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Greenhalgh T, MacIntyre CR, Baker MG, Bhattacharjee S, Chughtai AA, Fisman D, Kunasekaran M, Kvalsvig A, Lupton D, Oliver M, Tawfiq E, Ungrin M, Vipond J. Masks and respirators for prevention of respiratory infections: a state of the science review. Clin Microbiol Rev 2024; 37:e0012423. [PMID: 38775460 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00124-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2024] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYThis narrative review and meta-analysis summarizes a broad evidence base on the benefits-and also the practicalities, disbenefits, harms and personal, sociocultural and environmental impacts-of masks and masking. Our synthesis of evidence from over 100 published reviews and selected primary studies, including re-analyzing contested meta-analyses of key clinical trials, produced seven key findings. First, there is strong and consistent evidence for airborne transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and other respiratory pathogens. Second, masks are, if correctly and consistently worn, effective in reducing transmission of respiratory diseases and show a dose-response effect. Third, respirators are significantly more effective than medical or cloth masks. Fourth, mask mandates are, overall, effective in reducing community transmission of respiratory pathogens. Fifth, masks are important sociocultural symbols; non-adherence to masking is sometimes linked to political and ideological beliefs and to widely circulated mis- or disinformation. Sixth, while there is much evidence that masks are not generally harmful to the general population, masking may be relatively contraindicated in individuals with certain medical conditions, who may require exemption. Furthermore, certain groups (notably D/deaf people) are disadvantaged when others are masked. Finally, there are risks to the environment from single-use masks and respirators. We propose an agenda for future research, including improved characterization of the situations in which masking should be recommended or mandated; attention to comfort and acceptability; generalized and disability-focused communication support in settings where masks are worn; and development and testing of novel materials and designs for improved filtration, breathability, and environmental impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trisha Greenhalgh
- Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - C Raina MacIntyre
- Biosecurity Program, The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Michael G Baker
- Department of Public Health, University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Shovon Bhattacharjee
- Biosecurity Program, The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Abrar A Chughtai
- School of Population Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - David Fisman
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mohana Kunasekaran
- Biosecurity Program, The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Amanda Kvalsvig
- Department of Public Health, University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Deborah Lupton
- Centre for Social Research in Health and Social Policy Research Centre, Faculty of Arts, Design and Architecture, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Matt Oliver
- Professional Standards Advocate, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Essa Tawfiq
- Biosecurity Program, The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Mark Ungrin
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Joe Vipond
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Hao W, Huang YW, Wang Y. Bioaerosol size as a potential determinant of airborne E. coliviability under ultraviolet germicidal irradiation and ozone disinfection. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2024; 35:145702. [PMID: 38086064 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ad14b4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) and ozone disinfection are crucial methods for mitigating the airborne transmission of pathogenic microorganisms in high-risk settings, particularly with the emergence of respiratory viral pathogens such as SARS-CoV-2 and avian influenza viruses. This study quantitatively investigates the influence of UVGI and ozone on the viability ofE. coliin bioaerosols, with a particular focus on howE. coliviability depends on the size of the bioaerosols, a critical factor that determines deposition patterns within the human respiratory system and the evolution of bioaerosols in indoor environments. This study used a controlled small-scale laboratory chamber whereE. colisuspensions were aerosolized and subjected to varying levels of UVGI and ozone levels throughout the exposure time (2-6 s). The normalized viability ofE. coliwas found to be significantly reduced by UVGI (60-240μW s cm-2) as the exposure time increased from 2 to 6 s, and the most substantial reduction ofE. colinormalized viability was observed when UVGI and ozone (65-131 ppb) were used in combination. We also found that UVGI reduced the normalized viability ofE. coliin bioaerosols more significantly with smaller sizes (0.25-0.5μm) than with larger sizes (0.5-2.5μm). However, when combining UVGI and ozone, the normalized viability was higher for smaller particle sizes than for the larger ones. The findings provide insights into the development of effective UVGI disinfection engineering methods to control the spread of pathogenic microorganisms in high-risk environments. By understanding the influence of the viability of microorganisms in various bioaerosol sizes, we can optimize UVGI and ozone techniques to reduce the potential risk of airborne transmission of pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weixing Hao
- Department of Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, United States of America
| | - Yue-Wern Huang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO 65409, United States of America
| | - Yang Wang
- Department of Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, United States of America
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Shen J, Shi W. Post-Pandemic: Investigation of the Degradation of Various Commercial Masks in the Marine Environment. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2023; 39:10553-10564. [PMID: 37462155 PMCID: PMC10399566 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c01087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 07/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
During COVID-19, personal protective equipment such as face masks was in urgent demand in the daily life. As the pandemic may have withdrawn from public attention, the disposal of face masks is a significant issue, especially plastic pollution. To address the degradation of the polymers in the marine environment, seven commercial masks were investigated via artificial weathering procedures in substitute ocean water. A suite of structural and chemical characterization techniques was employed, including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and contact angle goniometry, to probe the treatment impact on commercially available N95, surgical, polyurethane, polyester, nylon, silk, and cotton masks. This work provides insights into the comprehensive analysis of material degradation in nature and raises public awareness of environmental issues post-pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayi Shen
- Division of Natural and Applied
Sciences, Duke Kunshan University, Kunshan, Jiangsu Province 215316, China
| | - Weiwei Shi
- Division of Natural and Applied
Sciences, Duke Kunshan University, Kunshan, Jiangsu Province 215316, China
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Shen R, Guo Y, Wang S, Tuerxun A, He J, Bian Y. Biodegradable Electrospun Nanofiber Membranes as Promising Candidates for the Development of Face Masks. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:1306. [PMID: 36674061 PMCID: PMC9858797 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20021306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Aerosol particles, such as the widespread COVID-19 recently, have posed a great threat to humans. Combat experience has proven that masks can protect against viruses; however, the epidemic in recent years has caused serious environmental pollution from plastic medical supplies, especially masks. Degradable filters are promising candidates to alleviate this problem. Degradable nanofiber filters, which are developed by the electrospinning technique, can achieve superior filtration performance. This review focuses on the basic introduction to air filtration, the general aspects of face masks, and nanofibers. Furthermore, the progress of the state of art degradable electrospun nanofiber filters have been summarized, such as silk fibroin (SF), polylactic acid (PLA), chitosan, cellulose, and zein. Finally, the challenges and future development are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Ye Bian
- Key Laboratory of Energy Thermal Conversion and Control of Ministry of Education, School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
