1
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Zhao H, Xiong M, Yang X, Yao L, Li Z, Zhang J, Lv J. Isolation and target identification of antihepatoma polyprenylphenols from the edible mushroom Suillus granulatus. Food Funct 2024; 15:7430-7440. [PMID: 38904163 DOI: 10.1039/d4fo01500b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/22/2024]
Abstract
Eight polyprenylphenol derivatives were isolated from the wild edible mushroom Suillus granulatus, including seven novel compounds, named suillin F-L (2-8), and one previously identified compound (1). The structures of the new compounds were elucidated using HR-ESI-MS and 1D and 2D NMR data. The absolute configuration of compound 8 was assigned based on the comparison of the experimental and calculated ECD data. All isolated compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxicity against HepG2 cancer cell lines. Compounds 1 and 3-6 demonstrated significant antitumor activity compared to the positive control (cisplatin), with IC50 values ranging from 8.19 to 13.97 μM. Furthermore, DARTS assay and LC-MS/MS analysis were used to identify HSP90AA1 as the direct target of compound 5, and the interaction between compound 5 and HSP90AA1 was verified by molecular docking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanyu Zhao
- College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050024, China.
| | - Miaomiao Xiong
- College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050024, China.
| | - Xiaomin Yang
- College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050024, China.
| | - Lan Yao
- Institute of Biology, Hebei Academy of Science, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050081, China
| | - Zhuang Li
- College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050024, China.
| | - Jinxiu Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050024, China.
| | - Jianhua Lv
- College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050024, China.
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2
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He M, Tang S, Xu T, Yuan Y, Wu T, Pan S, Xu X. Acetylation of the polysaccharide from Houttuynia cordata rhizome and their α-glucosidase inhibition mechanism. J Food Sci 2024; 89:2672-2683. [PMID: 38602052 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.17000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
In this study, the polysaccharide (RHCP) extracted from Houttuynia cordata rhizome was acetylated through the acetic anhydride method. The physicochemical properties of RHCP and its acetylated derivatives (Ac-RHCP) were determined by infrared spectra, scanning electron microscopy, and Congo red test. Meanwhile, the α-glucosidase inhibition mechanism of RHCP and Ac-RHCP was analyzed by inhibition kinetics, and circular dichroism and fluorescence spectroscopy. Ac-RHCP resulted in a more porous surface structure and 1.83-fold higher solubility compared with RHCP. At a concentration of 6 mg/mL, the α-glucosidase inhibition rate of Ac-RHCP was 75.40%, while that of RHCP was 44.68%. RHCP and Ac-RHCP inhibited α-glucosidase in a mixed-type manner, reduced the endogenous fluorescence of α-glucosidase, affected the microenvironment of amino acid residues, and changed the conformation of α-glucosidase. The study indicates that Ac-RHCP exhibits a certain level of α-glucosidase inhibition, demonstrating its potential as a functional food for glycemic control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyao He
- Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology (Ministry of Education), Hubei Key Laboratory of Fruit & Vegetable Processing & Quality Control (Huazhong Agricultural University), College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Shuxin Tang
- Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology (Ministry of Education), Hubei Key Laboratory of Fruit & Vegetable Processing & Quality Control (Huazhong Agricultural University), College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Tingting Xu
- Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology (Ministry of Education), Hubei Key Laboratory of Fruit & Vegetable Processing & Quality Control (Huazhong Agricultural University), College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yanan Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology (Ministry of Education), Hubei Key Laboratory of Fruit & Vegetable Processing & Quality Control (Huazhong Agricultural University), College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ting Wu
- Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology (Ministry of Education), Hubei Key Laboratory of Fruit & Vegetable Processing & Quality Control (Huazhong Agricultural University), College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Siyi Pan
- Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology (Ministry of Education), Hubei Key Laboratory of Fruit & Vegetable Processing & Quality Control (Huazhong Agricultural University), College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaoyun Xu
- Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology (Ministry of Education), Hubei Key Laboratory of Fruit & Vegetable Processing & Quality Control (Huazhong Agricultural University), College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
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3
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Abudurexiti A, Abdurahman A, Zhang R, Zhong Y, Lei Y, Qi S, Hou W, Ma X. Screening of α-Glucosidase Inhibitors in Cichorium glandulosum Boiss. et Huet Extracts and Study of Interaction Mechanisms. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:19401-19417. [PMID: 38708260 PMCID: PMC11064185 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.4c00699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2024] [Revised: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
Cichorium glandulosum Boiss. et Huet (CGB) extract has an α-glucosidase inhibitory effect (IC50 = 59.34 ± 0.07 μg/mL, positive control drug acarbose IC50 = 126.1 ± 0.02 μg/mL), but the precise enzyme inhibitors implicated in this process are not known. The screening of α-glucosidase inhibitors in CGB extracts was conducted by bioaffinity ultrafiltration, and six potential inhibitors (quercetin, lactucin, 3-O-methylquercetin, hyperoside, lactucopicrin, and isochlorogenic acid B) were screened as the precise inhibitors. The binding rate calculations and evaluation of enzyme inhibitory effects showed that lactucin and lactucopicrin exhibited the greatest inhibitory activities. Next, the inhibiting effects of the active components of CGB, lactucin and lactucopicrin, on α-glucosidase and their mechanisms were investigated through α-glucosidase activity assay, enzyme kinetics, multispectral analysis, and molecular docking simulation. The findings demonstrated that lactucin (IC50 = 52.76 ± 0.21 μM) and lactucopicrin (IC50 = 17.71 ± 0.64 μM) exhibited more inhibitory effects on α-glucosidase in comparison to acarbose (positive drug, IC50 = 195.2 ± 0.30 μM). Enzyme kinetic research revealed that lactucin inhibits α-glucosidase through a noncompetitive inhibition mechanism, while lactucopicrin inhibits it through a competitive inhibition mechanism. The fluorescence results suggested that lactucin and lactucopicrin effectively reduce the fluorescence of α-glucosidase by creating lactucin-α-glucosidase and lactucopicrin-α-glucosidase complexes through static quenching. Furthermore, the circular dichroism (CD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analyses revealed that the interaction between lactucin or lactucopicrin and α-glucosidase resulted in a modification of the α-glucosidase's conformation. The findings from molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations offer further confirmation that lactucopicrin has a robust binding affinity for certain residues located within the active cavity of α-glucosidase. Furthermore, it has a greater affinity for α-glucosidase compared to lactucin. The results validate the suppressive impact of lactucin and lactucopicrin on α-glucosidase and elucidate their underlying processes. Additionally, they serve as a foundation for the structural alteration of sesquiterpene derived from CGB, with the intention of using it for the management of diabetic mellitus.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Rui Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Xin Jiang Medical University, Urumqi 830054, China
| | - Yewei Zhong
- School of Pharmacy, Xin Jiang Medical University, Urumqi 830054, China
| | - Yi Lei
- School of Pharmacy, Xin Jiang Medical University, Urumqi 830054, China
| | - Shuwen Qi
- School of Pharmacy, Xin Jiang Medical University, Urumqi 830054, China
| | - Wenhui Hou
- School of Pharmacy, Xin Jiang Medical University, Urumqi 830054, China
| | - Xiaoli Ma
- School of Pharmacy, Xin Jiang Medical University, Urumqi 830054, China
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Cheng Z, Chen J, Zhang Y, Li X, Zhang N, Liu F, Jiao Y. In Vitro Hypoglycemic Activities of Lactobacilli and Bifidobacterium Strains from Healthy Children's Sources and Their Effect on Stimulating GLP-1 Secretion in STC-1 Cells. Foods 2024; 13:519. [PMID: 38397496 PMCID: PMC10887728 DOI: 10.3390/foods13040519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
A long-term use of chemical drugs cannot cure type II diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and their numerous toxic side effects can be harmful to human health. In recent years, probiotics have emerged as a natural resource to replace chemical drugs in alleviating many human ailments. Healthy children's intestines have a lot of colonized Lactobacilli and Bifidobacterium, and these beneficial bacteria can help promote overall health. The objective of this study was to isolate potential antidiabetic probiotic strains from healthy children and evaluate their application prospects. Firstly, Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains were isolated from healthy children's feces and identified by the pheS or clpC genes with their respective 16S rRNA genes. Then, hydrophobicity, artificial gastrointestinal fluid tolerance, α-Glucosidase and Dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) inhibitory activities of isolated strains were determined, and antioxidant activities and promoting secretion of GLP-1 in STC-1 cells of candidate strains were tested. Results showed that 6 strains of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium were obtained from the feces of healthy children aged 3 years, respectively, including Lacticaseibacillus paracasei L-21 and L-25, Levilactobacillus brevis L-16, Lentilactobacillus buchneri L-9, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum L-8 and L-3, Bifidobacterium bifidum 11-1 and B-84, Bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum 6-1, 6-2, B42 and B53. The hydrophobicity and auto-aggregation levels of all these strains were higher than 30% and 50%, respectively, and the decrease in the number of colonies of all strains in the artificial gastrointestinal fluid was less than 2 log CFU/mL. Strains L-3, L-8, L-9, L-21, 6-1, 11-1, B53 and B84 were selected based on their high α-glucosidase inhibitory activity and DPP-IV inhibitory activity, and results of the antioxidant capacity assay showed that the remaining strains all had intense comprehensive antioxidant activity. Additionally, Lacticaseibacillus paracasei L-21 and Bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum B-53 had the most substantial prompting effect on GLP-1 secretion in the STC-1 cell line. These results indicated that Lacticaseibacillus paracasei L-21 and Bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum B-53 could be used as a potential antidiabetic strain; thus, its application as a food supplement and drug ingredient could be recommended after in vivo mitigation of type II diabetes test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiliang Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Science-Ministry of Education, Food College, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (Z.C.); (J.C.); (Y.Z.); (X.L.); (N.Z.)
| | - Jingru Chen
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Science-Ministry of Education, Food College, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (Z.C.); (J.C.); (Y.Z.); (X.L.); (N.Z.)
| | - Yulong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Science-Ministry of Education, Food College, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (Z.C.); (J.C.); (Y.Z.); (X.L.); (N.Z.)
| | - Xinyi Li
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Science-Ministry of Education, Food College, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (Z.C.); (J.C.); (Y.Z.); (X.L.); (N.Z.)
| | - Ning Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Science-Ministry of Education, Food College, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (Z.C.); (J.C.); (Y.Z.); (X.L.); (N.Z.)
