Influence of encapsulation on the in vitro percutaneous absorption of octyl methoxycinnamate

Nanoparticles as a Therapeutic Delivery System for Skin Cancer Prevention and Treatment

The use of nanoparticles (NPs) as a therapeutic delivery system has expanded markedly over the past decade, particularly regarding applications targeting the skin. The delivery of NP-based therapeutics to the skin requires special consideration owing to its role as both a physical and immunologic barrier, and specific technologies must not only take into consideration the target but also the pathway of delivery. The unique challenge this poses has been met with the development of a wide panel of NP-based technologies meant to precisely address these considerations. In this review article, we describe the application of NP-based technologies for drug delivery targeting the skin, summarize the types of NPs, and discuss the current landscape of NPs for skin cancer prevention and skin cancer treatment as well as future directions within these applications.

Assessment of human exposure to benzophenone-type UV filters: A review

To avoid the harmful effects of UV radiation, benzophenone-type UV filters (BPs) are widely used in personal care products and other synthetic products. Biomonitoring studies have shown the presence of BPs in various human biological samples, raising health concerns. However, there is a paucity of data on the global human exposure to this group of contaminants. In this study, we compiled data on the body burden of BPs along with the possible exposure routes and biotransformation pathways. BPs can easily penetrate the skin barrier and thus, they can be absorbed through the skin. In the human body, BPs can undergo Phase I (mainly demethylation and hydroxylation) and Phase II (mainly glucuronidation and sulfation) biotransformations. From a total of 158 studies, most of the studies are related to urine (concentration up to 92.7 mg L^-1), followed by those reported in blood (up to 0.9 mg L^-1) and milk (up to 0.8 mg L^-1). Among BPs, benzophenone-1 and benzophenone-3 are the most commonly detected congeners. The body burden of BPs is associated with various factors, including the country of residence, lifestyle, income, education level, and ethnicity. The presence of BPs in maternal urine (up to 1.1 mg L^-1), placenta (up to 9.8 ng g^-1), and amniotic fluid (up to 15.7 μg L^-1) suggests potential risks of prenatal exposure. In addition, transplacental transfer of BPs is possible, as demonstrated by their presence in maternal serum and cord serum. The possible association of BPs exposure and health effects was discussed. Future human biomonitoring studies and studies on the potential health effects are warranted. Overall, this review provides a summary of the global human exposure to BPs and can serve as supporting evidence to guide usage in order to protect humans from being exposed to BPs.

Development of a nanotechnological hydrogel containing desonide nanocapsules in association with acai oil: design and in vivo evaluation

Nanotechnological products have been used as strategies to optimize the therapy and minimize the side effects of topical corticoids. The objective of this study was to develop hydrogels by the addition of sclerotium gum to the suspensions of desonide-loaded açai oil-based nanocapsules and to study their biological effect using an animal model of acute skin inflammation. The hydrogels presented a pH compatible with topical application (4.4 to 5.0), nanometric mean diameter (131 to 165 nm), pseudoplastic behavior, and stability under room conditions during 30 days. The in vitro skin permeation/penetration study demonstrated that a higher amount of desonide (p < 0.05) was retained in the epidermis from the nanotechnological-hydrogels (0.33 to 0.36 µg.cm²) in comparison to the commercial gel cream (0.16 µg.cm²). In the dermis, the nanostructured hydrogels promoted a lower DES retention compared to the non-nanostructured formulations (p < 0.05). This result may indicate a smaller amount of drug reaching the bloodstream and, thus, fewer side effects can be expected. Concerning the anti-inflammatory effect, the developed hydrogels reduced both ear edema and inflammatory cell infiltration, showing an effect comparable to the commercially available formulation, which presents twice the drug concentration. The hydrogels developed may be considered a promising approach to treat dermatological disorders.