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Mumma J, Liu F, Ng NL, Morgan J, Lane M, Gannon P. Designing better cloth masks: The effect of fabric and attachment-style on discomfort. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2023; 20:23-32. [PMID: 36344309 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2022.2145013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Cloth masks are a tool for controlling community transmission during pandemics, as well as during other outbreak situations. However, cloth masks vary in their designs, and the consequences of this variability for their effectiveness as source control have received little attention, particularly in terms of user discomfort and problematic mask-wearing behaviors. In the present studies, common design parameters of cloth masks were systematically varied to ascertain their effect(s) on the subjective discomfort and frequency of problematic mask-wearing behaviors, which detract from the effectiveness of cloth masks as source control. The type of fabric comprising a mask (flannel or twill made of 100% cotton) and the attachment-style of a mask (i.e., ear loops or fabric ties) were varied in adults (18 to 65 years) and children (ages 6 to 11 years). For adults, ear loops were less comfortable than ties (p = .035) and were associated with greater face- (p = .005) and mask-touching (p = .001). Children, however, found flannel masks to be more breathable than twill masks (p = .007) but touched their masks more frequently when wearing a mask made of flannel than twill (p = .033). Common design parameters of cloth masks not only affect user discomfort and behavior but do so differently in adults and children. To improve the effectiveness of cloth masks as source control, the present studies highlight the importance of measuring the effect(s) of design decisions on user discomfort and behavior in different populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Mumma
- School of Medicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Fobang Liu
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Nga Lee Ng
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
- School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
| | | | - Morgan Lane
- School of Medicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Paige Gannon
- School of Medicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
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Kim JT, Lee CW, Jung HJ, Choi HJ, Salman A, Padmajan Sasikala S, Kim SO. Application of 2D Materials for Adsorptive Removal of Air Pollutants. ACS NANO 2022; 16:17687-17707. [PMID: 36354742 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c07937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Air pollution is on the priority list of global safety issues, with the concern of fatal environmental and public health deterioration. 2D materials are potential adsorbent materials for environmental decontamination, owing to their high surface area, manageable interlayer binding, large surface-to-volume ratio, specific binding capability, and chemical, thermal, and mechanistic stability. Specifically, graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide have been attracting attention, taking advantage of their low cost synthesis, excessive oxygen containing surface functionalities, and intrinsic aqueous dispersibility, making them desirable for the development of cost-effective, high performance air filters. Many different material designs have been proposed to expand their filtration capability, including the functionalization and integration with other metals and metal oxides, which act not only as binding agents to the target pollutants but also as antimicrobial agents. This review highlights the advantages and drawbacks of 2D materials for air filtration and summarizes the interrelationships among various strategies and the resultant filtration performance in terms of structural engineering, morphology control, and material compositions. Finally, potential future directions are suggested toward the idealized designs of 2D material based air filters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Tae Kim
- National Creative Research Initiative Center for Multi-Dimensional Directed Nanoscale Assembly, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, KAIST, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Chan Woo Lee
- National Creative Research Initiative Center for Multi-Dimensional Directed Nanoscale Assembly, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, KAIST, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Hong Ju Jung
- National Creative Research Initiative Center for Multi-Dimensional Directed Nanoscale Assembly, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, KAIST, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee Jae Choi
- National Creative Research Initiative Center for Multi-Dimensional Directed Nanoscale Assembly, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, KAIST, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Ali Salman
- National Creative Research Initiative Center for Multi-Dimensional Directed Nanoscale Assembly, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, KAIST, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Suchithra Padmajan Sasikala
- National Creative Research Initiative Center for Multi-Dimensional Directed Nanoscale Assembly, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, KAIST, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Ouk Kim
- National Creative Research Initiative Center for Multi-Dimensional Directed Nanoscale Assembly, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, KAIST, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
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Cheng S, Hao W, Wang Y, Wang Y, Yang S. Commercial Janus Fabrics as Reusable Facemask Materials: A Balance of Water Repellency, Filtration Efficiency, Breathability, and Reusability. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:32579-32589. [PMID: 35794731 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c09544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Facemasks as personal protective equipment play a significant role in helping prevent the spread of viruses during the COVID-19 pandemic. A desired reusable fabric facemask should strike a balance of water repellency, good filtration efficiency (FE), breathability, and mechanical robustness against washing cycles. Despite significant efforts in testing various commercial fabric materials for filtration efficiency, few have investigated fabric performance as a function of the fiber/yarn morphology and wettability of the fabric itself. In this study, we examine commercial fabrics with Janus-like behaviors to determine the best reusable fabric facemask materials by understanding the roles of morphology, porosity, and wettability of the fabric on its overall performance. We find that the outer layer of the diaper fabric consisted of laminated polyurethane, which is hydrophobic, has low porosity (∼5%) and tightly woven yarn structures, and shows the highest overall FE (up to 54%) in the submicron particle size range (0.03-0.6 μm) among the fabrics tested. Fabric layers with higher porosity lead to lower-pressure drops, indicating higher breathability but lower FE. Tightly woven waterproof rainwear fabrics perform the best after 10 washing cycles, remaining intact morphologically with only a 2-5% drop in the overall FE in the submicron particle size range, whereas other knitted fabric layers become loosened and the laminated polyurethane thin film on the diaper fabric is wrinkled. In comparison, the surgical masks and N95 respirators made from nonwoven polypropylene (PP) fibers see over a 30% decline in the overall FE after 10 washing cycles. Overall, we find that tightly woven Janus fabrics consisting of a low porosity, a hydrophobic outer layer, and a high porosity and hydrophilic inner layer offer the best performance among the fabrics tested as they can generate a high overall FE, achieve good breathability, and maintain fabric morphology and performance over multiple washing cycles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Cheng
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, 3231 Walnut St, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Weixing Hao
- Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri 65409, United States
| | - Yuchen Wang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, 3231 Walnut St, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Yang Wang
- Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri 65409, United States
| | - Shu Yang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, 3231 Walnut St, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
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Brooks JP, Lupfer C, Yang W, Hao W, Kapiamba KF. The Effect of Hypochlorous Acid on the Filtration Performance and Bacterial Decontamination of N95 Filtering Facemask Respirators. Am J Infect Control 2022; 51:396-400. [PMID: 35870660 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2022.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stabilized Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is increasingly used as a hospital disinfectant and antiseptic, yet its effect on N95 filtration facemask respirators (FFR) is unknown. These FFRs could also contribute to fomite-based transmission of nosocomial infections if worn for extended use between patient rooms. METHODS Filtration performance of N95 FFR fabric swatches was assessed after various levels of HOCl exposure. N95 swatches were then contaminated with 108 E. coli or 108 Staph aureus and treated with HOCl solution, 70% ethyl alcohol, or normal saline. Surviving bacterial numbers were assessed by plate counts. RESULTS The size-dependent filtration efficiency of HOCl-sprayed N95 FFR fabric ranged from 96 to 100%, showing no significant change. Flow resistance testing revealed almost no change compared to control. Submersion in HOCl, but not spraying, had an excellent bactericidal effect on contaminated swatches. DISCUSSION The role of the outer hydrophobic layer of N95 FFRs is discussed regarding the effects of HOCl on filtration and bacterial decontamination. CONCLUSION N95 material, sprayed with or briefly submerged in HOCl, maintained its filtration function. HOCl delivery by spray pump, however, would not accomplish decontamination of extended use FFRs between patient encounters. HOCl submersion of intact FFRs, contaminated with various hospital pathogens, is worth further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Patrick Brooks
- Department of Biomedical Science and School of Anesthesia, Missouri State University.