| | - Fei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Science-Ministry of Education, Food College, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (Z.C.); (J.C.); (Y.Z.); (X.L.); (N.Z.)
| | - Yuehua Jiao
- Center of Drug Safety Evaluation, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin 150040, China
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5
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Yu D, Xing K, Wang N, Wang X, Zhang S, Du J, Zhang L. Effect of dynamic high-pressure microfluidization treatment on soybean protein isolate-rutin non-covalent complexes. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 259:129217. [PMID: 38184043 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.129217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/08/2024]
Abstract
In this investigation, soybean protein isolate-rutin (SPI-RT) complexes were treated using dynamic high-pressure microfluidization (DHPM). The effects of this process on the physicochemical and thermodynamic properties of SPI were investigated at different pressures. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and fluorescence spectroscopy provided evidence that the SPI structure had been altered. The binding of SPI to RT resulted in a decrease in the percentage of α-helices and random curls as well as an increase in the percentage of β-sheets. In particular, the α-helix content decreased from 29.84 % to 26.46 %, the random curl content decreased from 17.45 % to 15.57 %, and the β-sheet content increased from 25.37 % to 26.53 %. Moreover, fluorescence intensity decreased, and the emission peak of the complex was red-shifted by 6 nm, exposing the internal groups. Based on fluorescence quenching analysis, optimal SPI-RT complexation was achieved after 120-MPa DHPM treatment, and molecular docking analysis verified the interaction between SPI and RT. The minimum particle size, maximum absolute potential, and total phenolic content of the complexes were 78.06 nm, 21.4 mV and 74.35 nmol/mg protein, respectively. Furthermore, laser confocal microscopy revealed that the complex particles had the best microstructure. Non-covalent interactions between the two were confirmed using sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Moreover, the hydrophobicity of the complex particle's surface increased to 16,045 after 120-MPa DHPM treatment. The results of this study suggest that DHPM strongly promotes the improvement of the physicochemical properties of SPI, and provide a theoretical groundwork for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dianyu Yu
- Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China.
| | - Kaiwen Xing
- Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China.
| | - Ning Wang
- Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Xu Wang
- Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | | | - Jing Du
- Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China.
| | - Lili Zhang
- Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China.
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6
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Zhou HB, Feng LJ, Weng XH, Wang T, Lu H, Bian YB, Huang ZY, Zhang JL. Inhibition mechanism of cordycepin and ergosterol from Cordyceps militaris Link. against xanthine oxidase and cyclooxygenase-2. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 258:128898. [PMID: 38141695 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/25/2023]
Abstract
Cordyceps militaris Link. (C. militaris) is an entomopathogenic fungus that parasitizes the pupa or cocoon of lepidopteran insect larvae, with various bioactive compounds. Cordycepin and ergosterol are the two active components in C. militaris. This study aimed to evaluate the inhibitory activity of cordycepin and ergosterol against xanthine oxidase (XO) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), as well as investigate the inhibition mechanism. Cordycepin could better inhibit XO (IC50 = 0.014 mg/mL) and COX-2 (IC50 = 0.055 mg/mL) than ergosterol. Additionally, surface hydrophobicity and circular dichroism (CD) spectra results confirmed the conformational changes in enzymes induced by cordycepin and ergosterol. Finally, cordycepin and ergosterol significantly decreased uric acid (UA) and inflammatory factors to normal level in mice with gouty nephropathy (GN). This study could provide theoretical evidence for utilization of C. militaris in hyperuricemia-management functional foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- H B Zhou
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - L J Feng
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - X H Weng
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - T Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - H Lu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Y B Bian
- College of Plant Science & Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Wuhan HUAYU XINMEI Mushroom industry Company Limited, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Z Y Huang
- Wuhan HUAYU XINMEI Mushroom industry Company Limited, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - J L Zhang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, Ministry of Education, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China.
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7
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Zahra S, Zaib S, Khan I. Identification of isobenzofuranone derivatives as promising antidiabetic agents: Synthesis, in vitro and in vivo inhibition of α-glucosidase and α-amylase, computational docking analysis and molecular dynamics simulations. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 259:129241. [PMID: 38199537 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.129241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus, one of the major health challenges of the 21st century, is associated with numerous biomedical complications including retinopathy, neuropathy, nephropathy, cardiovascular diseases and liver disorders. To control the chronic hyperglycemic condition, the development of potential inhibitors of drug targets such as α-glucosidase and α-amylase remains a promising strategy and focus of continuous efforts. Therefore, in the present work, a concise library of isobenzofuranone derivatives (3a-q) was designed and synthesized using Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling approach. The biological potential of these heterocyclic compounds against carbohydrate-hydrolyzing enzymes; α-glucosidase and α-amylase, was examined. In vitro inhibitory results demonstrated that the tested isobenzofuranones were considerably more effective and potent inhibitors than the standard drug, acarbose. Compound 3d having an IC50 value of 6.82 ± 0.02 μM was emerged as the lead candidate against α-glucosidase with ⁓127-folds strong inhibition than acarbose. Similarly, compound 3g demonstrated ⁓11-folds higher inhibition strength against α-amylase when compared with acarbose. Both compounds were tested in vivo and results demonstrate that the treatment of diabetic rats with α-amylase inhibitor show more pronounced histopathological normalization in kidney and liver than with α-glucosidase inhibitor. The Lineweaver-Burk plot revealed an uncompetitive mode of inhibition for 3d against α-glucosidase whereas compound 3g exhibited mixed inhibition against α-amylase. Furthermore, in silico molecular docking and dynamics simulations validated the in vitro data for these compounds whereas pharmacokinetics profile revealed the druglike properties of potent inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shabab Zahra
- Department of Basic and Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Central Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
| | - Sumera Zaib
- Department of Basic and Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Central Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan.
| | - Imtiaz Khan
- Department of Chemistry and Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom.
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8
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Chen J, Zhang Z, Li H, Tang H. Exploring the effect of a series of flavonoids on tyrosinase using integrated enzyme kinetics, multispectroscopic, and molecular modelling analyses. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 252:126451. [PMID: 37619686 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
The control of food browning can be achieved by inhibiting tyrosinase (TY) activity, but current studies on the interaction of flavonoids as potent inhibitors with TY are inadequate. Herein, the effect of a library of flavonoids on TY was investigated using enzyme kinetics, multispectroscopic methods, and molecular modelling. Some flavonoids including 4, 8, 10, 17, 18, 28, 30, 33, and 34 exhibited potent TY inhibitory activity, with compound 10 demonstrating reversible inhibition in a mixed-competitive manner. Ultraviolet-visible spectral changes confirmed the formation of flavonoid-TY complexes. Fluorescence quenching analysis suggested effective intrinsic fluorescence quenching by flavonoids through static quenching with the ground-state complex formation. Synchronous fluorescence spectra showed the microenvironment change around the fluorophores induced by flavonoids. ANS-binding fluorescence assay indicated TY's surface hydrophobicity change by flavonoids and highlighted the change in secondary structure conformation, which was further confirmed by Fourier-transform infrared spectra. Molecular modelling results helped visualize the preferred binding conformation at the active site of TY, and demonstrated the important role of hydrophobic interaction and hydrogen bonding in stabilizing the flavonoid-TY complexes. These findings prove that diverse flavonoid structures distinctly impact their binding behavior on TY and contribute to understanding flavonoids' potential as TY inhibitors in controlling food browning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Chen
- College of Biological and Food Engineering, Anhui Polytechnic University, Wuhu 241000, PR China
| | - Zhuangwei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Huihui Li
- College of Biological and Food Engineering, Anhui Polytechnic University, Wuhu 241000, PR China
| | - Hongjin Tang
- College of Biological and Food Engineering, Anhui Polytechnic University, Wuhu 241000, PR China.