Synthesis, Characterization and Photophysical Study of 4,4’-Diamino-2,2’-stilbenedisulfonate with Lanthanide Ions Complexes

Complex of 4,4’-diamino-2,2’-stilbenedisulfonic acid (DSD) with trivalent lanthanide ions Eu3+ and Tb3+ were prepared at the ratio of 3:1 (DSD:Ln). The complexes with ions present in the form of powder show black (Eu3+) and brown (Tb3+) colors. The complexometric titration and CHN elemental analysis suggest that these complexes have the general formula Eu(C14H12N2SO3SO3H)3∙3H2O and Tb(C14H12N2SO3SO3H)2(CF3SO3)∙3H2O. The shift of the 330 nm band for DSD to a longer wavelength in the infrared spectra of the complexes and the disappearance of the bands at 2921 and 2623 cm-1 are indicative of the formation of complexes with ions Eu3+ and Tb3+. Thermal analysis shows that DSD is thermally stable up to 573 K and the decomposition process of the complexes shows two and three mass losses for ions Eu3+ and Tb3+, respectively. The analysis of luminescence indicates that the complexes do not present the emission from the lanthanide moiety in the visible region. This may be related to the ligand triplet states, which are probably at lower energy than the emission state of the Eu3+ (5D0) and Tb3+ (5D4) ions.

Current Advances of Nanocarrier Technology-Based Active Cosmetic Ingredients for Beauty Applications

Nanocarrier technology has been effectively applied to the development of drug delivery systems to overcome the limitations of traditional preparation. Its application has been extended to various pharmaceutical fields from injection preparation to oral preparation and external preparation, and now it has appeared in the field of cosmetics for beauty applications. The widespread influence of nanocarrier in the cosmetics industry is due to the fact that nanocarrier can effectively promote the percutaneous penetration and significantly increase skin retention of active components in functional cosmetics. Meanwhile, nanocarrier can effectively improve the water dispersion of insoluble active cosmetic ingredients, enhance the stability of efficacy components and achieve the codelivery of diverse cosmetics active ingredients. In this review, we summarized the current progress of nanocarrier technology in the functional cosmetics, including the types and the routes of dermal/transdermal drug delivery nanocarriers used in the functional cosmetics, the mechanism of nanocarriers promoting the percutaneous penetration of active cosmetic ingredients, the application and efficacy evaluation of different active cosmetic ingredients in nanocarriers and discussing the potential risks to human. This will provide a useful reference for the further development of nanocarriers in the field of functional cosmetics.

Recent Advances in Nanomaterials for Dermal and Transdermal Applications

The stratum corneum, the most superficial layer of the skin, protects the body against environmental hazards and presents a highly selective barrier for the passage of drugs and cosmetic products deeper into the skin and across the skin. Nanomaterials can effectively increase the permeation of active molecules across the stratum corneum and enable their penetration into deeper skin layers, often by interacting with the skin and creating the distinct sites with elevated local concentration, acting as reservoirs. The flux of the molecules from these reservoirs can be either limited to the underlying skin layers (for topical drug and cosmeceutical delivery) or extended across all the sublayers of the epidermis to the blood vessels of the dermis (for transdermal delivery). The type of the nanocarrier and the physicochemical nature of the active substance are among the factors that determine the final skin permeation pattern and the stability of the penetrant in the cutaneous environment. The most widely employed types of nanomaterials for dermal and transdermal applications include solid lipid nanoparticles, nanovesicular carriers, microemulsions, nanoemulsions, and polymeric nanoparticles. The recent advances in the area of nanomaterial-assisted dermal and transdermal delivery are highlighted in this review.

On line kinetic analysis of permeation profiles for UV filter loaded microemulsions using an automatic system with spectroscopic detection and a chemometric approach

On-line and green automatic methods with spectrophotometric detection were developed to the obtention of permeation kinetic constants of octyl p-methoxycinnamate in o/w microemulsions. The effect of interferences was overcome using chemometric tools.

Synthesis and Characterization of Nanostructured Lipid Nanocarriers for Enhanced Sun Protection Factor of Octyl p-methoxycinnamate