| | | | - Wang Yang
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology; Department of Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Miami
| | - Weixing Hao
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology
| | - Kashala Fabrice Kapiamba
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology
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Saber D, Abd El-Aziz K. Advanced materials used in wearable health care devices and medical textiles in the battle against coronavirus (COVID-19): A review. JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL TEXTILES 2022; 51:246S-271S. [PMID: 38603366 PMCID: PMC9301358 DOI: 10.1177/15280837211041771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has generated great confusion around the world, affecting people's lives and producing a large number of deaths. The development of portable and wearable devices is of great importance in several fields such as point-of-care medical applications and environmental monitoring. Wearable devices with an ability to collect various types of physiological records are progressively becoming incorporated into everyday life of people. Physiological indicators are essential health indicators and their monitoring could efficiently enable early discovery of disease. This would also help decrease the number of extra severe health problems, in disease avoidance, and lower the overall public sector health cost. Protective clothing is nowadays a main part of textiles classified as technical or industrial textiles. Protective clothing aims to protect its wearer from the harsh environmental impacts that may result in injury or death. Providing protection for the common population has also been taken seriously considering the anticipated disaster due to virus attacks. This review highlights the properties of the materials that are used in wearable health care device and medical textiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalia Saber
- Materials Engineering Department,
Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
- Industrial Engineering Department,
College of Engineering, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
| | - Khaled Abd El-Aziz
- Materials Engineering Department,
Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
- Mechanical Engineering Department,
College of Engineering, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
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Khan J, E N, Mariatti M, Vilay V, Todo M. A comprehensive review on facemask manufacturing, testing, and its environmental impacts. JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL TEXTILES 2022; 52:15280837221111175. [PMID: 36249720 PMCID: PMC9548449 DOI: 10.1177/15280837221111175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) is currently the biggest threat to human lives due to its rapid transmission rate causing severe damage to human health and economy. The transmission of viral diseases can be minimized at its early stages with proper planning and preventive practices. The use of facemask has proved to be most effective measure to curb the spread of virus along with social distancing and good hygiene practices. This necessitates more research on facemask technology to increase its filtration efficiencies and proper disposal, which can be accelerated with knowledge of the current manufacturing process and recent research in this field. This review article provides an overview of the importance of facemask, fundamentals of nonwoven fabrics, and its manufacturing process. It also covers topics related to recent research reported for improved facemask efficiencies and testing methods to evaluate the performance of facemask. The plastic waste associated with the facemask and measures to minimize its effect are also briefly described. A systematic understanding is given in order to trigger future research in this field to ensure that we are well equipped for any future pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junaid Khan
- School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Nibong Tebal Penang, Malaysia
| | - Netnapa E
- School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Nibong Tebal Penang, Malaysia
| | - M Mariatti
- School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Nibong Tebal Penang, Malaysia
| | - V Vilay
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Sokpaluang Campus, National University of Laos, Vientiane, Laos
| | - M Todo
- Renewable Energy Center, Research Institute for Applied Mechanics, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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Hao W, Kapiamba KF, Abhayaratne V, Usman S, Huang YW, Wang Y. A filter-based system mimicking the particle deposition and penetration in human respiratory system for secondhand smoke generation and characterization. Inhal Toxicol 2022; 34:189-199. [PMID: 35584059 DOI: 10.1080/08958378.2022.2075493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Secondhand smoke endangers both the environment and the health of nonsmokers. Due to the scarcity of repeatable data generated by human subjects, a system capable of generating representative secondhand smoke is essential for studying smoke properties. This work presents the design and validation of a filter-based system that could mimic the particle deposition and penetration in human respiratory system for secondhand smoke generation and characterization. METHODS Guided by our study on characterizing size-dependent filtration efficiency of common materials, we identified three filter media that generate similar particle deposition efficiencies compared to different regions of the human respiratory system over a wide submicron size range. We demonstrated the performance of the proposed filter-based system using various operating conditions. Additionally, we compared the properties of secondhand smoke particles to those of primary smoke particles. RESULTS The difference in aerosol deposition efficiencies between the filter-based system and the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) model was less than 10% in the size range of 30 to 500 nm. High concentrations of metals were detected in the secondhand smoke. The contents of Ni and Cr generated from the secondhand electronic cigarettes are at least 20 and 5 times above the regulated daily maximum intake amount. CONCLUSION Given the agreement in aerosol respiratory deposition between the filter-based system and the ICRP model, such a system can facilitate laboratory studies of secondhand smoke due to its simple structure, high repeatability, and ease of control while remaining free of human subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weixing Hao
- Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, USA
| | - Kashala Fabrice Kapiamba
- Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, USA
| | - Varuni Abhayaratne
- Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, USA
| | - Shoaib Usman
- Department of Nuclear Engineering and Radiation Science, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, USA
| | - Yue-Wern Huang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, USA
| | - Yang Wang
- Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, USA
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Htwe YZN, Mamat H, Osman B, Mahmud H. Performance Comparison of Single and Double Masks: Filtration Efficiencies, Breathing Resistance and CO 2 Content. ARABIAN JOURNAL FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2022; 48:1-9. [PMID: 35402141 PMCID: PMC8985389 DOI: 10.1007/s13369-022-06801-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of a pandemic affecting the respiratory system has resulted in a significant demand for face masks. Masks have always been mentioned as an effective tool against environmental threats. This includes the use of double masks by large sections of the public, as can be seen during the current global spread of COVID-19. However, there is limited knowledge available on the performance of the various commonly available double face masks used. In this study, we have compared the performance of single and double face configurations. Three types of 3-ply face mask (FM), three types of fabric face mask (CM) and nine configurations of these face masks were investigated based on morphology, filtration efficiencies, breathing resistance and carbon dioxide (CO2) content. The filtration efficiencies of the double face masks are enhanced when combined with a fabric mask, and were found to improve by 500% compared to those of a fabric mask. The lowest breathing resistance among the double masking was observed in the combination of FM1 and fabric face masks. From the results, it was found that all combinations of double face mask are suitable to use since the measurements indicate that the breathing resistance and CO2 contents are still lower than the acceptable value set by the Malaysian Standard (MS 2323:2010) and European Standard (EN 149:2001 + A1:2009). The performance of double masks is comparable with that of N95 respirators. The double masking combination can be used as an alternative method to reduce inhalation exposure to airborne contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Zar Ni Htwe
- School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering Campus, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang Malaysia
| | - Hussin Mamat
- School of Aerospace Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang Malaysia
| | - Baderin Osman
- National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health Malaysia, 43650 Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor Malaysia
| | - Haalah Mahmud
- National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health Malaysia, 43650 Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor Malaysia
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13
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Advances in particulate matter filtration: Materials, performance, and application. GREEN ENERGY & ENVIRONMENT 2022. [PMCID: PMC10119549 DOI: 10.1016/j.gee.2022.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Air-borne pollutants in particulate matter (PM) form, produced either physically during industrial processes or certain biological routes, have posed a great threat to human health. Particularly during the current COVID-19 pandemic, effective filtration of the virus is an urgent matter worldwide. In this review, we first introduce some fundamentals about PM, including its source and classification, filtration mechanisms, and evaluation parameters. Advanced filtration materials and their functions are then summarized, among which polymers and MOFs are discussed in detail together with their antibacterial performance. The discussion on the application is divided into end-of-pipe treatment and source control. Finally, we conclude this review with our prospective view on future research in this area.
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14
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Abstract
Eco-friendly face mask is necessity to reduce the aggravates the environment due to increased face masks waste during COVID-19 pandemic. The successful eco-friendly masks development influenced by understanding of user’s need and effectiveness of communications. The employed conjoint analysis obtained user mask preferences information to support effective communication strategies by business enterprises and policy makers on encouraging public to consume appropriate masks. The attribute importance followed from eco-friendly (32.1%), mask certification (26.5%), filtration efficiency (19.8%), price (13.9%), layers (5.6%), type of mask (1.5%), material (0.7%). The public expecting the mask with the ability to recycled and biodegradable, with certification, performance above 90% filtration efficiency, and affordable prices in the range of Rp.1.500-Rp.25.000. Also, 3-ply fabrics for the medical type and cotton material are generally preferred to polyester/polypropylene. The government needs to improve the effectiveness masks education, provide convenience process to masks certification by manufacturers, and provision of incentives to reduce masks production cost. Meanwhile, manufacturers ensure produce of the standard eco-friendly masks in affordable pricing. Furthermore, gender did not show significant effect on preferences, but varied with average expenditure.
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15
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Sharma A, Omidvarborna H, Kumar P. Efficacy of facemasks in mitigating respiratory exposure to submicron aerosols. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 422:126783. [PMID: 34523504 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
We designed a novel experimental set-up to pseudo-simultaneously measure size-segregated filtration efficiency (ηF), breathing resistance (ηP) and potential usage time (tB) for 11 types of face protective equipment (FPE; four respirators; three medical; and four handmade) in the submicron range. As expected, the highest ηF was exhibited by respirators (97 ± 3%), followed by medical (81 ± 7%) and handmade (47 ± 13%). Similarly, the breathing resistance was highest for respirators, followed by medical and handmade FPE. Combined analysis of efficiency and breathing resistance highlighted trade-offs, i.e. respirators showing the best overall performance across these two indicators, followed by medical and handmade FPE. This hierarchy was also confirmed by quality factor, which is a performance indicator of filters. Detailed assessment of size-segregated aerosols, combined with the scanning electron microscope imaging, revealed material characteristics such as pore density, fiber thickness, filter material and number of layers influence their performance. ηF and ηP showed an inverse exponential decay with time. Using their cross-over point, in combination with acceptable breathability, allowed to estimate tB as 3.2-9.5 h (respirators), 2.6-7.3 h (medical masks) and 4.0-8.8 h (handmade). While relatively longer tB of handmade FPE indicate breathing comfort, they are far less efficient in filtering virus-laden submicron aerosols compared with respirators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashish Sharma
- Global Centre for Clean Air Research (GCARE), Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
| | - Hamid Omidvarborna
- Global Centre for Clean Air Research (GCARE), Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
| | - Prashant Kumar
- Global Centre for Clean Air Research (GCARE), Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, United Kingdom.