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9
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Yin HH, Han YL, Yan X, Guan YX. Hematoxylin modulates tau-RD protein fibrillization and ameliorates Alzheimer's disease-like symptoms in a yeast model. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 250:126140. [PMID: 37543268 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2023] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/07/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most serious neurodegenerative diseases with no effective treatment options available. The formation of insoluble amyloid fibrils of the hyperphosphorylated tau protein is intimately associated with AD, hence the tau protein has been a key target for AD drug development. In this work, hematoxylin was discovered as a dual functional compound, that is, acting in the inhibition of repeat domain of tau (tau-RD) protein fibrillogenesis and remodeling of pre-formed tau-RD fibrils in vitro. Meanwhile, hematoxylin was able to reduce the accumulation of tau-RD aggregates in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Experimental and computational studies indicated that hematoxylin directly interacts with tau-RD protein through hydrophobic forces, hydrogen bonds, π-cation interactions, and π-π stackings. In addition, cellular viability assays showed that hematoxylin greatly reduced cytotoxicity induced by tau-RD aggregates. In summary, hematoxylin might be a promising candidate for further development as a potential therapeutic drug for AD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan-Huan Yin
- College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yin-Lei Han
- College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xiao Yan
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, 01307 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Yi-Xin Guan
- College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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10
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Li Y, Jia S, Zhang Y, Huang L, He R, Ma H. Characterization of the interaction between allicin and soy protein isolate and functional properties of the adducts. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2023; 103:5156-5164. [PMID: 37005328 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.12593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Soybean meal, a by-product of the soybean oil production industry, has a high protein content but the compact globular structure of the protein from soybean meal limits its wide application in food processing. Allicin has been found to have numerous functional properties. In this study, allicin was interacted with soy protein isolate (SPI). The functional properties of the adducts were investigated. RESULTS Binding with allicin significantly quenched the fluorescence intensity of SPI. Static quenching was the main quenching mechanism. The stability of adducts decreased with increasing temperature. The greatest extent of binding between allicin and sulfhydryl groups (SH) of SPI was obtained at an allicin/SH molar ratio of 1:2. The amino groups of SPI did not bind with allicin covalently. Soy protein isolate was modified by allicin through covalent and non-covalent interactions. Compared with SPI, the emulsifying activity index and foaming capacity of adducts with a ratio of 3:1 were improved by 39.91% and 64.29%, respectively. Soy protein isolate-allicin adducts also exhibited obvious antibacterial effects. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of SPI-allicin adducts on Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were 200 and 160 μg mL-1 , respectively. CONCLUSION The interaction of allicin with SPI is beneficial for the functional properties of SPI. These adducts can be used in different food formulations as emulsifiers, foamers, and transport carriers. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunliang Li
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
- Institute of Food Physical Processing, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Shifang Jia
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Yubin Zhang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Liurong Huang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
- Institute of Food Physical Processing, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Ronghai He
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
- Institute of Food Physical Processing, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Haile Ma
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
- Institute of Food Physical Processing, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
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11
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Qin Y, Chen X, Xu F, Gu C, Zhu K, Zhang Y, Wu G, Wang P, Tan L. Effects of hydroxylation at C3' on the B ring and diglycosylation at C3 on the C ring on flavonols inhibition of α-glucosidase activity. Food Chem 2023; 406:135057. [PMID: 36459800 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.135057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 11/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The structure-activity relationship and inhibitory mechanism of flavonols on α-glucosidase were studied by inhibition kinetics, multispectral study, and molecular docking. The flavonols of rutin, quercetin and kaempferol effectively inhibit the activity of α-glucosidase, among which quercetin and rutin showed the strongest and weakest inhibitory abilities, respectively. The inhibitory ability of flavonols was enhanced by hydroxylation at C3' of B ring, while it was weakened by diglycosylation at C3 of C ring. Remarkably, the quenching affinity and inhibitory ability of flavonols were inconsistent, which was different from the conclusions reported by some previous studies. This may be ascribed to the hydroxyl groups of C3' of B ring and C3 of C ring. Furthermore, three flavonols were spontaneously bound to α-glucosidase through hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding, which caused the structure and hydrophobic microenvironment of α-glucosidase to change, resulting in significant inhibition of α-glucosidase by flavonols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajuan Qin
- Spice and Beverage Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; School of Forest, Northeast Forestry University, Haerbin 150040, Heilongjiang, China; National Center of Important Tropical Crops Engineering and Technology Research, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; Key Laboratory of Processing Suitability and Quality Control of the Special Tropical Crops of Hainan Province, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China
| | - Xiaoai Chen
- Spice and Beverage Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; National Center of Important Tropical Crops Engineering and Technology Research, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; Key Laboratory of Processing Suitability and Quality Control of the Special Tropical Crops of Hainan Province, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China
| | - Fei Xu
- Spice and Beverage Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; National Center of Important Tropical Crops Engineering and Technology Research, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; Key Laboratory of Processing Suitability and Quality Control of the Special Tropical Crops of Hainan Province, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China
| | - Chunhe Gu
- Spice and Beverage Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; National Center of Important Tropical Crops Engineering and Technology Research, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; Key Laboratory of Processing Suitability and Quality Control of the Special Tropical Crops of Hainan Province, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China
| | - Kexue Zhu
- Spice and Beverage Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; National Center of Important Tropical Crops Engineering and Technology Research, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; Key Laboratory of Processing Suitability and Quality Control of the Special Tropical Crops of Hainan Province, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China
| | - Yanjun Zhang
- Spice and Beverage Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; National Center of Important Tropical Crops Engineering and Technology Research, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; Key Laboratory of Processing Suitability and Quality Control of the Special Tropical Crops of Hainan Province, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China.
| | - Gang Wu
- Spice and Beverage Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; National Center of Important Tropical Crops Engineering and Technology Research, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; Key Laboratory of Processing Suitability and Quality Control of the Special Tropical Crops of Hainan Province, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China
| | - Ping Wang
- School of Forest, Northeast Forestry University, Haerbin 150040, Heilongjiang, China.
| | - Lehe Tan
- Spice and Beverage Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; National Center of Important Tropical Crops Engineering and Technology Research, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China; Key Laboratory of Processing Suitability and Quality Control of the Special Tropical Crops of Hainan Province, Wanning 571533, Hainan, China.
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12
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Zhang S, Dongye Z, Wang L, Li Z, Kang M, Qian Y, Cheng X, Ren Y, Chen C. Influence of environmental pH on the interaction properties of WP-EGCG non-covalent nanocomplexes. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2023. [PMID: 37029636 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.12611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Whey protein-epigallocatechin gallate (WP-EGCG) covalent conjugates and non-covalent nanocomplexes were prepared and compared using Fourier-transform infrared spectra. The effect of pH (at 2.6, 6.2, 7.1, and 8.2) on the non-covalent nanocomplexes' functional properties and the WP-EGCG interactions were investigated by studying antioxidant activity, emulsification, fluorescence quenching, and molecular docking, respectively. RESULTS With the formation of non-covalent and covalent complexes, the amide band decreased; the -OH peak disappeared; the antioxidant activity of WP-EGCG non-covalent complexes was 2.59- and 2.61-times stronger than WP-EGCG covalent conjugates for 1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP), respectively (particle size: 137 versus 370 nm). The antioxidant activity (DPPH 27.48-44.32%, FRAP 0.47-0.63) was stronger at pH 6.2-7.1 than at pH 2.6 and pH 8.2 (DPPH 19.50% and 26.36%, FRAP 0.39 and 0.41). Emulsification was highest (emulsifying activity index 181 m2 g-1 , emulsifying stability index 107%) at pH 7.1. The interaction between whey protein (WP) and EGCG was stronger under neutral and weakly acidic conditions: KSV (5.11-8.95 × 102 L mol-1 ) and Kq (5.11-8.95 × 1010 L mol s-1 ) at pH 6.2-7.1. Binding constants (pH 6.2 and pH 7.1) increased with increasing temperature. Molecular docking suggested that hydrophobic interactions played key roles at pH 6.2 and pH 7.1 (∆H > 0, ∆S > 0). Hydrogen bonding was the dominant force at pH 2.6 and pH 8.2 (∆H < 0, ∆S < 0). CONCLUSION Environmental pH impacted the binding forces of WP-EGCG nanocomplexes. The interaction between WP and EGCG was stronger under neutral and weakly acidic conditions. Neutral and weakly acidic conditions are preferable for WP-EGCG non-covalent nanocomplex formation. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuangling Zhang
- College of Food Science & Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, P. R. China
| | - Zixuan Dongye
- College of Food Science & Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, P. R. China
| | - Li Wang
- College of Food Science & Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, P. R. China
| | - Zhenru Li
- College of Food Science & Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, P. R. China
| | - Mengchen Kang
- College of Food Science & Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, P. R. China
| | - Yaru Qian
- College of Food Science & Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, P. R. China
| | - Xiaofang Cheng
- College of Food Science & Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, P. R. China
| | - Yuhang Ren
- College of Food Science & Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, P. R. China
| | - Chengwang Chen
- College of Food Science & Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, P. R. China
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13
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Gök Y, Taslimi P, Şen B, Bal S, Aktaş A, Aygün M, Sadeghi M, Gülçin İ. Design, Synthesis, Characterization, Crystal Structure, In silico Studies, and Inhibitory Properties of the PEPPSI Type Pd(II)NHC Complexes Bearing Chloro/Fluorobenzyl Group. Bioorg Chem 2023; 135:106513. [PMID: 37030104 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2023.106513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
This work contains synthesis, characterization, crystal structure, and biological activity of a new series of the PEPPSI type Pd(II)NHC complexes [(NHC)Pd(II)(3-Cl-py)]. NMR, FTIR, and elemental analysis techniques were used to characterize all (NHC)Pd(II)(3-Cl-py) complexes. Also, molecular and crystal structures of complex 1c were established by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Regarding the X-ray studies, the palladium(II) atom has a slightly distorted square-planar coordination environment. Additionally, the enzyme inhibitory effect of new (NHC)Pd(II)(3-Cl-py) complexes (1a-1g) was studied. They exhibited highly potent inhibition effect on acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and carbonic anhydrases (hCAs) (Ki values are in the range of 0.08 ± 0.01 to 0.65 ± 0.06 µM, 10.43 ± 0.98 to 22.48 ± 2.01 µM, 6.58 ± 0.30 to 10.88 ± 1.01 µM and 6.34 ± 0.37 to 9.02 ± 0.72 µM for AChE, BChE, hCA I, and hCA II, respectively). Based on the molecular docking, among the seven synthesized complexes, 1c, 1b, 1e, and 1a significantly inhibited AChE, BChE, hCA I, and hCA II enzymes, respectively. The findings highpoint that (NHC)Pd(II)(3-Cl-py) complexes can be considered as possible inhibitors via metabolic enzyme inhibition.
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14
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Liu H, Zheng C, Li Z, Xia X, Jiang D, Wang W, Zhang R, Xiang X. Inhibitory mechanism of phenolic compounds in rapeseed oil on α-amylase and α-glucosidase: Spectroscopy, molecular docking, and molecular dynamic simulation. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2023; 289:122251. [PMID: 36542921 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2022.122251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Developing naturally active components to control α-amylase/α-glucosidase activity is highly desired for preventing and managing type 2 diabetes. Rapeseed oil is rich in active phenolic compounds and seed oil is a major source of liposoluble inhibitors to these enzymes. However, it remains unclear about the interaction of phenolic compounds in rapeseed oil with α-amylase/α-glucosidase. This study found that the important phenolic compounds from rapeseed oil (Sinapic acid, SA; canolol, CAO; canolol dimer, CAO dimer) possessed effective inhibition performance against α-amylase and α-glucosidase. CAO showed the lowest and highest inhibitory effect, respectively. In the kinetics studies, the inhibition mechanism of SA/CAO/CAO dimer against α-glucosidase was non-competitive, exhibiting a different way from α-amylase. Fluorescence quenching spectra implied that the static processes were responsible for the spontaneous binding between the compounds and enzymes. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) displayed these compounds-induced conformation alterations of α-amylase/α-glucosidase. Molecular docking revealed that SA/CAO/CAO dimer decreased the catalytic efficiency of α-amylase/α-glucosidase through hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic force, or π-π interaction. Molecular dynamics matched well with the experimental and docking results regarding the inhibitory behaviors and interactions toward α-amylase/α-glucosidase. These results demonstrated the potential benefits of phenolic compounds from rapeseed oil in antidiabetic-related activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huihui Liu
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Oil Crops and Lipids Process Technology National & Local Joint Engineering Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Oilseeds Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Hubei Key Laboratory of Lipid Chemistry and Nutrition, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Chang Zheng
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Oil Crops and Lipids Process Technology National & Local Joint Engineering Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Oilseeds Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Hubei Key Laboratory of Lipid Chemistry and Nutrition, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Ziliang Li
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Oil Crops and Lipids Process Technology National & Local Joint Engineering Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Oilseeds Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Hubei Key Laboratory of Lipid Chemistry and Nutrition, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Xiaoyang Xia
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Oil Crops and Lipids Process Technology National & Local Joint Engineering Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Oilseeds Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Hubei Key Laboratory of Lipid Chemistry and Nutrition, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Dan Jiang
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Oil Crops and Lipids Process Technology National & Local Joint Engineering Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Oilseeds Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Hubei Key Laboratory of Lipid Chemistry and Nutrition, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Wen Wang
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Oil Crops and Lipids Process Technology National & Local Joint Engineering Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Oilseeds Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Hubei Key Laboratory of Lipid Chemistry and Nutrition, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Ruiying Zhang
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Oil Crops and Lipids Process Technology National & Local Joint Engineering Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Oilseeds Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Hubei Key Laboratory of Lipid Chemistry and Nutrition, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Xia Xiang
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Oil Crops and Lipids Process Technology National & Local Joint Engineering Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Oilseeds Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Hubei Key Laboratory of Lipid Chemistry and Nutrition, Wuhan 430062, China.