Sunlight is important to health, but higher exposure to radiation causes early aging of the skin and skin damage that can lead to skin cancers. This study aimed at producing a stable octyl p-methoxycinnamate (OMC)-loaded nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) sunscreen, which can help in the photoprotective effect. NLC was produced by emulsification-sonication method and these systems were composed of myristyl myristate (MM), caprylic capric triglyceride (CCT), Tween® 80 (TW), and soybean phosphatidylcholine (SP) and characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), zeta potential (ZP) measurement, atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and in vitro release studies. Pre-formulation studies were performed changing TW concentrations and no differences were found at concentrations of 1.0 and 2.0%. Two selected formulations were designed and showed an average size of 91.5-131.7, polydispersity index > 0.2, and a negative value of ZP. AFM presented a sphere-like morphology and SEM showed ability to form a thin film. DSC exhibited that the incorporation of OMC promoted reduction of enthalpy due to formation of a more amorphous structure. Drug release shows up to 55.74% and 30.57%, and this difference could be related to the presence of SP in this formulation that promoted a more amorphous structure; the release mechanism study indicated Fickian diffusion and relaxation. Sun protection factor (SPF) evaluation was performed using NLC and presented values around 40, considerably higher than those observed in the literature. The developed formulations provide a beneficial alternative to conventional sunscreen formulations.

Liquid chromatography method to assay tretinoin in skin layers: validation and application in skin penetration/retention studies

A liquid chromatography (LC) method for the quantification of tretinoin (TTN) in different matrices (adhesive tape, cotton and porcine skin layers, stratum corneum, viable epidermis, and dermis) was validated and applied in in vitro porcine skin penetration/retention studies. This study proposes, for the first time, a method for assaying TTN in separated porcine skin layers (stratum corneum, viable epidermis, and dermis). The skin studies were carried out using tape stripping and cutaneous retention techniques. The procedures for the extraction of TTN from dermatological formulations (creams and gels) and biological and non-biological matrices used with the tape stripping and retention techniques were also evaluated. The LC method consisted of a mobile phase composed of a mixture of methanol, water, and glacial acetic acid (85:15:1, v/v); a C18 column used as the stationary phase; a flow rate of 1.0 mL min⁻¹; an injection volume of 100 μL; and TTN detection at 342 nm. The method was linear in the range of 0.05–15.00 μg mL⁻¹ (r = 0.9999), and it was precise and accurate. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were 0.0165 μg mL⁻¹ and 0.0495 μg mL⁻¹, respectively. TTN was extracted from different matrices, showing good precision [relative standard deviation (RSD) of <5%] and accuracy (89.4–113.9%). This method was successfully applied in the evaluation of TTN skin retention/permeation from dermatological formulations (cream and gel). A higher penetration of TTN through the skin was achieved with the gel rather than the cream, showing the influence of the dosage form. Therefore, the developed method can easily be applied in porcine skin penetration/retention studies of dermatological formulations containing TTN, and it is able to discriminate the behaviours of the different formulations.

Transdermal absorption of active substances from cosmetic vehicles

BACKGROUND

Cosmetic products mean any substance or mixture intended to be placed in contact with the external parts of the human body (eg, epidermis, lips) and should not pass to the lower parts and penetrate to the skin. As a part of evaluation of cosmetic safety, the transdermal absorption of substances should be investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vitro absorption was investigated with Franz diffusion cells on untreated porcine skin and specimens of the same treated with 15%wt. SLS. The integrity of the skin was discerned by gauging transdermal electrical conductivity (TEC), the concentration of caffeine absorbed by the samples of skin membrane by liquid chromatography, which took place by applying an emulsion and/or a gel containing active hydration agents (urea, sodium hyaluronate, and sericin).

RESULTS

The greatest extent of caffeine penetration was seen for pretreatment with just SLS; similar results were in skin treated with the base gel with 10%wt. urea. In the skin treated with the base emulsion only, the amount of caffeine absorbed was twofold less; this increased after adding the active hydration substances. The values measured for TEC corresponded with the amount of caffeine absorbed.

CONCLUSION

The gel proved to be the more potent vehicle for the active ingredient, as it demonstrated greater transdermal caffeine penetration than the emulsions, correlating with the degree of damage to the skin as detected by TEC.

Nanocarriers and Microcarriers for Enhancing the UV Protection of Sunscreens: An Overview

This review addresses a major question of importance to pharmaceutical scientists: how can novel drug delivery systems play a role in maximizing the UV protection of sunscreens? Because more and more people are being diagnosed with skin cancer each year than all other cancers combined, adequate sun protective measures are pivotal. In this context, the present review is to give an up-to-date overview on the different nanocarrier systems that have been explored so far for encapsulating different types of UV filters present on the market. The aim of these carrier systems is to prevent skin penetration and to enhance the photoprotective potential of sunscreen actives. For each supramolecular system, a brief description along with the studies, achievements, and pitfalls, on the type of UV actives inside them, ranging from classical UV filters to new generation of UV actives is given. A brief overview of UV filters encapsulated in microcarriers is also discussed.