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16
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Ayodeji OJ, Hilliard TA, Ramkumar S. Particle-Size-Dependent Filtration Efficiency, Breathability, and Flow Resistance of Face Coverings and Common Household Fabrics Used for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Pandemic. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 16:11. [PMID: 35035493 PMCID: PMC8743850 DOI: 10.1007/s41742-021-00390-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 12/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED During the COVID-19 pandemic, the increase in demand for protective equipment caused a global shortage and homemade barrier face coverings were recommended as alternatives. However, filtration performances of homemade face coverings have not been fully evaluated. Test methods in the ASTM standard (F3502-21) were used to evaluate filtration efficiencies (FE) and breathability (pressure drop, Δp) of face coverings and home fabric materials commonly used during the pandemic. Submicron particulates FE was measured by particle transmission through face covering samples using a Condensation Particle Counter equipped with differential mobility analyzer and electronic manometer. Flow resistance of 0.1 μm-diameter fluorescent nanoparticles in droplets was determined by measuring fluorescence intensity of residual collected at the reverse side of samples. The size-dependent FE (3-94%) and Δp (0.8-72 mmH2O) varied considerably among fabrics. Of the 16 mask types, 31.25% and 81.25% met the minimum FE and breathability standards in the ASTM F3502-21, respectively. Overall performance (qF) was highest for velcro masks (max qF = 3.36, min qF = 2.80) and lowest for Dutch wax print fabrics (max qF = 0.12, min qF = 0.03). Most of the samples resisted the flow of 0.1 µm-diameter nanoparticles in droplets. Low flow resistance was observed in bandana, neck gaiter, t-shirt I, tank top and bedspread fabrics. GSM and fabric finishing seems to affect performance. Low performances can be improved by selecting optimum-performance fabrics in the design and manufacture of barrier face coverings. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s41742-021-00390-6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olukayode James Ayodeji
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, The Institute of Environmental and Human Health, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79416 USA
| | - Terrell A. Hilliard
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, The Institute of Environmental and Human Health, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79416 USA
| | - Seshadri Ramkumar
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, The Institute of Environmental and Human Health, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79416 USA
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17
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Ataei M, Shirazi FM, Nakhaee S, Abdollahi M, Mehrpour O. Assessment of cloth masks ability to limit Covid-19 particles spread: a systematic review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:1645-1676. [PMID: 34689269 PMCID: PMC8541808 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-16847-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
After the spread of Covid 19 worldwide, the use of cloth masks increased significantly due to a shortage of medical masks. Meanwhile, there were different opinions about the effectiveness of these masks and, so far, no study has been done to find the best fabric masks. This study reviews and summarizes all studies related to fabric masks' effectiveness and various fabrics against coronavirus. This systematic review is based on PRISMA rules. Two researchers separately examined three databases: PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Laboratory and clinical studies were included. After extracting the articles, their quality was assessed with the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) tool. In addition to efficacy, other factors, including the penetration of masks, pressure drop, and quality factor, were examined to select the best fabrics. Of the 42 studies selected, 39 were laboratory studies, and 3 were clinical studies. Among the various fabrics examined, cotton quilt 120 thread per inch (TPI), copy paper (bonded), hybrid of cotton with chiffon/ silk, and flannel filtration were found to have over 90% effectiveness in the particle size range of Covid-19. The results and comparison of different factors (pressure drop, filtration efficacy, penetration, filtration quality, and fit factor have been evaluated) showed that among different fabrics, hybrid masks, 2-layered cotton quilt, 2-layered 100% cotton, cotton flannel, and hairy tea towel + fleece sweater had the best performance. Clinical studies have not explicitly examined cloth masks' effectiveness in Covid-19, so the effectiveness of these types of masks for Covid 19 is questionable, and more studies are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahshid Ataei
- Medical Toxicology and Drug Abuse Research Center (MTDRC), Birjand University of Medical Sciences (BUMS), Birjand, Iran
- Toxicology and Diseases Group, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center (PSRC), The Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (TIPS), and Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences (TUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Farshad M Shirazi
- Arizona Poison & Drug Information Center, University of Arizona, College of Pharmacy and University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Samaneh Nakhaee
- Medical Toxicology and Drug Abuse Research Center (MTDRC), Birjand University of Medical Sciences (BUMS), Birjand, Iran
| | - Mohammad Abdollahi
- Toxicology and Diseases Group, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center (PSRC), The Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (TIPS), and Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences (TUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Omid Mehrpour
- Medical Toxicology and Drug Abuse Research Center (MTDRC), Birjand University of Medical Sciences (BUMS), Birjand, Iran.
- Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.
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18
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Deng W, Sun Y, Yao X, Subramanian K, Ling C, Wang H, Chopra SS, Xu BB, Wang J, Chen J, Wang D, Amancio H, Pramana S, Ye R, Wang S. Masks for COVID-19. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2102189. [PMID: 34825783 PMCID: PMC8787406 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202102189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 07/18/2021] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Sustainable solutions on fabricating and using a face mask to block the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spread during this coronavirus pandemic of 2019 (COVID-19) are required as society is directed by the World Health Organization (WHO) toward wearing it, resulting in an increasingly huge demand with over 4 000 000 000 masks used per day globally. Herein, various new mask technologies and advanced materials are reviewed to deal with critical shortages, cross-infection, and secondary transmission risk of masks. A number of countries have used cloth masks and 3D-printed masks as substitutes, whose filtration efficiencies can be improved by using nanofibers or mixing other polymers into them. Since 2020, researchers continue to improve the performance of masks by adding various functionalities, for example using metal nanoparticles and herbal extracts to inactivate pathogens, using graphene to make masks photothermal and superhydrophobic, and using triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) to prolong mask lifetime. The recent advances in material technology have led to the development of antimicrobial coatings, which are introduced in this review. When incorporated into masks, these advanced materials and technologies can aid in the prevention of secondary transmission of the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Deng
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringCity University of Hong KongHong Kong999077China
| | - Yajun Sun
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringCity University of Hong KongHong Kong999077China
| | - Xiaoxue Yao
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringCity University of Hong KongHong Kong999077China
| | - Karpagam Subramanian
- School of Energy and EnvironmentCity University of Hong KongHong Kong999077China
| | - Chen Ling
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringCity University of Hong KongHong Kong999077China
| | - Hongbo Wang
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringCity University of Hong KongHong Kong999077China
| | - Shauhrat S. Chopra
- School of Energy and EnvironmentCity University of Hong KongHong Kong999077China
| | - Ben Bin Xu
- Department of Mechanical and Construction EngineeringNorthumbria UniversityNewcastle upon TyneNE1 8STUK
| | - Jie‐Xin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Inorganic CompositesBeijing University of Chemical TechnologyBeijing100029China
| | - Jian‐Feng Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Inorganic CompositesBeijing University of Chemical TechnologyBeijing100029China
| | - Dan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Inorganic CompositesBeijing University of Chemical TechnologyBeijing100029China
| | - Honeyfer Amancio
- Department of Chemical Engineering and BiotechnologyCambridge UniversityCambridgeCB2 1TNUK
| | - Stevin Pramana
- School of EngineeringNewcastle UniversityNewcastle upon TyneNE1 7RUUK
| | - Ruquan Ye
- Department of ChemistryCity University of Hong KongHong Kong999077China
| | - Steven Wang
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringCity University of Hong KongHong Kong999077China
- School of Energy and EnvironmentCity University of Hong KongHong Kong999077China
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19