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15
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Isolation and Identification of Lipid-Lowering Peptides from Sacha Inchi Meal. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24021529. [PMID: 36675040 PMCID: PMC9863159 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Sacha inchi meal (SIM) is a by-product of sacha inchi (considered as a "super-food") processing. In previous studies, we found that SIM protein hydrolysates exhibited pancreatic lipase inhibition activity. In this study, 10 bioactive peptides from those hydrolysates were identified. The top five peptides (NLYYKVV (NV-7), WWYVK (WK-5), WLLMWPYK (WK-8), EGLLMWPY (EY-8), and FPFFGYVWK (FK-9)) with strong pancreatic lipase inhibition activity had IC50 values of 34.01-246.50 µM, and displayed various inhibition types (mixed, non-competitive, and competitive type) by enzyme inhibition kinetics analysis. Fluorescence quenching analysis demonstrated that the interaction between the peptides and pancreatic lipase was mainly hydrogen bond and van der Waals force. The key residues involved in the peptide-enzyme interaction were determined by molecular docking. Moreover, the top two peptides were found to significantly inhibit fat accumulation and regulate lipid metabolism by alleviating the level of reactive oxygen species in HepG2 cells. Collectively, sacha inchi meal-derived peptides displayed potent lipid-lowering activity and could be used as materials of functional food.
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16
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Jiang H, Zhou L, Sun Y, Yu K, Yu W, Tian Y, Liu J, Zou L, Liu W. Polyphenol oxidase inhibited by 4-hydroxycinnamic acid and naringenin: Multi-spectroscopic analyses and molecular docking simulation at different pH. Food Chem 2022; 396:133662. [PMID: 35839725 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.133662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
It is still unclear how pH affects the inhibitory effects of phenolic acids and flavonoids on polyphenol oxidase (PPO). In this study, 4-hydroxycinnamic acid and naringenin were selected to investigate their interactions with PPO from pH 6.8 to 5.0. Results showed that acidic pH could enhance the inhibitory effect of inhibitors and a greater enhancement effect was observed in 4-hydroxycinnamic acid. Fluorescence emission spectra indicated that 4-hydroxycinnamic acid and naringenin interacted with PPO and quenched its intrinsic fluorescence, which was also enhanced by acidic pH. Circular dichroism suggested that 4-hydroxycinnamic acid and naringenin could reversibly bind to PPO molecules and transform α-helix into β-sheet. Molecular docking results revealed that 4-hydroxycinnamic acid and naringenin interacted with PPO through hydrogen bond and hydrophobic interaction, and more interactions were observed near the carboxyl group. These results indicated that acidic pH could significantly enhance the inhibitory effect of phenolic acid on PPO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongwei Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Lei Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China.
| | - Yuefang Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Kaibo Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Wenzhi Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Yuqing Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Junping Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Liqiang Zou
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Wei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China; National R&D Center for Freshwater Fish Processing, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang 330022, China
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17
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Shen H, Wang J, Ao J, Cai Y, Xi M, Hou Y, Li M, Luo A. Inhibitory kinetics and mechanism of active compounds in green walnut husk against α-glucosidase: Spectroscopy and molecular docking analyses. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2022.114179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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18
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Han S, Cui F, McClements DJ, Xu X, Ma C, Wang Y, Liu X, Liu F. Structural Characterization and Evaluation of Interfacial Properties of Pea Protein Isolate-EGCG Molecular Complexes. Foods 2022; 11:foods11182895. [PMID: 36141023 PMCID: PMC9498586 DOI: 10.3390/foods11182895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Revised: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Highlights Pea protein isolate (PPI) and EGCG spontaneously formed complexes. Protein–polyphenol complexation was mainly driven by hydrogen bonding. The binding of EGCG influenced the structure and functionality of PPI. PPI-EGCG complexes had better emulsifier properties than PPI.
Abstract There is increasing interest in using plant-derived proteins in foods and beverages for environmental, health, and ethical reasons. However, the inherent physicochemical properties and functional performance of many plant proteins limit their widespread application. Here, we prepared pea protein isolate (PPI) dispersions using a combined pH-shift/heat treatment method, and then, prepared PPI-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) complexes under neutral conditions. Spectroscopy, calorimetry, molecular docking, and light scattering analysis demonstrated that the molecular complexes formed spontaneously. This was primarily ascribed to hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces. The complexation of EGCG caused changes in the secondary structure of PPI, including the reduction in the α-helix and increase in the β-sheet and disordered regions. These changes slightly decreased the thermal stability of the protein. With the accretion of EGCG, the hydrophilicity of the complexes increased significantly, which improved the functional attributes of the protein. Optimization of the PPI-to-EGCG ratio led to the complexes having better foaming and emulsifying properties than the protein alone. This study could broaden the utilization of pea proteins as functional ingredients in foods. Moreover, protein–polyphenol complexes can be used as multifunctional ingredients, such as antioxidants or nutraceutical emulsifiers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Han
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Fengzhan Cui
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China
| | | | - Xingfeng Xu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao 266109, China
| | - Cuicui Ma
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Yutang Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Xuebo Liu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China
| | - Fuguo Liu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China
- Correspondence:
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19
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Sadeghi M, Sheikhi M, Miroliaei M. Control of eriocitrin release from pH-sensitive gelatin-based microgels to inhibit α-glucosidase: an experimental and computational study. Food Funct 2022; 13:10055-10068. [PMID: 36093798 DOI: 10.1039/d2fo00824f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
α-Glucosidase is among the intestinal epithelial enzymes that produce absorbable glucose in the final stage of glycan catabolism. It leads to an increase in blood glucose levels as a result of high glucose uptake in diabetic patients. However, inhibition of this essential biochemical process can be a useful therapeutic approach to diabetes mellitus (DM). Eriocitrin (ER) is an abundant "flavanone glycoside" in citrus fruits with rich antioxidant properties whose effects on α-Glu inhibition in the small intestine remain to be determined. Herein, pH-sensitive microgels (MGs) were designed based on cross-linked methacrylate with acrylamide (AM) and acrylic acid (AAc) (molar ratio 70 : 30 of AAc : AM) as a controlled release system for sustained delivery of ER into the small intestine. The presence of amide and acrylate in MGs and the mechanical resistance were determined using FT-IR spectroscopy, rheology, and viscoelastometry. In vitro experiments showed that MGs could protect ER against diffusion in the gastric location and adjust its release in the intestinal milieu. The intestinal α-Glu activity was inhibited by ER (IC50 value of 12.50 ± 0.73 μM) in an uncompetitive dose-dependent manner. The presence of ER altered the structure of α-Glu and reduced the hydrophobic pockets of the enzyme. Molecular docking analysis along with molecular dynamics simulation displayed that ER-α-Glu formation is directed by hydrogen binding with Asp69, Asp215, Glu411, Asp307, and Tyr347 residues. Moreover, in vivo assessment showed that rat blood glucose concentration decreased after ER administration compared with the control group. The results highlight that ER-loaded-MGs can be considered as a useful releasing strategy in treating DM via α-Glu inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morteza Sadeghi
- Faculty of Biological Science and Technology, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology & Microbiology, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran.
| | - Mehdi Sheikhi
- Polymer Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Mehran Miroliaei
- Faculty of Biological Science and Technology, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology & Microbiology, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran.