Role of sunscreen formulation and photostability to protect the biomechanical barrier function of skin

The impact of sunscreen formulations on the barrier properties of human skin are often overlooked leading to formulations with components whose effects on barrier mechanical integrity are poorly understood. The aim of this study is to demonstrate the relevance of carrier selection and sunscreen photostability when designing sunscreen formulations to protect the biomechanical barrier properties of human stratum corneum (SC) from solar ultraviolet (UV) damage. Biomechanical properties of SC samples were assayed after accelerated UVB damage through measurements of the SC's mechanical stress profile and corneocyte cohesion. A narrowband UVB (305-315 nm) lamp was used to expose SC samples to 5, 30, 125, and 265 J cm-2 in order to magnify damage to the mechanical properties of the tissue and characterize the UV degradation dose response such that effects from smaller UV dosages can be extrapolated. Stresses in the SC decreased when treated with sunscreen components, highlighting their effect on the skin prior to UV exposure. Stresses increased with UVB exposure and in specimens treated with different sunscreens stresses varied dramatically at high UVB dosages. Specimens treated with sunscreen components without UVB exposure exhibited altered corneocyte cohesion. Both sunscreens studied prevented alteration of corneocyte cohesion by low UVB dosages, but differences in protection were observed at higher UVB dosages indicating UV degradation of one sunscreen. These results indicate the protection of individual sunscreen components vary over a range of UVB dosages, and components can even cause alteration of the biomechanical barrier properties of human SC before UV exposure. Therefore, detailed characterization of sunscreen formulation components is required to design robust protection from UV damage.

Using ordered mesoporous silica SBA-15 to limit cutaneous penetration and transdermal permeation of organic UV filters

Avobenzone (AVO), oxybenzone (OXY), and octyl methoxycinnamate (OMC), are widely used UV filters. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of incorporation in mesoporous silica (SBA-15) on their cutaneous deposition and permeation. Stick formulations containing "free" and "incorporated" UV filters (SF1 and SF2, respectively) were prepared and characterized with respect to their physicochemical, thermal, and functional properties. Cutaneous delivery experiments using porcine skin with quantification by UHPLC-MS/MS, demonstrated that skin deposition of AVO and OXY after application of SF2 for 6 and 12 h was significantly lower than that from SF1 at each time-point (Student t-test, p < 0.05): e.g. OXY permeation across the skin was 30-, 12- and 1.5-fold lower after 6, 12 and 24 h, respectively, following application of SF2. Cutaneous biodistribution profiles of AVO and OXY to 800 µm evidenced a significant decrease in the amounts in the viable epidermis and dermis. In contrast, deposition of the more lipophilic OMC was not significantly different (p ˃ 0.05). In vitro photoprotective efficacy results demonstrated that adsorption/entrapment of UV filters enhanced the sun protection factor by 94%. In conclusion, SBA-15, an innovative mesoporous material, increased photoprotection by UV filters while reducing their cutaneous penetration and transdermal permeation.

Exposure to the UV Filter Octyl Methoxy Cinnamate in the Postnatal Period Induces Thyroid Dysregulation and Perturbs the Immune System of Mice

Evidence demonstrates the bidirectional communication and regulation between the neuroendocrine and immune systems. Thyroid hormones play key roles in nervous system development and can exert influence on various immune cells contributing to pathophysiological conditions. Octyl methoxycinnamate (OMC) is one of the most commonly used UV filters, and in vitro and in vivo studies have found thyroid disrupting effects. The present study assessed whether OMC administration in mice dams during the lactational period can cause thyroid disruption and generate immunologic alterations in the offspring. Indirect exposure to the OMC (1,000 mg/kg) in the lactational period affected neurodevelopment parameters, such as delayed eye-opening and weight gain in mice of both sexes, and these alterations are corroborated by the decrease in the T4 levels present in the pups' blood. No significant changes were observed in the thymus of these pups, but the number of lymphocytes increased in the spleen of the animals exposed to OMC, similar to the animals treated with propyl-thiouracil (PTU), a well-known thyroid disruptor. OMC modulated the percentage of leukocyte populations in peripheral blood, and the number of circulating polymorphonuclear cells increased two-fold. In vitro, OMC exhibited an inhibitory effect on splenocyte proliferation and IL-2 production induced by anti-CD3 antibody; however, this effect was reversed with the addition of T4 in the cell culture. In summary, the results of the present study demonstrate the influence of OMC on thyroid dysregulation and its impact on the modulation of the immune system in mice pups.