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Koh E, Ambatipudi M, Boone DL, Luehr JBW, Blaise A, Gonzalez J, Sule N, Mooney DJ, He EM. Quantifying face mask comfort. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2022; 19:23-34. [PMID: 34747682 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2021.2002342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Face mask usage is one of the most effective ways to limit SARS-CoV-2 transmission, but a mask is only useful if user compliance is high. Through anonymous surveys (n = 679), it was shown that mask discomfort is the primary source of noncompliance in mask wearing. Further, through these surveys, three critical predicting variables that dictate mask comfort were identified: air resistance, water vapor permeability, and face temperature change. To validate these predicting variables in a physiological context, experiments (n = 9) were performed to measure the respiratory rate and change in face temperature while wearing different types of three commonly used masks. Finally, using values of these predicting variables from experiments and the literature, and surveys asking users to rate the comfort of various masks, three machine learning algorithms were trained and tested to generate overall comfort scores for those masks. Although all three models performed with an accuracy of approximately 70%, the multiple linear regression model provides a simple analytical expression to predict the comfort scores for common face masks provided the input predicting variables. As face mask usage is crucial during the COVID-19 pandemic, the goal of this quantitative framework to predict mask comfort is hoped to improve user experience and prevent discomfort-induced noncompliance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Koh
- Harvard College, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | | | - DaLoria L Boone
- Harvard College, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Julia B W Luehr
- Harvard College, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Alena Blaise
- Harvard College, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Jose Gonzalez
- Harvard College, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Nishant Sule
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - David J Mooney
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Emily M He
- Harvard College, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
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20
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Gonzalez A, Aboubakr HA, Brockgreitens J, Hao W, Wang Y, Goyal SM, Abbas A. Durable nanocomposite face masks with high particulate filtration and rapid inactivation of coronaviruses. Sci Rep 2021; 11:24318. [PMID: 34934121 PMCID: PMC8692499 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03771-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic presents a unique challenge to the healthcare community due to the high infectivity rate and need for effective personal protective equipment. Zinc oxide nanoparticles have shown promising antimicrobial properties and are recognized as a safe additive in many food and cosmetic products. This work presents a novel nanocomposite synthesis approach, which allows zinc oxide nanoparticles to be grown within textile and face mask materials, including melt-blown polypropylene and nylon-cotton. The resulting nanocomposite achieves greater than 3 log10 reduction (≥ 99.9%) in coronavirus titer within a contact time of 10 min, by disintegrating the viral envelope. The new nanocomposite textile retains activity even after 100 laundry cycles and has been dermatologist tested as non-irritant and hypoallergenic. Various face mask designs were tested to improve filtration efficiency and breathability while offering antiviral protection, with Claros' design reporting higher filtration efficiency than surgical masks (> 50%) for particles ranged 200 nm to 5 µm in size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Gonzalez
- Claros Technologies Inc., 1000 Westgate Drive, Suite 1005, St. Paul, MN, 55114, USA
| | - Hamada A Aboubakr
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 1333 Gortner Ave., St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - John Brockgreitens
- Claros Technologies Inc., 1000 Westgate Drive, Suite 1005, St. Paul, MN, 55114, USA
| | - Weixing Hao
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, 1401 N Pine St., Rolla, MO, 65409, USA
| | - Yang Wang
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, 1401 N Pine St., Rolla, MO, 65409, USA
| | - Sagar M Goyal
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, 1333 Gortner Ave., St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Abdennour Abbas
- Claros Technologies Inc., 1000 Westgate Drive, Suite 1005, St. Paul, MN, 55114, USA.
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 2004 Folwell Ave, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA.
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21
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Tuñón-Molina A, Takayama K, Redwan EM, Uversky VN, Andrés J, Serrano-Aroca Á. Protective Face Masks: Current Status and Future Trends. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:56725-56751. [PMID: 34797624 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c12227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Management of the COVID-19 pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has relied in part on the use of personal protective equipment (PPE). Face masks, as a representative example of PPE, have made a particularly significant contribution. However, most commonly used face masks are made of materials lacking inactivation properties against either SARS-CoV-2 or multidrug-resistant bacteria. Therefore, symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals wearing masks can still infect others due to viable microbial loads escaping from the masks. Moreover, microbial contact transmission can occur by touching the mask, and the discarded masks are an increasing source of contaminated biological waste and a serious environmental threat. For this reason, during the current pandemic, many researchers have worked to develop face masks made of advanced materials with intrinsic antimicrobial, self-cleaning, reusable, and/or biodegradable properties, thereby providing extra protection against pathogens in a sustainable manner. To overview this segment of the remarkable efforts against COVID-19, this review describes the different types of commercialized face masks, their main fabrication methods and treatments, and the progress achieved in face mask development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Tuñón-Molina
- Biomaterials and Bioengineering Lab, Centro de Investigación Traslacional San Alberto Magno, Universidad Católica de Valencia San Vicente Mártir, c/Guillem de Castro 94, 46001 Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Kazuo Takayama
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Elrashdy M Redwan
- Faculty of Science, Department of Biological Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Vladimir N Uversky
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, United States
| | - Juan Andrés
- Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, University Jaume I (UJI), 12071 Castellon, Spain
| | - Ángel Serrano-Aroca
- Biomaterials and Bioengineering Lab, Centro de Investigación Traslacional San Alberto Magno, Universidad Católica de Valencia San Vicente Mártir, c/Guillem de Castro 94, 46001 Valencia, Valencia, Spain
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22
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LaRue RJ, Morkus P, Laengert S, Rassenberg S, Halali MA, Colenbrander JW, Clase CM, Latulippe DR, de Lannoy C. Navigating Performance Standards for Face Mask Materials: A Custom-Built Apparatus for Measuring Particle Filtration Efficiency. GLOBAL CHALLENGES (HOBOKEN, NJ) 2021; 5:2100052. [PMID: 34513009 PMCID: PMC8420507 DOI: 10.1002/gch2.202100052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Public health agencies have recommended the community use of face masks to reduce the transmission of airborne diseases like COVID-19. Virus transmission is reduced when masks act as efficient filters, thus evaluating mask particle filtration efficiency (PFE) is essential. However, the high cost and long lead times associated with purchasing turn-key PFE systems or hiring certified laboratories hampers the testing of filter materials. There is a clear need for "custom" PFE test systems; however, the variety of standards that prescribe (medical) face mask PFE testing (e.g., ASTM International, NIOSH) vary widely in their protocols and clarity of guidelines. Herein, the development is described of an "in-house" PFE system and method for testing face masks in the context of current standards for medical masks. Pursuant to the ASTM International standards, the system uses an aerosol of latex spheres (0.1 µm nominal size) with particle concentrations upstream and downstream of the mask material measured using a laser particle analyzer. PFE measurements are obtained for a variety of common fabrics and medical masks. The approach described in this work conforms to the current standards for PFE testing while providing the flexibility to adapt to changing needs and filtration conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan J. LaRue
- Centre of Excellence in Protective Equipment and Materials (CEPEM)1280 Main St. W.HamiltonONCanada
- McMaster University Department of Chemical EngineeringCanada
| | - Patrick Morkus
- Centre of Excellence in Protective Equipment and Materials (CEPEM)1280 Main St. W.HamiltonONCanada
- McMaster University Department of Chemical EngineeringCanada
| | - Scott Laengert
- Centre of Excellence in Protective Equipment and Materials (CEPEM)1280 Main St. W.HamiltonONCanada
- McMaster University Department of Chemical EngineeringCanada
| | - Sarah Rassenberg
- Centre of Excellence in Protective Equipment and Materials (CEPEM)1280 Main St. W.HamiltonONCanada
- McMaster University Department of Chemical EngineeringCanada
| | - Mohamad Amin Halali
- Centre of Excellence in Protective Equipment and Materials (CEPEM)1280 Main St. W.HamiltonONCanada
- McMaster University Department of Chemical EngineeringCanada
| | - John W. Colenbrander
- Centre of Excellence in Protective Equipment and Materials (CEPEM)1280 Main St. W.HamiltonONCanada
- McMaster University Department of Mechanical EngineeringCanada
| | - Catherine M. Clase
- Centre of Excellence in Protective Equipment and Materials (CEPEM)1280 Main St. W.HamiltonONCanada
- McMaster University Department of MedicineCanada
- McMaster University Department of Health Research MethodsEvidence and ImpactCanada
- St. Joseph's Healthcare HamiltonCanada
| | - David R. Latulippe
- Centre of Excellence in Protective Equipment and Materials (CEPEM)1280 Main St. W.HamiltonONCanada
- McMaster University Department of Chemical EngineeringCanada
| | - Charles‐François de Lannoy
- Centre of Excellence in Protective Equipment and Materials (CEPEM)1280 Main St. W.HamiltonONCanada
- McMaster University Department of Chemical EngineeringCanada
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23