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20
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Zhong Y, Yang L, Dai T, Zhu Z, Chen H, Wu J, Gong ES. Flavonoids enhance gel strength of ovalbumin: Properties, structures, and interactions. Food Chem 2022; 387:132892. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.132892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2021] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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21
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Jia B, Wei Z, Kong X, Xia S, Gan L, Han S. Antioxidant Properties of Larch Tannins with Different Mean Polymerization Degrees: Controlled Degradation Based on Hydroxyl Radical Degradation. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:9367-9376. [PMID: 35866722 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c02389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Hydroxyl radical produced by hydrogen peroxide decomposition under UV radiation was used to degrade larch tannins in an environmentally friendly manner. The formaldehyde reactivity of the degraded products was used as an index to control the mean degree of polymerization (mDP) of the degraded products, and the effects of different mDP on the antioxidant activity of tannins were studied. Results showed that hydroxyl radical could significantly reduce the degree of polymerization (DP) and molecular weight (Mw) of larch tannins, and the mDP and Mw of degraded products could be controlled by considering the formaldehyde reactivity as the index. The antioxidant activity of larch tannins increased with the decrease in mDP. When the degradation time was 6 h, the formaldehyde reactivity was the highest at 0.823. The antioxidant activity of the degraded product was excellent, and the free radical scavenging rate was more than 98%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Jia
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
- Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Zhenyu Wei
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
- Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Xiangnan Kong
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
- Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Shitao Xia
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
- Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Lu Gan
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
- Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Shuguang Han
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
- Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
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22
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Oliveira ESC, Acho LDR, da Silva BJP, Morales-Gamba RD, Pontes FLD, do Rosário AS, Bezerra JDA, Campos FR, Barcellos JFM, Lima ES, Machado MB. Hypoglycemic effect and toxicity of the dry extract of Eugenia biflora (L.) DC. leaves. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2022; 293:115276. [PMID: 35421528 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2022.115276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE The leaves of Eugenia biflora (Myrtaceae) are traditionally used by Amazonian populations for the control of diabetes. However, their chemical composition has not yet been described and pharmacological evidence has not been reported. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to identify the chemical constituents and evaluate the hypoglycemic and toxic effect of the dry extract of the E. biflora leaves (DEEB). MATERIALS AND METHODS DEEB, obtained by infusion, was analyzed using LC-HRMS and NMR, whose the catechin flavonoid was quantified using NMR. The antidiabetic effect of DEEB was evaluated according to its inhibition of the enzymes α-amylase and α-glucosidase, as well as the content of total phenols, free radical scavengingand antiglycation activities, and its in vitro cell viability. Oral maltose tolerance and chronic multiple dose tests (28 days) in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice (STZ) were performed. The hypoglycemic effect and toxicity of this extract were evaluated in the multiple dose assay. Biochemical parameters, hemolysis, and levels of the thiobarbituric acid reactive species in the liver were investigated and histopathological analyses of the kidneys and liver were performed. RESULTS Eight phenolic compounds were identified, with catechin (15.5 ± 1.7 mg g-1) being the majority compound and a possible chemical marker of DEEB. The extract showed inhibition activity of the enzyme α-glucosidase. Chronic administration of DEEB (50 mg/kg of body weight) reduced glucose levels in diabetic animals, similar to acarbose; however, DEEB (100 and 200 mg/kg bw) caused premature death of mice by D22 of the treatment. Our data indicate that one of the mechanisms of toxicity in DEEB may be related to the aggravation of oxidative stress in the liver. This histopathological study indicated that DEEB failed to minimize the progression of the toxicity of diabetes caused by STZ. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrated the hypoglycemic potential of E. biflora leaves. However, the prolonged use of this tea can be harmful to its users due to its considerable toxicity, which needs to be better investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edinilze S C Oliveira
- Núcleo de Estudos Químicos de Micromoléculas da Amazônia - NEQUIMA, Instituto de Ciências Exatas, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Leonard D R Acho
- Laboratório de Atividade Biológica, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Amazonas Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Bárbara Janaína P da Silva
- Laboratório de Atividade Biológica, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Amazonas Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Ruben Dario Morales-Gamba
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Zoologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Flávia L D Pontes
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Alessandro S do Rosário
- Engenharia Florestal, Campus Paragominas, Universidade Federal Rural da Amazônia, Paragominas, Pará, Brazil
| | - Jaqueline de A Bezerra
- Núcleo de Estudos Químicos de Micromoléculas da Amazônia - NEQUIMA, Instituto de Ciências Exatas, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil; Departamento de Química, Ambiente e Alimentos, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Francinete R Campos
- Núcleo de Estudos Químicos de Micromoléculas da Amazônia - NEQUIMA, Instituto de Ciências Exatas, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil; Departamento de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - José Fernando M Barcellos
- Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Emerson S Lima
- Laboratório de Atividade Biológica, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Amazonas Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Marcos B Machado
- Núcleo de Estudos Químicos de Micromoléculas da Amazônia - NEQUIMA, Instituto de Ciências Exatas, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil.
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Han L, Song J, Yan C, Wang C, Wang L, Li W, Du Y, Li Q, Liang T. Inhibitory activity and mechanism of calycosin and calycosin-7-O-β-D-glucoside on α-glucosidase: Spectroscopic and molecular docking analyses. Process Biochem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2022.04.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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24
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Zhong Y, Yang L, Zhu Z, Chen H, Liu C, Dai T, Gong ES. Protective effect of ovalbumin-flavonoid hydrogel on thrombolytic activity and stability of nattokinase. Food Res Int 2022; 156:111188. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Dai T, McClements DJ, Hu T, Chen J, He X, Liu C, Sheng J, Sun J. Improving foam performance using colloidal protein-polyphenol complexes: Lactoferrin and tannic acid. Food Chem 2022; 377:131950. [PMID: 34998155 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this study, colloidal complexes were prepared from bovine lactoferrin (BLF) and tannic acid (TA) and then their ability to form and stabilize foams was characterized. The molecular interactions between BLF and TA were studied using fluorescence and molecular docking analysis, which suggested that hydrophobic forces were primarily involved in holding the complexes together. The production of colloidal BLF-TA complexes was supported by increases in turbidity and mean particle diameter, quenching of intrinsic fluorescence, decrease in surface hydrophobicity, and change in conformation. When used alone, BLF exhibited good foam formation but poor foam stability properties. In contrast, BLF-TA complexes exhibited good foam stability but poor foamability properties. The change in foaming properties of the proteins was closely related to their interactions with the polyphenols. These findings may be useful for the development of novel functional ingredients to construct food foams with good physicochemical and nutritional attributes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taotao Dai
- Agro-food Science and Technology Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Fruits and Vegetables Storage-processing Technology, Nanning, Guangxi, 530007, China; State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, No. 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, China
| | | | - Ting Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, No. 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Jun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, No. 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Xuemei He
- Agro-food Science and Technology Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning, China.
| | - Chengmei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, No. 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, China
| | - Jinfeng Sheng
- Agro-food Science and Technology Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning, China
| | - Jian Sun
- Agro-food Science and Technology Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Fruits and Vegetables Storage-processing Technology, Nanning, Guangxi, 530007, China.
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26
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Wang Y, Xie Y, Wang A, Wang J, Wu X, Wu Y, Fu Y, Sun H. Insights into interactions between food polyphenols and proteins: an updated overview. J FOOD PROCESS PRES 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.16597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Wang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory of Drug Design Huangshan University Huangshan China
| | - Yang Xie
- Pharmaceutical Engineering Center Chongqing Medical and Pharmaceutical College Chongqing China
| | - Aidong Wang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory of Drug Design Huangshan University Huangshan China
| | - Jianhua Wang
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering Chongqing University Chongqing China
| | - Xiaoran Wu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory of Drug Design Huangshan University Huangshan China
| | - Yan Wu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory of Drug Design Huangshan University Huangshan China
| | - Yuna Fu
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering Chongqing University Chongqing China
| | - Heng Sun
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering Chongqing University Chongqing China
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27
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The interaction between bovine serum albumin and [6]-,[8]- and [10]-gingerol: An effective strategy to improve the solubility and stability of gingerol. Food Chem 2022; 372:131280. [PMID: 34818732 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the binding mechanism between bovine serum albumin (BSA) and three gingerols ([6]-, [8]- and [10]-gingerol) was evaluated to explore an effective strategy for improving solubility and stability of gingerols. The fluorescence analysis suggested gingerols could bind with BSA to form a stable BSA/gingerols complex and [10]-gingerol had the strongest binding affinity (Ka = 4.016 × 104 L/mol) at 298 K. Thermodynamic parameters and molecular modeling validated that hydrophobic interaction and hydrogen bonds were the main driving force for the interaction of BSA/gingerols. Gingerols bound to BSA at site I (subdomain IIA) resulted in a conformational change of BSA with a structure shrinkage, which was responsible for the decrease of surface hydrophobicity. The formation of BSA/gingerols complexes promoted the solubility of [6]-, [8]- and [10]-gingerol increasing by 1.50, 6.04 and 23.50 times, respectively. In addition, the stability and antioxidant capacity of gingerols was significantly improved after binding with BSA.
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28
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Zhao J, Wang Z, Karrar E, Xu D, Sun X. Inhibition Mechanism of Berberine on α‐Amylase and α‐Glucosidase in Vitro. STARCH-STARKE 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/star.202100231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jinjin Zhao
- Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Nutrition State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology International Joint Research Laboratory for Lipid Nutrition and Safety School of Food Science and Technology Jiangnan University Wuxi Jiangsu 214122 People's Republic of China
| | - Zhangtie Wang
- Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Nutrition State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology International Joint Research Laboratory for Lipid Nutrition and Safety School of Food Science and Technology Jiangnan University Wuxi Jiangsu 214122 People's Republic of China
| | - Emad Karrar
- Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Nutrition State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology International Joint Research Laboratory for Lipid Nutrition and Safety School of Food Science and Technology Jiangnan University Wuxi Jiangsu 214122 People's Republic of China
| | - Deping Xu
- Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Nutrition State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology International Joint Research Laboratory for Lipid Nutrition and Safety School of Food Science and Technology Jiangnan University Wuxi Jiangsu 214122 People's Republic of China
| | - Xiulan Sun
- Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Nutrition State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology International Joint Research Laboratory for Lipid Nutrition and Safety School of Food Science and Technology Jiangnan University Wuxi Jiangsu 214122 People's Republic of China
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29
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Liao Y, Hu X, Pan J, Zhang G. Inhibitory Mechanism of Baicalein on Acetylcholinesterase: Inhibitory Interaction, Conformational Change, and Computational Simulation. Foods 2022; 11:foods11020168. [PMID: 35053900 PMCID: PMC8774682 DOI: 10.3390/foods11020168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most prevalent chronic neurodegenerative disease in elderly individuals, causing dementia. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is regarded as one of the most popular drug targets for AD. Herbal secondary metabolites are frequently cited as a major source of AChE inhibitors. In the current study, baicalein, a typical bioactive flavonoid, was found to inhibit AChE competitively, with an associated IC50 value of 6.42 ± 0.07 µM, through a monophasic kinetic process. The AChE fluorescence quenching by baicalein was a static process. The binding constant between baicalein and AChE was an order of magnitude of 104 L mol−1, and hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interaction were the major forces for forming the baicalein−AChE complex. Circular dichroism analysis revealed that baicalein caused the AChE structure to shrink and increased its surface hydrophobicity by increasing the α-helix and β-turn contents and decreasing the β-sheet and random coil structure content. Molecular docking revealed that baicalein predominated at the active site of AChE, likely tightening the gorge entrance and preventing the substrate from entering and binding with the enzyme, resulting in AChE inhibition. The preceding findings were confirmed by molecular dynamics simulation. The current study provides an insight into the molecular-level mechanism of baicalein interaction with AChE, which may offer new ideas for the research and development of anti-AD functional foods and drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yijing Liao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China; (Y.L.); (X.H.); (J.P.)
- School of Pharmacy, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, China
| | - Xing Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China; (Y.L.); (X.H.); (J.P.)
| | - Junhui Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China; (Y.L.); (X.H.); (J.P.)
| | - Guowen Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China; (Y.L.); (X.H.); (J.P.)
