaccharides. Pharmacological and clinical studies have shown that plant polysaccharides have many functions, such as immune regulation, anti-tumor activity, anti-inflammatory activity, anti-viral functions, anti-radiation functions, and a hypoglycaemic effect. The immunomodulatory effects of plant polysaccharides have received much attention. Polysaccharides with these effects are also referred to as biological response modifiers (BRMs), and research on them is one of the most active areas of polysaccharide research. Thus, we summarize immunomodulatory effects of botanical polysaccharides isolated from different species of plants on the macrophage. The primary effect of botanical polysaccharides is to enhance and/or activate macrophage immune responses, including increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and enhancing secretion of cytokines and chemokines. Therefore, it is believed that botanical polysaccharides have significant therapeutic potential, and represent a new method for discovery and development of novel immunomodulatory medicine.

An Optimized MicroPET Imaging Method for the Distribution and Synergies of Natural Products

Purpose: Understanding the distribution and interaction of the Traditional Chinese Medicines (TCMs) is an integral source of herbal drug discovery. An optimized radio-labeled method was explored that could conduct in situ biodistribution studies in animals. We evaluated the feasibility of the method and applied glycyrrhetinic acid and platycodon (PG) polysaccharides as models.

Procedures: [¹⁸F]-GA is a novel radiotracer which was performed positron emission tomography (PET) studies to assay the biodistribution of GA in mice. In addition, PG polysaccharide was used to intervene the biodistribution and dosimetry of GA. Scanning data were analyzed with professional software.

Results: Record the time-activity curves for all organs then use the normalization method to calculate the area under the curve as a dosimetry for each organ. Moreover, the addition of PG polysaccharides can significantly improve the dosimetry of GA in the lungs, and its effect was related to the administration time.

Conclusion: MicroPET imaging opens up a new avenue for the application of drug interactions between the TCMs.

Effects of Polysaccharides from Platycodon grandiflorum on Immunity-Enhancing Activity In Vitro

The study is aimed at investigating the immunoenhancement activity of polysaccharides from Platycodon grandiflorum polysaccharides (PGPSs) in vitro. In this study, some research on lymphocyte proliferation, cell cycle, and the levels of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells were performed. Four different concentrations of PGPSs (PGPStc, PGPS60c, PGPS80c, and PGPStp) were harvested and added to peripheral blood T lymphocytes. We observed significant increases in T lymphocyte proliferation at PGPStc groups individually or synergistically with phytohemagglutinin (PHA) at most concentrations, and their lymphocyte proliferation rates were the highest. The active sites of PGPStc and PGPS60c were subsequently chosen. Then, we utilized flow cytometry to determine lymphocyte cell cycle distribution and levels of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells. At most time points, PGPStc could facilitate lymphocyte cell cycle progression from the G0/G1 phase to the S and G2/M phases and, simultaneously, increase the levels of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells. These results indicate that PGPStc enhances the immune functions, suggesting that PGPStc could be a potential immunopotentiator for further in vivo and clinical trial experiments.