Optimization of Curcuma Oil/Quinine-Loaded Nanocapsules for Malaria Treatment

Quinine, a treatment used in chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria, was loaded into poly(ɛ-caprolactone) or Eudragit^® RS100 nanocapsules using Curcuma oil as the oil-based core. Until now, the effect of cationic nanocapsules on malaria has not been reported. A 2⁴ factorial design was adopted using, as independent variables, the concentration of Curcuma oil, presence of quinine, type of polymer, and aqueous surfactant. Diameter, zeta potential, and pH were the responses studied. The formulations were also evaluated for drug content, encapsulation efficiency, photostability, and antimalarial activity against Plasmodium berghei-infected mice. The type of polymer influenced all of the responses studied. Quinine-loaded Eudragit^® RS100 (F13) and PCL nanocapsules (F9), both with polysorbate 80 coating, showed nanometric particle size, positive zeta potential, neutral pH, high drug content, and quinine photoprotection ability; thus, these nanocapsules were selected for in vivo tests. Both formulations showed lower levels of parasitemia from the beginning of the experiment (5.78 ± 3.60 and 4.76 ± 3.46% for F9 and F13, respectively) and highest survival mean time (15.3 ± 2.0 and 14.9 ± 5.6 days for F9 and F13, respectively). F9 and F13 showed significant survival curve compared to saline, thus demonstrating that nanoencapsulation improved bioefficacy of QN and co-encapsulated curcuminoids, regardless of the surface charge.

Microencapsulated sunblock nanoparticles based on zeolitic imidazole frameworks for safe and effective UV protection

Microencapsulation of UV filters into ZIFs could improve UV photoprotection and minimize the deleterious effects of UV filter transdermal absorption.

Metabolism and disposition of 2-ethylhexyl-p-methoxycinnamate following oral gavage and dermal exposure in Harlan Sprague Dawley rats and B6C3F1/N mice and in hepatocytes in vitro

1. 2-Ethylhexyl-p-methoxycinnamate (EHMC) is commonly used as an ingredient in sunscreens, resulting in potential oral and dermal exposure in humans. 2. Clearance and metabolism of EHMC in hepatocytes and disposition and metabolism of EHMC in rodents following oral (8-800 mg/kg) intravenous (IV) (8 mg/kg) or dermal (0.8-80 mg/kg representing 0.1-10% formulation concentration) exposure to [¹⁴C]EHMC were investigated in rats and mice. 3. EHMC was rapidly cleared from rat and mouse hepatocytes (half-life ≤3.16 min) and less rapidly (half-life ≤48 min) from human hepatocytes. 4. [¹⁴C]EHMC was extensively absorbed and excreted primarily in urine by 72 h after oral administration to rats (65-80%) and mice (63-72%). Oral doses to rats were excreted to a lesser extent (3-8%) in feces and as CO₂ (1-4%). Radioactive residues in tissues were <1% of the dose. There were no sex or species differences in disposition in rats. 5. Following dermal application, 34-42% of an 8-mg/kg dose was absorbed in rats, and 54-62% in mice in 72-h. 6. Among numerous urinary metabolites associated with hydrolysis of the ester, two potential reproductive and developmental toxicants, 2-ethylhexanol and 2-ethylhexanoic acid were produced by metabolism of EHMC.

Biobased Nanoparticles for Broadband UV Protection with Photostabilized UV Filters

Sunscreens rely on multiple compounds to provide effective and safe protection against UV radiation. UV filters in sunscreens, in particular, provide broadband UV protection but are heavily linked to adverse health effects due to the generation of carcinogenic skin-damaging reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon solar irradiation. Herein, we demonstrate significant reduction in the ROS concentration by encapsulating an antioxidant photostabilizer with multiple UV filters into biobased ethyl cellulose nanoparticles. The developed nanoparticles display complete broadband UV protection and can form transparent and flexible films. This system therefore shows significant potential toward effective and safe nanoparticle-based UV protective coatings.