- Correspondence:
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30
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He M, Zhai Y, Zhang Y, Xu S, Yu S, Wei Y, Xiao H, Song Y. Inhibition of α-glucosidase by trilobatin and its mechanism: kinetics, interaction mechanism and molecular docking. Food Funct 2022; 13:857-866. [PMID: 34989743 DOI: 10.1039/d1fo03636j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
α-Glucosidase is related to the increase in postprandial blood glucose in vivo. Inhibition of α-glucosidase is supposed to be an effective approach to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Trilobatin, a member of the dihydrochalcone family, shows anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic activities. In this study, the inhibitory activity and mechanism of trilobatin on α-glucosidase were investigated using multispectroscopic and molecular docking techniques. The kinetic analysis showed that trilobatin reversibly inhibited α-glucosidase in a noncompetitive-type manner and the value of IC50 was 0.24 ± 0.02 mM. The analysis of fluorescence spectra demonstrated that the formation of the trilobatin-α-glucosidase complex was driven mainly by hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces, resulting in the conformational changes of α-glucosidase. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and circular dichroism (CD) measurements suggested that the interaction could change the micro-environment and conformation of α-glucosidase affected by trilobatin. Molecular docking analysis determined the exact binding sites of trilobatin on α-glucosidase. These results indicated that trilobatin is a strong α-glucosidase inhibitor, thus it could be conducive to ameliorate T2DM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming He
- School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong, 255049, China.
| | - Yuhan Zhai
- School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong, 255049, China.
| | - Yuqing Zhang
- School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong, 255049, China.
| | - Shuo Xu
- School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong, 255049, China.
| | - Shaoxuan Yu
- School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong, 255049, China.
| | - Yingxin Wei
- School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong, 255049, China.
| | - Haifang Xiao
- School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong, 255049, China.
| | - Yuanda Song
- School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong, 255049, China.
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31
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Huang A, McClements DJ, Luo S, Chen T, Ye J, Liu C. Fabrication of rutin-protein complexes to form and stabilize bilayer emulsions: Impact of concentration and pretreatment. Food Hydrocoll 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.107056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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32
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Kinetic Study of Fungal Growth of Several Tanninolytic Strains Using Coffee Pulp Procyanidins. FERMENTATION 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/fermentation8010017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Procyanidins are bioactive molecules with industrial and pharmaceutical relevance, they are present in recalcitrant agro-industrial wastes that are difficult to degrade. In this study, we evaluated the potential consumption of procyanidins from Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma harzianum strains in submerged fermentations. For this purpose, a culture medium containing salts, glucose, and procyanidins was formulated, where procyanidins were added to the medium after the near-total consumption of glucose. The submerged cultures were carried out in amber flasks at 30 °C and 120 rpm. The addition of procyanidins to the culture medium increased the formation of micellar biomass for all the strains used. The use of glucose affected the growth of A. niger GH1 and A. niger HS1, however, in these assays, a total consumption of procyanidins was obtained. These results show that the consumption of procyanidins by fungal strains in submerged fermentations was influenced by the pH, the use of glucose as the first source of carbon, and the delayed addition of procyanidins to the medium. The study showed that A. niger and T. harzianum strains can be used as a natural strategy for the consumption or removal of procyanidins present in recalcitrant residues of risk to the environment and human health.
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Akinyede KA, Oyewusi HA, Hughes GD, Ekpo OE, Oguntibeju OO. In Vitro Evaluation of the Anti-Diabetic Potential of Aqueous Acetone Helichrysum petiolare Extract (AAHPE) with Molecular Docking Relevance in Diabetes Mellitus. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 27:molecules27010155. [PMID: 35011387 PMCID: PMC8746515 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27010155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic condition that can lead to significant complications and a high fatality rate worldwide. Efforts are ramping up to find and develop novel α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitors that are both effective and potentially safe. Traditional methodologies are being replaced with new techniques that are less complicated and less time demanding; yet, both the experimental and computational strategies are viable and complementary in drug discovery and development. As a result, this study was conducted to investigate the in vitro anti-diabetic potential of aqueous acetone Helichrysum petiolare and B.L Burtt extract (AAHPE) using a 2-NBDG, 2-(N-(7-Nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl) amino)-2-deoxy-d-glucose uptake assay. In addition, we performed molecular docking of the flavonoid constituents identified and quantified by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) from AAHPE with the potential to serve as effective and safe α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitors, which are important in drug discovery and development. The results showed that AAHPE is a potential inhibitor of both α-amylase and α-glucosidase, with IC50 values of 46.50 ± 6.17 (µg/mL) and 37.81 ± 5.15 (µg/mL), respectively. This is demonstrated by a significant increase in the glucose uptake activity percentage in a concentration-dependent manner compared to the control, with the highest AAHPE concentration of 75 µg/mL of glucose uptake activity being higher than metformin, a standard anti-diabetic drug, in the insulin-resistant HepG2 cell line. The molecular docking results displayed that the constituents strongly bind α-amylase and α-glucosidase while achieving better binding affinities that ranged from ΔG = -7.2 to -9.6 kcal/mol (compared with acarbose ΔG = -6.1 kcal/mol) for α-amylase, and ΔG = -7.3 to -9.0 kcal/mol (compared with acarbose ΔG = -6.3 kcal/mol) for α-glucosidase. This study revealed the potential use of the H. petiolare plant extract and its phytochemicals, which could be explored to develop potent and safe α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitors to treat postprandial glycemic levels in diabetic patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kolajo Adedamola Akinyede
- Department of Medical Bioscience, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, Cape Town 7530, South Africa; (G.D.H.); (O.E.E.)
- Biochemistry Unit, Department of Science Technology, The Federal Polytechnic P.M.B.5351, Ado Ekiti 360231, Ekiti State, Nigeria;
- Correspondence: (K.A.A.); (O.O.O.); Tel.: +27-839-612-040 (K.A.A.); +27-219-538-495 (O.O.O.)
| | - Habeebat Adekilekun Oyewusi
- Biochemistry Unit, Department of Science Technology, The Federal Polytechnic P.M.B.5351, Ado Ekiti 360231, Ekiti State, Nigeria;
- Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, UTM, Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia
| | - Gail Denise Hughes
- Department of Medical Bioscience, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, Cape Town 7530, South Africa; (G.D.H.); (O.E.E.)
| | - Okobi Eko Ekpo
- Department of Medical Bioscience, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, Cape Town 7530, South Africa; (G.D.H.); (O.E.E.)
- Department of Anatomy and Cellular Biology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
| | - Oluwafemi Omoniyi Oguntibeju
- Phytomedicine and Phytochemistry Group, Oxidative Stress Research Centre, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Wellness Sciences, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, P.O. Box 1906, Bellville 7535, South Africa
- Correspondence: (K.A.A.); (O.O.O.); Tel.: +27-839-612-040 (K.A.A.); +27-219-538-495 (O.O.O.)
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Valencia-Hernandez LJ, Wong-Paz JE, Ascacio-Valdés JA, Chávez-González ML, Contreras-Esquivel JC, Aguilar CN. Procyanidins: From Agro-Industrial Waste to Food as Bioactive Molecules. Foods 2021; 10:3152. [PMID: 34945704 PMCID: PMC8701411 DOI: 10.3390/foods10123152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Procyanidins are an important group of bioactive molecules known for their benefits to human health. These compounds are promising in the treatment of chronic metabolic diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, as they prevent cell damage related to oxidative stress. It is necessary to study effective extraction methods for the recovery of these components. In this review, advances in the recovery of procyanidins from agro-industrial wastes are presented, which are obtained through ultrasound-assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, pressurized fluid extraction and subcritical water extraction. Current trends focus on the extraction of procyanidins from seeds, peels, pomaces, leaves and bark in agro-industrial wastes, which are extracted by ultrasound. Some techniques have been coupled with environmentally friendly techniques. There are few studies focused on the extraction and evaluation of biological activities of procyanidins. The identification and quantification of these compounds are the result of the study of the polyphenolic profile of plant sources. Antioxidant, antibiotic, and anti-inflammatory activity are presented as the biological properties of greatest interest. Agro-industrial wastes can be an economical and easily accessible source for the extraction of procyanidins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leidy Johana Valencia-Hernandez
- Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Group, Food Research Department, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Unidad Saltillo, Saltillo C.P. 25280, CH, Mexico; (L.J.V.-H.); (J.A.A.-V.); (M.L.C.-G.); (J.C.C.-E.)
| | - Jorge E. Wong-Paz
- Tecnológico Nacional de México, Instituto Tecnológico de Ciudad Valles, Ciudad Valles C.P. 79010, SL, Mexico;
| | - Juan Alberto Ascacio-Valdés
- Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Group, Food Research Department, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Unidad Saltillo, Saltillo C.P. 25280, CH, Mexico; (L.J.V.-H.); (J.A.A.-V.); (M.L.C.-G.); (J.C.C.-E.)
| | - Mónica L. Chávez-González
- Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Group, Food Research Department, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Unidad Saltillo, Saltillo C.P. 25280, CH, Mexico; (L.J.V.-H.); (J.A.A.-V.); (M.L.C.-G.); (J.C.C.-E.)
| | - Juan Carlos Contreras-Esquivel
- Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Group, Food Research Department, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Unidad Saltillo, Saltillo C.P. 25280, CH, Mexico; (L.J.V.-H.); (J.A.A.-V.); (M.L.C.-G.); (J.C.C.-E.)
| | - Cristóbal N. Aguilar
- Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Group, Food Research Department, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Unidad Saltillo, Saltillo C.P. 25280, CH, Mexico; (L.J.V.-H.); (J.A.A.-V.); (M.L.C.-G.); (J.C.C.-E.)