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Fine S, He P, Huang J. Self-Charging Textile Woven from Dissimilar Household Fibers for Air Filtration: A Proof of Concept. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:26311-26317. [PMID: 34660990 PMCID: PMC8515584 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c03412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
A proof of concept is demonstrated concerning self-charging fabrics for air filtration purposes based on common household fibers. Triboelectrically dissimilar fibers, such as wool and polyester, were interwoven into a single-layer fabric, so that local charges can be developed and partially retained at the junctions of the insulating fibers as a result of their constant frictional contact. Voluminous fibers that are typically used for knitting were chosen here, leveraging their broad availability and ease of use, so that they can be handwoven into a leak-free fabric, preventing unfiltered air to pass through directly. When tested for PM2.5 and PM10 removal, this hybrid fabric outperforms a single-material fabric made similarly from household cotton yarns. And its pressure drop and filtration efficiency were found to be in between those of a common surgical mask and a KN95 mask.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona
G. Fine
- Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Pan He
- Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Jiaxing Huang
- Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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24
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ZnO-Impregnated Polyacrylonitrile Nanofiber Filters against Various Phases of Air Pollutants. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11092313. [PMID: 34578627 PMCID: PMC8469498 DOI: 10.3390/nano11092313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The incorporation of metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) in fiber filters is an effective approach to enhance the specific surface area and surface roughness of the fiber, hence improving their efficiency for fine dust capture and other gas treatment or biological applications. Nevertheless, uneven distribution of NPs limits their practical applications. In this study, a commercial silane coupling agent (3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane) was used to improve the dispersion of zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs in thin polyacrylonitrile fibers. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that the fibers incorporating the silane-modified NPs exhibited better distribution of NPs than those prepared with pristine ZnO NPs. The silane modification enhanced the specific surface area, surface roughness, and fiber porosity. In particular, the nanofiber filter incorporating 12 wt% ZnO NPs modified with 0.5 g silane per g of ZnO NPs maintained a filtration efficiency of 99.76% with a low pressure drop of 44 Pa, excellent antibacterial activity, and could decompose organic methylene blue dye with an efficiency of 85.11% under visible light.
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25
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Seo S, Ruzycki CA, Johnson B, Wang H, Vehring R, Romanyk D, Finlay WH, Martin AR. Size-Specific Filtration Performance of N95 Respirators After Decontamination by Moist Heat Incubation. J Aerosol Med Pulm Drug Deliv 2021; 35:41-49. [PMID: 34374572 DOI: 10.1089/jamp.2021.0002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Decontamination and reuse of respirators have been proposed to mitigate the shortage of respirators during pandemics. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)'s respirator filtration efficiency (FE) test has been used to confirm that decontamination procedures maintain minimum FE above 95% for N95s and similar respirators. However, it was hypothesized that the limited range of test particle sizes may not include the most penetrating particle size (MPPS) for all respirators, especially after decontamination by moist heat incubation (MHI). Materials and Methods: A custom-designed apparatus was used to measure size-specific FE for respirators across particle size bins between aerodynamic diameter of 0.07 and 1.97 μm using an electrical low-pressure impactor. FEs were measured for two N95 respirator models before and after 10 cycles of MHI. In addition, pressure drop through the respirator materials and scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of respirator layers were obtained before and after MHI. Results: For Kimtech™ brand N95 respirators, FE was not reduced at any size after MHI. For Safe Life brand N95s, FE was below 95% before MHI and decreased significantly after MHI. The MPPS for this respirator was outside the range defined in NIOSH test protocol, and increased after MHI. There was no appreciable change to the pressure drop through the two respirator models after MHI, nor was any deterioration in fiber integrity visible in SEM images. Conclusions: Based on the results of the present study and other studies in the literature, MHI can be used to decontaminate respirators without significant decrease in FE. However, potential effects of MHI on FE need to be assessed for each respirator model. The ability to evaluate size-specific FE across a wide range of particle sizes is important in identifying the MPPS and associated FE of respirators before and after MHI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solbee Seo
- The Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Conor A Ruzycki
- The Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Bailey Johnson
- The Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Hui Wang
- The Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Reinhard Vehring
- The Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Dan Romanyk
- The Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Warren H Finlay
- The Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Andrew R Martin
- The Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
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26
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Abbas WA, Shaheen BS, Ghanem LG, Badawy IM, Abodouh MM, Abdou SM, Zada S, Allam NK. Cost-Effective Face Mask Filter Based on Hybrid Composite Nanofibrous Layers with High Filtration Efficiency. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2021; 37:7492-7502. [PMID: 34101479 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c00926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
One of the main protective measures against COVID-19's spread is the use of face masks. It is therefore of the utmost importance for face masks to be high functioning in terms of their filtration ability and comfort. Notwithstanding the prevalence of the commercial polypropylene face masks, its effectiveness is under contention, leaving vast room for improvement. During the pandemic, the use of at least one mask per day for each individual results in a massive number of masks that need to be safely disposed of. Fabricating biodegradable filters of high efficiency not only can protect individuals and save the environment but also can be sewed on reusable/washable cloth masks to reduce expenses. Wearing surgical masks for long periods of time, especially in hot regions, causes discomfort by irritating sensitive facial skin and warmed inhaled air. Herein, we demonstrate the fabrication of novel electrospun composites layers as face mask filters for protection against pathogens and tiny particulates. The combinatorial filter layers are made by integrating TiO2 nanotubes as fillers into chitosan/poly(vinyl alcohol) polymeric electrospun nanofibers as the outer layer. The other two filler-free layers, chitosan/poly(vinyl alcohol) and silk/poly(vinyl alcohol) as the middle and inner composite layers, respectively, were used for controlled protection, contamination prevention, and comfort for prolonged usage. The ASTM standards evaluation tests were adopted to evaluate the efficacy of the assembled filter, revealing high filtration efficiency compared to that of commercial surgical masks. The TiO2/Cs/PVA outer layer significantly reduced Staphylococcus aureus bacteria by 44.8% compared to the control, revealing the dual effect of TiO2 and chitosan toward the infectious bacterial colonies. Additionally, molecular dynamics calculations were used to assess the mechanical properties of the filter layers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walaa A Abbas
- Energy Materials Laboratory, School of Sciences and Engineering, The American University in Cairo, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
| | - Basamat S Shaheen
- Energy Materials Laboratory, School of Sciences and Engineering, The American University in Cairo, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
| | - Loujain G Ghanem
- Energy Materials Laboratory, School of Sciences and Engineering, The American University in Cairo, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
| | - Ibrahim M Badawy
- Energy Materials Laboratory, School of Sciences and Engineering, The American University in Cairo, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
| | - Mohamed M Abodouh
- Energy Materials Laboratory, School of Sciences and Engineering, The American University in Cairo, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
| | - Shrouk M Abdou
- Energy Materials Laboratory, School of Sciences and Engineering, The American University in Cairo, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
| | - Suher Zada
- Biology Department, School of Sciences and Engineering, The American University in Cairo, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
| | - Nageh K Allam
- Energy Materials Laboratory, School of Sciences and Engineering, The American University in Cairo, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
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27