Nanoencapsulation of Rose-Hip Oil Prevents Oil Oxidation and Allows Obtainment of Gel and Film Topical Formulations

The rose-hip oil holds skin regenerating properties with applications in the dermatological and cosmetic area. Its nanoencapsulation might favor the oil stability and its incorporation into hydrophilic formulations, besides increasing the contact with the skin and prolonging its effect. The aim of the present investigation was to develop suitable rose-hip-oil-loaded nanocapsules, to verify the nanocapsule effect on the UV-induced oxidation of the oil and to obtain topical formulations by the incorporation of the nanocapsules into chitosan gel and film. The rose-hip oil (500 or 600 μL), polymer (Eudragit RS100®, 100 or 200 mg), and acetone (50 or 100 mL) contents were separately varied aiming to obtain an adequate size distribution. The results led to a combination of the factors acetone and oil. The developed formulation showed average diameter of 158 ± 6 nm with low polydispersity, pH of 5.8 ± 0.9, zeta potential of +9.8 ± 1.5 mV, rose-hip oil content of 54 ± 1 μL/mL and tendency to reversible creaming. No differences were observed in the nanocapsules properties after storage. The nanoencapsulation of rose-hip oil decreased the UVA and UVC oxidation of the oil. The chitosan gel and film containing rose-hip-oil-loaded nanocapsules showed suitable properties for cutaneous use. In conclusion, it was possible to successfully obtain rose-hip-oil-loaded nanocapsules and to confirm the nanocapsules effect in protecting the oil from the UV rays. The chitosan gel and film were considered interesting alternatives for incorporating the nanoencapsulated rose-hip oil, combining the advantages of the nanoparticles to the advantages of chitosan.

New Hybrid Organic/Inorganic Polysilsesquioxane-Silica Particles as Sunscreens

Effectiveness of organic sunscreens is limited by phototoxicity and degradation. Both of which can be significantly reduced by encapsulation in hollow particles or covalent incorporation into the solid structure of particles, but direct comparisons of the two methods have not been reported. In this study, physical encapsulation and covalent incorporation of sunscreens were compared with 1 mol % salicylate and curcumeroid sunscreens. 2-Ethylhexyl salicylate was physically encapsulated in hollow silica nanoparticles prepared by oil-in-water (O/W) microemulsion polymerizations (E-Sal). Some of these particles were coated with an additional shell or cap of silica to reduce leaking of sunscreen (cap-E-Sal). Covalent incorporation involved co-polymerizing tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) with 0.2 mol % of new salicylate and curcuminoid sunscreen monomers with triethoxsilyl groups. Particles were prepared with the salicylate attached to the silica matrix through single silsesquioxane groups (pendant; P-Sal) and two silsesquioxane groups (bridged; B-Sal). Particles based on a new curcuminoid-bridged monomer were also prepared (B-Curc). Sunscreen leaching, photodegradation, and sunscreen performance were determined for the E-Sal, cap-E-Sal, P-Sal, B-Sal, and B-Curc particles. Covalent attachment, particularly with bridged sunscreen monomers, reduced leaching and photodegradation over physical encapsulation, even with capping.

Biopharmaceutical profile of hydrogels containing pranoprofen-loaded PLGA nanoparticles for skin administration: In vitro, ex vivo and in vivo characterization

Pranoprofen (PF)-loaded nanoparticles (PF-F1NPs and PF-F2NPs) have been formulated into blank hydrogels (HG_PF-F1NPs and HG_PF-F1NPs) or into hydrogels composed of 3% azone (HG_PF-F1NPs-Azone and HG_PF-F2NPs-Azone), as innovative strategy to improve the biopharmaceutical profile of the selected non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (Pranoprofen, PF) for topical application. The purpose of this approach has been to increase the contact of PF with the skin, improve its retention in deeper layers, thus enhancing its anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. The physicochemical characterization of the developed hydrogels showed a non-Newtonian behaviour, typical of semi-solid formulations for skin administration, with sustained release profile. The results obtained from ex vivo skin human permeation and in vivo anti-inflammatory efficacy studies suggest that topical application of HG_PF-F2NPs has been more effective in the treatment of oedema on the skin' surface in comparison to other hydrogels. No signs of skin irritancy have been detected for all the semi-solid formulations containing 0% or 3% azone.