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35
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Zang Z, Chou S, Geng L, Si X, Ding Y, Lang Y, Cui H, Gao N, Chen Y, Wang M, Xie X, Xue B, Li B, Tian J. Interactions of blueberry anthocyanins with whey protein isolate and bovine serum protein: Color stability, antioxidant activity, in vitro simulation, and protein functionality. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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36
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Floris S, Fais A, Medda R, Pintus F, Piras A, Kumar A, Kuś PM, Westermark GT, Era B. Washingtonia filifera seed extracts inhibit the islet amyloid polypeptide fibrils formations and α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2021; 36:517-524. [PMID: 33494628 PMCID: PMC7850368 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2021.1874945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2020] [Revised: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Washingtonia filifera seeds have revealed to possess antioxidant properties, butyrylcholinesterase and xanthine oxidase inhibition activities. The literature has indicated a relationship between Alzheimer's disease (AD) and type-2 diabetes (T2D). Keeping this in mind, we have now evaluated the inhibitory properties of W. filifera seed extracts on α-amylase, α-glucosidase enzyme activity and the Islet Amyloid Polypeptide (IAPP) fibrils formation. Three extracts from seeds of W. filifera were evaluated for their enzyme inhibitory effect and IC50 values were calculated for all the extracts. The inhibition mode was investigated by Lineweaver-Burk plot analysis and the inhibition of IAPP aggregate formation was monitored. W. filifera methanol seed extract appears as the most potent inhibitor of α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and for the IAPP fibril formation. Current findings indicate new potential of this extract that could be used for the identification or development of novel potential agents for T2D and AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Floris
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Antonella Fais
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Rosaria Medda
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Francesca Pintus
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Alessandra Piras
- Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Amit Kumar
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Piotr Marek Kuś
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Herbal Medicines, Wroclaw Medical University, Wrocław, Poland
| | | | - Benedetta Era
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
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37
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Chen Y, Qie X, Quan W, Zeng M, Qin F, Chen J, Adhikari B, He Z. Omnifarious fruit polyphenols: an omnipotent strategy to prevent and intervene diabetes and related complication? Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021:1-37. [PMID: 34792409 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.2000932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic syndrome which cannot be cured. Recently, considerable interest has been focused on food ingredients to prevent and intervene in complications of diabetes. Polyphenolic compounds are one of the bioactive phytochemical constituents with various biological activities, which have drawn increasing interest in human health. Fruits are part of the polyphenol sources in daily food consumption. Fruit-derived polyphenols possess the anti-diabetic activity that has already been proved either from in vitro studies or in vivo studies. The mechanisms of fruit polyphenols in treating diabetes and related complications are under discussion. This is a comprehensive review on polyphenols from the edible parts of fruits, including those from citrus, berries, apples, cherries, mangoes, mangosteens, pomegranates, and other fruits regarding their potential benefits in preventing and treating diabetes mellitus. The signal pathways of characteristic polyphenols derived from fruits in reducing high blood glucose and intervening hyperglycemia-induced diabetic complications were summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China.,International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xuejiao Qie
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China.,International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wei Quan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China.,International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Maomao Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China.,International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Fang Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China.,International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jie Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China.,International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Benu Adhikari
- School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Zhiyong He
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China.,International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
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38
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Li B, Fu R, Tan H, Zhang Y, Teng W, Li Z, Tian J. Characteristics of the interaction mechanisms of procyanidin B1 and procyanidin B2 with protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B: Analysis by kinetics, spectroscopy methods and molecular docking. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2021; 259:119910. [PMID: 33992895 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2021.119910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B (PTP1B) is a novel and indispensable drug target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Procyanidins are flavonoids that exhibit a significant hypoglycemic function. However, the potential inhibitory effects of procyanidins on PTP1B are unclear. In this study, the interaction mechanisms of PTP1B with procyanidin B1 (PB1) and procyanidin B2 (PB2) were investigated through kinetics analysis, UV-visible spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, circular dichroism spectroscopy and molecular docking. The results showed that PB1 and PB2 could inhibit the activity of PTP1B in a mixed inhibition mode, which was one of the reversible inhibition types. Multi-spectral analysis showed that PB1/PB2 formed complexes with PTP1B, which effectively quenched the intrinsic fluorescence of PTP1B based on the static mechanism. The values of the binding constants were KS(PTP1B-PB1) = 4.06 × 102 L·mol-1 and KS(PTP1B-PB2) = 2.53 × 102 L·mol-1, indicating that the binding affinity of PTP1B to PB1 was higher than that for PB2. PB1 and PB2 both changed the secondary structure of the enzyme, thereby decreasing the PTP1B activity. Thermodynamic investigations revealed that the binding of procyanidin B1 and B2 to PTP1B was spontaneous in both cases, and highlighted the key role of hydrophobic interactions. Molecular docking analysis provided further information regarding the interactions between PB1 or PB2 and the amino acid residues of PTP1B. Moreover, PB1 and PB2 were found to down-regulate the expression level of PTP1B in insulin-resistant HepG2 cells. These findings are the first to elucidate the inhibitory effects of PB1 and PB2 on PTP1B, and highlight the role of procyanidins as dietary supplements in regulating T2DM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Li
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, National R&D Professional Center for Berry Processing, National Engineering and Technology of Research Center for Small Berry, Key Laboratory of Healthy Food Nutrition and Innovative Manufacturing, Liaoning Province, Shenyang, Liaoning 110866, China
| | - Ranran Fu
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, National R&D Professional Center for Berry Processing, National Engineering and Technology of Research Center for Small Berry, Key Laboratory of Healthy Food Nutrition and Innovative Manufacturing, Liaoning Province, Shenyang, Liaoning 110866, China
| | - Hui Tan
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, National R&D Professional Center for Berry Processing, National Engineering and Technology of Research Center for Small Berry, Key Laboratory of Healthy Food Nutrition and Innovative Manufacturing, Liaoning Province, Shenyang, Liaoning 110866, China
| | - Ye Zhang
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, National R&D Professional Center for Berry Processing, National Engineering and Technology of Research Center for Small Berry, Key Laboratory of Healthy Food Nutrition and Innovative Manufacturing, Liaoning Province, Shenyang, Liaoning 110866, China
| | - Wei Teng
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, National R&D Professional Center for Berry Processing, National Engineering and Technology of Research Center for Small Berry, Key Laboratory of Healthy Food Nutrition and Innovative Manufacturing, Liaoning Province, Shenyang, Liaoning 110866, China
| | - Zhiying Li
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, National R&D Professional Center for Berry Processing, National Engineering and Technology of Research Center for Small Berry, Key Laboratory of Healthy Food Nutrition and Innovative Manufacturing, Liaoning Province, Shenyang, Liaoning 110866, China
| | - Jinlong Tian
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, National R&D Professional Center for Berry Processing, National Engineering and Technology of Research Center for Small Berry, Key Laboratory of Healthy Food Nutrition and Innovative Manufacturing, Liaoning Province, Shenyang, Liaoning 110866, China.
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39
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Jin DX, He JF, Zhang KQ, Luo XG, Zhang TC. α-Glucosidase inhibition action of major flavonoids identified from Hypericum attenuatum Choisy and their synergistic effects. Chem Biodivers 2021; 18:e2100244. [PMID: 34310845 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.202100244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Hypericum attenuatum Choisy is a traditional Chinese herbal plant with multiple therapeutic effects. In this study, bioactivity-guided fractionation of Hypericum attenuatum Choisy extracts afforded three major flavonoids (including astragalin, guaijaverin and quercetin), which possessed α-glucosidase inhibitory activity with IC 50 values of 33.90 ± 0.68 μM, 17.23 ± 0.75 μM and 31.90 ± 0.34 μM, respectively. Circular dichroism analysis revealed that all the three compounds could interact with α-glucosidase by inducing conformational changes of the enzyme. Molecular docking results indicated that they could bind to the active site in α-glucosidase, and the binding force was driven mainly by hydrogen bond. Additionally, isobolographic analysis of the interactions between two compounds showed that all the combinations presented a synergistic α-glucosidase inhibitory effect at lower concentrations, and the combination between quercetin and guaijaverin or astragalin exhibited the best synergistic effect. This research might provide a theoretical basis for the application of Hypericum attenuatum Choisy in treating hyperglycemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Du-Xin Jin
- Yangzhou University College of Food Science and Technology, Department of Food science, No. 196, Huayang west road, Hanjiang district, Yangzhou city, Jiangsu province, 225000, Yangzhou, CHINA
| | - Jun-Fang He
- Tianjin University of Science and Technology, College of Biotechnology, 300457, No. 9, the 13th road, Economic and technological development zone, Tianjin, CHINA
| | - Ke-Qin Zhang
- Jilin college of Agricultural Science and Technology, School of Animal Sciences, No. 77, Hanlin Road, Economic and Technological Development Zone, Jilin, CHINA
| | - Xue-Gang Luo
- Tianjin University of Science and Technology Downtown Campus: Tianjin University of Science and Technology, College of Biotechnology, No. 9, the 13th Road, Economic and Technological Development Zone, Tianjin, CHINA
| | - Tong-Cun Zhang
- Tianjin University of Science and Technology, College of Biotechnology, No. 9, the 13th Road, Economic and Technological Development Zone, Tianjin, CHINA
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40
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Impact of rutin on the foaming properties of soybean protein: Formation and characterization of flavonoid-protein complexes. Food Chem 2021; 362:130238. [PMID: 34098441 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The aims of present study were to determine the impact of rutin complexation on the ability of soybean protein isolates (SPI) to form and stabilize foams and its mechanism. At pH 7.0, the foaming capacity and foaming stability of the rutin-SPI complexes (28.33% and 14.22%) was appreciably changed when compared with that of SPI alone (19.64% and 32.95%). The improvement in foaming properties was mainly attributed to decrease gas bubble size and increase interfacial thickness as suggested by light microscopy analysis. UV-visible spectroscopy showed that the absorption peak of the SPI was increased and red shifted after complexation with rutin. ITC confirmed that there was an interaction between rutin and SPI. This interaction was hydrophobic interaction and the binding process was entropy driven. This study shows that the foaming properties of plant-based proteins can be improved by forming complexes with flavonoids, which may be useful for foaming agents in foods.
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41
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Novel hypoglycemic compounds from wild mushroom Paxillus involutus. Bioorg Chem 2021; 112:104984. [PMID: 34004479 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2021.104984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2021] [Revised: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Wild mushrooms are an important source of secondary metabolites possessing a broad range of biological activities. In this study, eight new compounds, named furanopaxin A-F (1-6), deoxybisinvolutone (7), and coumarinvol (8) along with two known compounds were isolated from fruiting bodies of the wild mushroom Paxillus involutus (Batsch) Fr. Their structures were established based on HR-ESI-MS and 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic data. The results of hypoglycemic assays indicated that compounds 5-8 possessed significant α-glucosidase inhibitory activities, with IC50 values ranging from 14.65 ± 1.68 to 47.55 ± 1.47 μM, and each compound could enhance glucose consumption in insulin-resistance HepG2 cells. Further analysis by molecular docking implied that compounds 5-8 could interact with the amino acid residues of α-glucosidase, supporting the hypoglycemic activity of the compounds.