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Ogbuoji EA, Zaky AM, Escobar IC. Advanced Research and Development of Face Masks and Respirators Pre and Post the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Pandemic: A Critical Review. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:1998. [PMID: 34207184 PMCID: PMC8235328 DOI: 10.3390/polym13121998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, in 2020, has accelerated the need for personal protective equipment (PPE) masks as one of the methods to reduce and/or eliminate transmission of the coronavirus across communities. Despite the availability of different coronavirus vaccines, it is still recommended by the Center of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), World Health Organization (WHO), and local authorities to apply public safety measures including maintaining social distancing and wearing face masks. This includes individuals who have been fully vaccinated. Remarkable increase in scientific studies, along with manufacturing-related research and development investigations, have been performed in an attempt to provide better PPE solutions during the pandemic. Recent literature has estimated the filtration efficiency (FE) of face masks and respirators shedding the light on specific targeted parameters that investigators can measure, detect, evaluate, and provide reliable data with consistent results. This review showed the variability in testing protocols and FE evaluation methods of different face mask materials and/or brands. In addition to the safety requirements needed to perform aerosol viral filtration tests, one of the main challenges researchers currently face is the inability to simulate or mimic true aerosol filtration scenarios via laboratory experiments, field tests, and in vitro/in vivo investigations. Moreover, the FE through the mask can be influenced by different filtration mechanisms, environmental parameters, filtration material properties, number of layers used, packing density, fiber charge density, fiber diameter, aerosol type and particle size, aerosol face velocity and concentration loadings, and infectious concentrations generated due to different human activities. These parameters are not fully understood and constrain the design, production, efficacy, and efficiency of face masks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebuka A. Ogbuoji
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA;
| | - Amr M. Zaky
- BioMicrobics Inc., 16002 West 110th Street, Lenexa, KS 66219, USA;
| | - Isabel C. Escobar
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA;
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28
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Ju JTJ, Boisvert LN, Zuo YY. Face masks against COVID-19: Standards, efficacy, testing and decontamination methods. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2021; 292:102435. [PMID: 33971389 PMCID: PMC8084286 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2021.102435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus responsible for the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has caused a global pandemic on a scale not seen for over a century. Increasing evidence suggests that respiratory droplets and aerosols are likely the most common route of transmission for SARS-CoV-2. Since the virus can be spread by presymptomatic and asymptomatic individuals, universal face masking has been recommended as a straightforward and low-cost strategy to mitigate virus transmission. Numerous governments and public health agencies around the world have advocated for or mandated the wearing of masks in public settings, especially in situations where social distancing is not possible. However, the efficacy of wearing a mask remains controversial. This interdisciplinary review summarizes the current, state-of-the-art understanding of mask usage against COVID-19. It covers three main aspects of mask usage amid the pandemic: quality standards for various face masks and their fundamental filtration mechanisms, empirical methods for quantitatively determining mask integrity and particle filtration efficiency, and decontamination methods that allow for the reuse of traditionally disposable N95 and surgical masks. The focus is given to the fundamental physicochemical and engineering sciences behind each aspect covered in this review, providing novel insights into the current understanding of mask usage to curb COVID-19 spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerry T J Ju
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, United States
| | - Leah N Boisvert
- Department of Pediatrics, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96826, United States
| | - Yi Y Zuo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, United States; Department of Pediatrics, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96826, United States.
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29
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Hicks A, Temizel-Sekeryan S, Kontar W, Ghamkhar R, Rodríguez Morris M. Personal respiratory protection and resiliency in a pandemic, the evolving disposable versus reusable debate and its effect on waste generation. RESOURCES, CONSERVATION, AND RECYCLING 2021; 168:105262. [PMID: 34785861 PMCID: PMC8588576 DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic sweeping much of the globe is not anticipated to be short in duration, with contingency plans suggesting that it may last at least eighteen months. In the United States, one of the critical issues in coping with the pandemic has been a lack of essential personal protective equipment (PPE), at the local, state, and national level. As COVID-19 is primarily transferred through respiratory routes, adequate respiratory protection is a dire necessity. The shift from durable and reusable medical supplies in recent years to their single use counterparts has reduced the resiliency of the medical system with respect to PPE and other critical supplies in the current pandemic. This work explores the role of reusable compared to single use respiratory protection in the current pandemic, including reprocessing of single use options, from the perspective of number of equivalent protection devices needed. The current state of literature is also reviewed to provide context to this work, with respect to resource procurement. The economic cost of PPE throughout a pandemic is explored, and it is found that utilizing reusable PPE options depending on filter cycling may be less costly. Increased waste production is another issue with the current pandemic, and this is explored utilizing a mass basis, finding that reusable respiratory PPE would generate less waste than using single use PPE in a business as usual scenario. As future outbreaks of COVID-19 are likely along with other future pandemics, this work provides insights at how to prepare from the standpoint of PPE, and in particular respiratory protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Hicks
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, United States
| | - Sila Temizel-Sekeryan
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, United States
| | - Wissam Kontar
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, United States
| | - Ramin Ghamkhar
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, United States
| | - Mónica Rodríguez Morris
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, United States
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30
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Kwong LH, Wilson R, Kumar S, Crider YS, Sanchez YR, Rempel D, Pillarisetti A. Review of the Breathability and Filtration Efficiency of Common Household Materials for Face Masks. ACS NANO 2021; 15:5904-5924. [PMID: 33822580 PMCID: PMC8900768 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c10146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The World Health Organization and the United States Centers for Disease Control have recommended universal face masking by the general public to slow the spread of COVID-19. A number of recent studies have evaluated the filtration efficiency and pressure differential (an indicator of breathability) of various, widely available materials that the general public can use to make face masks at home. In this review, we summarize those studies to provide guidance for both the public to select the best materials for face masks and for future researchers to rigorously evaluate and report on mask material testing. Of the tested fabric materials and material combinations with adequate breathability, most single and multilayer combinations had a filtration efficiency of <30%. Most studies evaluating commonly available mask materials did not follow standard methods that would facilitate comparison across studies, and materials were often described with too few details to allow consumers to purchase equivalent materials to make their own masks. To improve the usability of future study results, researchers should use standard methods and report material characteristics in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura H. Kwong
- Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Corresponding author: Laura H Kwong, 650-332-4667,
| | | | - Shailabh Kumar
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Yoshika Susan Crider
- Division of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, University of California, Berkeley 94720, USA
- Energy & Resources Group, University of California, Berkeley 94720, USA
| | - Yasmin Reyes Sanchez
- Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - David Rempel
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Ajay Pillarisetti
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University Atlanta, GA 30307, USA
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31
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Dhanraj DIA, Choudhary S, Jammalamadaka U, Ballard DH, Kumfer BM, Dang AJ, Williams BJ, Meacham KW, Axelbaum RL, Biswas P. Size-Dependent Filtration Efficiency of Alternative Facemask Filter Materials. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 14:1868. [PMID: 33918714 PMCID: PMC8070317 DOI: 10.3390/ma14081868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The use of facemasks is proven to mitigate the spread of the coronavirus and other biological agents that cause disease. Various forms of facemasks, made using different materials, are being used extensively, and it is important to determine their performance characteristics. The size-dependent filtration efficiency and breathing resistance of household sterilization wrap fabrics, and isolation media (American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)- and non-ASTM-rated), were measured in filter-holder- and mannequin-in-chamber-based systems, focusing on particles sizes between 20 nm and 2 μm. Double-layer MERV-14 (Minimum Efficiency Reporting Values with rating 14) showed the highest filtration efficiency (94.9-73.3%) amongst household filter media, whereas ASTM-rated isolation masks showed the highest filtration efficiencies (95.6-88.7) amongst all the masks considered. Filtration efficiency of 3D-printed masks with replaceable filter media was found to depend on the degree of sealing around the media holder, which depended on the material's compressibility. Filtration efficiencies of triple-layer combinations (95.8-85.3%) follow a profile similar to single layers but with improved filtration efficiencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David I. A. Dhanraj
- Center for Aerosol Science and Engineering, Aerosol and Air Quality Research Laboratory, Department of Energy, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA; (D.I.A.D.); (S.C.)