Comparing in vivo biodistribution with radiolabeling and Franz cell permeation assay to validate the efficacy of both methodologies in the evaluation of nanoemulsions: a safety approach

The Franz cells permeation assay has been performed for over 25 years. However, the advent of nanotechnology created a whole new world, especially with regard to topical products. In this new global scenario an increasing number of nanostructure-based delivery systems (NDSs) have emerged and a global warning relating to the safety of these NDSs is arising. This work studied the efficacy of the Franz cells assay, comparing it with the radiolabeling biodistribution test. For this purpose a formulation of sunscreen based on an NDS was developed and characterized. The results demonstrated both that the NDS did not present in vitro cytotoxicity and that the radiolabeling biodistribution test is more precise for the evaluation of NDS cosmetics than the Franz cells assay, since it detected the permeation of the NDS at a picogram order. Due to this fact, and considering all the concerns related to NDSs and nanoparticles in general, more precise methods must be used in order to guarantee the safe use of these new classes of products.

Encapsulation of cosmetic active ingredients for topical application--a review

Microencapsulation is finding increasing applications in cosmetics and personal care markets. This article provides an overall discussion on encapsulation of cosmetically active ingredients and encapsulation techniques for cosmetic and personal care products for topical applications. Some of the challenges are identified and critical aspects and future perspectives are addressed. Many cosmetics and personal care products contain biologically active substances that require encapsulation for increased stability of the active materials. The topical and transdermal delivery of active cosmetic ingredients requires effective, controlled and safe means of reaching the target site within the skin. Preservation of the active ingredients is also essential during formulation, storage and application of the final cosmetic product. Microencapsulation offers an ideal and unique carrier system for cosmetic active ingredients, as it has the potential to respond to all these requirements. The encapsulated agent can be released by several mechanisms, such as mechanical action, heat, diffusion, pH, biodegradation and dissolution. The selection of the encapsulation technique and shell material depends on the final application of the product, considering physical and chemical stability, concentration, required particle size, release mechanism and manufacturing costs.

Spray-dried powders improve the controlled release of antifungal tioconazole-loaded polymeric nanocapsules compared to with lyophilized products

This work aimed to obtain solid formulations from polymeric nanocapsules and nanoemulsions containing tioconazole, a broad spectrum antifungal drug. Two dehydration methods were used: spray-drying and freeze drying, using lactose as adjuvant (10%, w/v). The liquid formulations had a mean particle size around 206 nm and 182 nm for nanocapsules and nanoemulsions, respectively, and an adequate polydispersity index. Tioconazole content was close to the theoretical amount (1.0 mg/mL). After drying, the content ranged between 98 and 102%with a mean nanometric size of the dried products after redispersion. Scanning electron microscopy showed that the particles are rounded, sphere-shaped for the dried products obtained by spray-drying, and shapeless and irregular shapes for those obtained by freeze-drying. In the microbiological evaluation, all dried products remained active against the yeast Candida albicans when compared to the original systems. The dried products obtained by spray-drying from nanocapsules presented better control of the tioconazole release when compared to the freeze-drying products.

Skin absorption and human exposure estimation of three widely discussed UV filters in sunscreens--In vitro study mimicking real-life consumer habits