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42
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Yang Y, Zhang JL, Shen LH, Feng LJ, Zhou Q. Inhibition mechanism of diacylated anthocyanins from purple sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) against α-amylase and α-glucosidase. Food Chem 2021; 359:129934. [PMID: 33940476 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate inhibitory activity of anthocyanins from purple sweet potato and blueberries against α-amylase and α-glucosidase, as well as investigate the inhibition mechanism of diacylated anthocyanins (Diacylated AF-PSP). Diacylated AF-PSP better inhibited α-amylase (IC50 = 0.078 mg mL-1) and α-glucosidase (IC50 = 1.56 mg mL-1) than other anthocyanin fractions, which was a mixed-type inhibitor. Fluorescence analysis indicated that Diacylated AF-PSP bound to the enzymes mainly through hydrogen bonds and influenced the microenvironments of proteins. Additionally, surface hydrophobicity and circular dichroism spectra results confirmed conformational changes in the enzymes induced by Diacylated AF-PSP. Molecular docking further demonstrated the interaction of Diacylated AF-PSP with enzyme active site, which might be stabilized by its acyl groups. Finally, 160 mg kg-1 Diacylated AF-PSP significantly decreased (p < 0.01) blood glucose level peak by 20.52% after starch administration in SD rats. This study provided theoretical evidences for utilization of diacylated anthocyanins in hyperglycemia-management functional foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Yang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Jiu-Liang Zhang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - Lu-Hong Shen
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Lan-Jie Feng
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Qing Zhou
- Department of Pharmacy, Wuhan City Central Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430014, China.
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43
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Xie Z, He M, Zhai Y, Xin F, Yu S, Yu S, Xiao H, Song Y. Inhibitory kinetics and mechanism of oleanolic acid on α-glucosidase. JOURNAL OF FOOD MEASUREMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11694-021-00920-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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44
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The effect of whey protein-puerarin interactions on the formation and performance of protein hydrogels. Food Hydrocoll 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.106444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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45
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Xie X, Chen C, Fu X. Screening α-glucosidase inhibitors from four edible brown seaweed extracts by ultra-filtration and molecular docking. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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46
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Counter-Current Fractionation-Assisted Bioassay-Guided Separation of Active Compound from Blueberry and the Interaction between the Active Compound and α-Glucosidase. Foods 2021; 10:foods10030509. [PMID: 33804322 PMCID: PMC7998573 DOI: 10.3390/foods10030509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
An efficient strategy for the selection of active compounds from blueberry based on counter-current fractionation and bioassay-guided separation was established in this study. Blueberry extract showed potential α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. After extraction by different solvents, the active components were enriched in water. The water extract was divided into six fractions via high-speed counter-current chromatography to further track the active components. Results indicated that the α-glucosidase inhibition rate of F4 was remarkable higher than the others. Cyanidin-3-glucoside (C3G) with a purity of 94.16% was successfully separated from F4 through column chromatography, and its structure was identified by ultraviolet spectral, Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy, high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry, 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and 13C NMR. The interaction mechanism between C3G and α-glucosidase was clearly characterized and described by spectroscopic methods, including fluorescence and circular dichroism (CD) in combination with molecular docking techniques. C3G could spontaneously bind with α-glucosidase to form complexes by hydrogen bonds. The secondary structure of α-glucosidase changed in varying degrees after complexation with C3G. The α-helical and β-turn contents of α-glucosidase decreased, whereas the β-sheet content and the irregular coil structures increased. Molecular docking speculated that C3G could form hydrogen bonds with α-glucosidase by binding to the active sit (Leu 313, Ser 157, Tyr 158, Phe 314, Arg 315, and two Asp 307). These findings may be useful for the development of functional foods to tackle type 2 diabetes.
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47
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Sun L, Song Y, Chen Y, Ma Y, Fu M, Liu X. The galloyl moiety enhances the inhibitory activity of catechins and theaflavins against α-glucosidase by increasing the polyphenol-enzyme binding interactions. Food Funct 2021; 12:215-229. [PMID: 33295908 DOI: 10.1039/d0fo02689a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The inhibition properties of 10 tea polyphenols against α-glucosidase were studied through inhibition assay, inhibition kinetics, fluorescence quenching and molecular docking. It was found that the inhibitory activity of polyphenols with a 3 and/or 3' galloyl moiety (GM) was much higher than that without a GM. The GM could enter into the active site of α-glucosidase and bind with the catalytic amino acid residues through hydrogen bonding and π-conjugation, thus playing an important role in the competitive inhibition of catechins and theaflavins. The positive linear correlations among the constants characterizing the inhibitory activity and binding affinity of tea polyphenols to α-glucosidase indicate that enzyme inhibition by polyphenols is caused by the binding interactions between them, and that the combination of the characterization methods for polyphenol-glucosidase binding is reasonable. In addition, the in vivo hypoglycemic effects of galloylated polyphenols suggest that the GM may be considered as a pharmaceutical fragment for the alleviation of type II diabetes symptoms through α-glucosidase inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijun Sun
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province 712100, China.
| | - Yi Song
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province 712100, China.
| | - Yujie Chen
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province 712100, China.
| | - Yilan Ma
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province 712100, China.
| | - Minghai Fu
- School of Mongolian Medicine, Inner Mongolia University of Nationalities, Tongliao, Inner Mongolia 028000, China.
| | - Xuebo Liu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province 712100, China.
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48
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Hossain U, Das AK, Ghosh S, Sil PC. An overview on the role of bioactive α-glucosidase inhibitors in ameliorating diabetic complications. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 145:111738. [PMID: 32916220 PMCID: PMC7480666 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 08/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Recently the use of bioactive α-glucosidase inhibitors for the treatment of diabetes have been proven to be the most efficient remedy for controlling postprandial hyperglycemia and its detrimental physiological complications, especially in type 2 diabetes. The carbohydrate hydrolysing enzyme, α-glucosidase, is generally competitively inhibited by the α-glucosidase inhibitors and results in the delayed glucose absorption in small intestine, ultimately controlling the postprandial hyperglycemia. Here we have reviewed the most recent updates in the bioactive α-glucosidase inhibitors category. This review provides an overview of the α-glucosidase inhibitory potentials and efficiency of controlling postprandial hyperglycemia of various bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, phenolic compound, polysaccharide, betulinic acid, tannins, anthocyanins, steroids, polyol, polyphenols, galangin, procyanidins, hydroxyl-α-sanshool, hydroxyl-β-sanshool, erythritol, ganomycin, caffeoylquinic acid, resin glycosides, saponins, avicularin, oleanolic acids, urasolic acid, ethanolic extracts etc., from various dietary and non-dietary naturally occurring sources.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Parames C. Sil
- Corresponding author. Division of Molecular Medicine, Bose Institute, P-1/12, CIT Scheme VII M, Calcutta, 700054, West Bengal, India
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49
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Shen Y, Wang M, Zhou J, Chen Y, Wu M, Yang Z, Yang C, Xia G, Tam JP, Zhou C, Yang H, Jia X. Construction of Fe 3O 4@α-glucosidase magnetic nanoparticles for ligand fishing of α-glucosidase inhibitors from a natural tonic Epimedii Folium. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 165:1361-1372. [PMID: 33049236 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Inhibition of α-glucosidase activity is an effective way for treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Epimedii Folium is an important source of α-glucosidase inhibitors (AGIs), however bioactive compounds and pharmacological mechanisms remained unclear. In this study, a novel strategy was established, which harnessed α-glucosidase functionalized magnetic beads to fish out potential AGIs, followed by UPLC-MS/MS analysis for their identification. Furthermore, molecular docking was employed to predict binding patterns between the AGIs and the enzyme, and IC50 values was estimated as well. After response surface methodology optimization, the highest activity of Fe3O4@α-glucosidase has been achieved when 1.17 mg/mL of α-glucosidase was immobilized in phosphate buffer (pH 6.81) for 4.22 h. Moreover, eight flavonoids were fished out from the extract of Epimedii Folium, and then identified to be epimedin A, epimedin B, epimedin C, icariin, sagittatoside A, sagittatoside B, 2"-O-rhamnosyl icariside II and baohuoside I. All of them were further confirmed to be AGIs through in vitro inhibitory assay and molecular docking. Among those, baohuoside I and sagittatoside B possessed stronger inhibitory activity than acarbose. The approach has a significant prospect in conveniently screening bioactive compounds that target various receptors, which provided an efficient platform for new drug development from natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuping Shen
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Man Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Jinwei Zhou
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Yufei Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Mengru Wu
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Zhangzhong Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Chengyu Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Guohua Xia
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang 212013, China; School of Food and Biological Engineering, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - James P Tam
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Cunshan Zhou
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Huan Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang 212013, China.
| | - Xiaobin Jia
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang 212013, China; School of Traditional Chinese Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing 211198, China.
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Tang H, Huang L, Zhao D, Sun C, Song P. Interaction mechanism of flavonoids on bovine serum albumin: Insights from molecular property-binding affinity relationship. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2020; 239:118519. [PMID: 32480277 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2020.118519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The molecular structure properties-binding affinity relationship of a series of flavonoids and bovine serum albumin (BSA) was investigated in vitro from comparing the binding constants determined through the fluorescence method. As a result, the binding process was greatly influenced by different structural elements or substituents of flavonoids under analysis. The hydroxylation at the positions C3, C6, C4', C5' (for type I) and C5, C3' (for type II) were in favor of forming hydrogen bonds with the amino acids of BSA, which was of great importance in the binding and interaction between flavonoids and the protein. The decreased affinity could be realized by the methoxylation (C8, C3' and C4') and glycosylation (C3 and C7) of flavonoid type I. However, the adverse trend on binding affinity was observed when the methoxylation and glycosylation appeared at the sites C4' and C7, C4' of structure type II, respectively. Meanwhile, glycosylation at C7 mainly induced the decline in the affinity of flavonoids (type III), and the hydrogenation of the C2C3 double bond for type I was beneficial to increase the affinity on BSA. Moreover, part of flavonoids could mediate the conformational alteration of secondary structures of the protein during the interaction process, which was inferred by means of the synchronous fluorescence spectra. The determinations of ANS fluorescence probe suggested that hydrophobic interaction played an important role in the binding of a majority of flavonoids to BSA. Further evidences from the site-specific experiments revealed that the location of flavonoids 19, 29 and 34 binding on BSA mainly belonged to site I, while compound 3 bound to both sites I and II. Additionally, molecular modelling studies further confirmed the indispensable character of hydrophobic interaction and hydrogen bonds, and illustrated the preferred complex binding behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongjin Tang
- College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Anhui Polytechnic University, Wuhu 241000, PR China.
| | - Lin Huang
- Blood Purification Center, Affiliated Yijishan Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Wuhu 241001, PR China
| | - Dongsheng Zhao
- College of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250355, PR China
| | - Chunyong Sun
- College of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250355, PR China
| | - Ping Song
- College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Anhui Polytechnic University, Wuhu 241000, PR China.
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