| | - Shruti Choudhary
- Center for Aerosol Science and Engineering, Aerosol and Air Quality Research Laboratory, Department of Energy, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA; (D.I.A.D.); (S.C.)
| | - Udayabhanu Jammalamadaka
- Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; (U.J.); (D.H.B.)
| | - David H. Ballard
- Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; (U.J.); (D.H.B.)
| | - Benjamin M. Kumfer
- Center for Aerosol Science and Engineering, Department of Energy, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA; (B.M.K.); (A.J.D.); (B.J.W.); (R.L.A.)
| | - Audrey J. Dang
- Center for Aerosol Science and Engineering, Department of Energy, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA; (B.M.K.); (A.J.D.); (B.J.W.); (R.L.A.)
| | - Brent J. Williams
- Center for Aerosol Science and Engineering, Department of Energy, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA; (B.M.K.); (A.J.D.); (B.J.W.); (R.L.A.)
| | - Kathleen W. Meacham
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA;
| | - Richard L. Axelbaum
- Center for Aerosol Science and Engineering, Department of Energy, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA; (B.M.K.); (A.J.D.); (B.J.W.); (R.L.A.)
| | - Pratim Biswas
- Center for Aerosol Science and Engineering, Aerosol and Air Quality Research Laboratory, Department of Energy, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA; (D.I.A.D.); (S.C.)
- Dean, Engineering, University of Miami, Miami, FL 32611, USA
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32
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Robinson JF, Rios de Anda I, Moore FJ, Reid JP, Sear RP, Royall CP. Efficacy of face coverings in reducing transmission of COVID-19: Calculations based on models of droplet capture. PHYSICS OF FLUIDS (WOODBURY, N.Y. : 1994) 2021; 33:043112. [PMID: 33953528 PMCID: PMC8086642 DOI: 10.1063/5.0047622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
In the COVID-19 pandemic, among the more controversial issues is the use of masks and face coverings. Much of the concern boils down to the question-just how effective are face coverings? One means to address this question is to review our understanding of the physical mechanisms by which masks and coverings operate-steric interception, inertial impaction, diffusion, and electrostatic capture. We enquire as to what extent these can be used to predict the efficacy of coverings. We combine the predictions of the models of these mechanisms which exist in the filtration literature and compare the predictions with recent experiments and lattice Boltzmann simulations, and find reasonable agreement with the former and good agreement with the latter. Building on these results, we explore the parameter space for woven cotton fabrics to show that three-layered cloth masks can be constructed with comparable filtration performance to surgical masks under ideal conditions. Reusable cloth masks thus present an environmentally friendly alternative to surgical masks so long as the face seal is adequate enough to minimize leakage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua F. Robinson
- H. H. Wills Physics Laboratory, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TL, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Jonathan P. Reid
- School of Chemistry, Cantock's Close, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - Richard P. Sear
- Department of Physics, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
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33
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Hao W, Xu G, Wang Y. Factors influencing the filtration performance of homemade face masks. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2021; 18:128-138. [PMID: 33476218 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2020.1868482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic is causing a shortage of personal protective equipment (PPE) across the world. As a public health response to control the pandemic, wearing homemade face coverings has been proven as a resort to protect both the wearer and others from droplets and aerosols transmission. Although aerosols and droplets can be removed through these non-medical materials with a series of filtration mechanisms, their filtration performances have not been evaluated in detail. Moreover, many factors, such as the fabric properties and the method of usage, also affect filtration performance. In this study, the size-dependent filtration performances of non-medical materials as candidates for face coverings were evaluated comprehensively. The flow resistance across these filter materials, an indicator of breathability, was also examined. The effect of materials properties, washing and drying cycles, and triboelectric effect on particle filtration was also studied. Results showed that the filtration efficiency varied considerably from 5-50% among fabrics materials due to the material properties, such as density and microscopic structure of the materials. Microfiber cloth demonstrated the highest efficiency among the tested materials. In general, fabric materials with higher grams per square meter (GSM) show higher particle filtration efficiency. The results on washing and drying fabric materials indicated decent reusability for fabric materials. The triboelectric charge could increase the filtration performance of the tested fabric materials, but this effect diminishes soon due to the dissipation of charges, meaning that triboelectric charging may not be effective in manufacturing homemade face coverings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weixing Hao
- Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, USA
| | - Guang Xu
- Department of Mining Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, USA
| | - Yang Wang
- Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, USA
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34
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Li D, Lin EZ, Brault MA, Paquette J, Vermund SH, Godri Pollitt KJ. Reopening Schools After a Novel Coronavirus Surge. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1318:785-813. [PMID: 33973212 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-63761-3_44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic shook the world in ways not seen since the pandemic influenza of 1918-1919. As of late August 2020, over 25 million persons had been infected, and we will see the global death toll exceed one million by the end of 2020. Both are minimum estimates. All segments of society have been drastically affected. Schools worldwide have been forced to close due to illness and absenteeism, transmission and risk to vulnerable members of the school community, and community concerns. The decision to reopen school during a pandemic will have a tremendous impact on children's safety, growth, and well-being. Not opening invites social isolation and suboptimal educational experiences, especially for youth whose computing assets and online access are limited and those with special needs. The opening has hazards as well, and the mitigation of these risks is the topic of this chapter. Opening schools requires careful considerations of benefits, risks, and precautions. Guiding principles for safety and strategic application of the principles in each educational niche are critical issues to consider during school reopening. The fundamental principles of disease control involve school-directed initiatives (physical distancing and mask use, hand/face and surface cleansing, administrative controls, engineering controls) and individual-level risk reduction approaches to maximize adherence to new guidelines. The school-initiated "top-down" approaches and the individual-level "bottom-up" approaches must be synergized, as no single method will ensure safety. We discuss how to effectively layer strategies in each educational space to increase safety. Since the vulnerability of children has been heightened during this pandemic crisis, we highlight the special considerations for mental health support that should be considered by schools. The safety principles, disease control strategies, and other critical issues discussed here will serve as a starting point for developing a safe, comprehensive, and feasible reopening plan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | | | - Julie Paquette
- Office of Facilities, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
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35
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Wang Y, Xu G, Huang YW. Modeling the load of SARS-CoV-2 virus in human expelled particles during coughing and speaking. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0241539. [PMID: 33125421 PMCID: PMC7598485 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0241539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Particle size is an essential factor when considering the fate and transport of virus-containing droplets expelled by human, because it determines the deposition pattern in the human respiratory system and the evolution of droplets by evaporation and gravitational settling. However, the evolution of virus-containing droplets and the size-dependent viral load have not been studied in detail. The lack of this information leads to uncertainties in understanding the airborne transmission of respiratory diseases, such as the COVID-19. In this study, through a set of differential equations describing the evolution of respiratory droplets and by using the SARS-CoV-2 virus as an example, we investigated the distribution of airborne virus in human expelled particles from coughing and speaking. More specifically, by calculating the vertical distances traveled by the respiratory droplets, we examined the number of viruses that can remain airborne and the size of particles carrying these airborne viruses after different elapsed times. From a single cough, a person with a high viral load in respiratory fluid (2.35 × 109 copies per ml) may generate as many as 1.23 × 105 copies of viruses that can remain airborne after 10 seconds, compared to 386 copies of a normal patient (7.00 × 106 copies per ml). Masking, however, can effectively block around 94% of the viruses that may otherwise remain airborne after 10 seconds. Our study found that no clear size boundary exists between particles that can settle and can remain airborne. The results from this study challenge the conventional understanding of disease transmission routes through airborne and droplet mechanisms. We suggest that a complete understanding of the respiratory droplet evolution is essential and needed to identify the transmission mechanisms of respiratory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Wang
- Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, United States of America
| | - Guang Xu
- Department of Mining and Nuclear Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, United States of America
| | - Yue-Wern Huang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, United States of America
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