Due to health concerns about safety, three UV-filters (Benzophenone-3, BP3, 10%; Ethylhexyl Methoxycinnamate, EHMC, 10%; Butyl Methoxydibenzoylmethane, BMDBM; 5%) were examined in vitro for absorption on full-thickness pig-ear skin, mimicking human in-use conditions. Kinetic profiles confirmed the rapid permeation of BP3; after the first hour of skin (frozen-stored) exposure to 2 mg/cm(2) (W/O sunscreen; recommended but unrealistic amount), about 0.5% of the applied dose passed into the receptor fluid. The absorption rate of filters was higher from W/O than from O/W emulsions. The fresh/frozen-stored skin permeability coefficient (0.83-0.54) for each UV filter was taken into account. Systemic Exposure Dosage of BP3, EHMC, BMDBM for humans as a consequence of (i) whole-body and (ii) face treatment with 0.5 mg/cm(2) of W/O sunscreen for 6-h skin exposure followed by washing and subsequent 18-h permeation (a realistic scenario) were estimated to be (i) 4744, 1032 and 1036 μg/kg-bw/day, and (ii) 153, 33 and 34 μg/kg-bw/day, respectively. From Margin of Safety for BP3, EHMC and BMDBM (i) 42, 485 and 192 as well as (ii) 1307; 15,151 and 5882, respectively, only the value of 42 (<100) for BP3 indicated a possible health risk. Escalation of a phobia towards all organic UV filters is undesirable.

Chemical Constituents and Evaluation of Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Activities of Kielmeyera coriacea Mart. & Zucc. Essential Oils

Many essential oils (EOs) of different plant species possess interesting antimicrobial effects on buccal microorganisms and cytotoxic properties. EOs of Kielmeyera coriacea Mart. & Zucc. were analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The EO from leaves is rich in sesquiterpenes hydrocarbons and oxygenated sesquiterpenes. The three major compounds identified were germacrene-D (24.2%), (E)-caryophyllene (15.5%), and bicyclogermacrene (11.6%). The inner bark EO is composed mainly of sesquiterpenes hydrocarbons and the major components are alpha-copaene (14.9%) and alpha-(E)-bergamotene (13.0%). The outer bark EO is composed mainly of oxygenated sesquiterpenes and long-chain alkanes, and the major components are alpha-eudesmol (4.2%) and nonacosane (5.8%). The wood EO is mainly composed of long-chain alkanes and fatty acids, and the major components are nonacosane (9.7%) and palmitic acid (16.2%). The inner bark EO showed the strongest antimicrobial activity against the anaerobic bacteria Prevotella nigrescens (minimum inhibitory concentration-MIC of 50 µg mL(-1)). The outer bark and wood EOs showed MICs of 100 µg mL(-1) for all aerobic microorganisms tested. The EOs presented low toxicity to Vero cells. These results suggest that K. coriacea, a Brazilian plant, provide initial evidence of a new and alternative source of substances with medicinal interest.

Chloramphenicol encapsulated in poly-ε-caprolactone-pluronic composite: nanoparticles for treatment of MRSA-infected burn wounds

The emergence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection has increased precipitously over the past several decades, with far-reaching health care and societal costs. MRSA infections in the context of burn wounds lead to invasive disease that could potentially cause mortality. Chloramphenicol is a well-known broad-spectrum bacteriostatic antibiotic that has been used since 1949, but due to its hydrophobicity, poor penetration in skin, fast degradation, and toxicity, its application has been hindered. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that old antibiotics such as chloramphenicol remained active against a large number of currently prevalent resistant bacterial isolates due to their low-level use in the past. Recently, the novel nanoparticulate drug-delivery system has been used and reported to be exceptionally useful for topical therapeutics, due to its distinctive physical characteristics such as a high surface-to-volume ratio and minuscule size. It helps to achieve better hydrophilicity, bioavailability, and controlled delivery with enhanced therapeutic index, which has resulted in decreased toxicity levels compared to the crude drug. Here, we report a novel chloramphenicol loaded with poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL)-pluronic composite nanoparticles (CAM-PCL-P NPs), physicochemical characterizations, and its bioactivity evaluation in a MRSA-infected burn-wound animal model. CAM-PCL-P NPs could encapsulate 98.3% of the drug in the nanoparticles and release 81% of the encapsulated drug over 36 days with a time to 50% drug release of 72 hours (51%). Nanoparticle suspensions maintained the initial properties with respect to size and encapsulation efficiency, even after 6 months of storage at 4°C and 25°C, respectively (P>0.05). Significant reduction in the level of toxicity was observed for CAM-PCL-P NPs compared with that of free drug as confirmed from hemolytic activity against human blood erythrocytes and cytotoxicity assay against an MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. In vitro antibacterial activities were performed by zone of inhibition, minimum inhibitory concentrations, minimum bacterial concentration, and time-kill assays, which showed that CAM-PCL-P NPs exhibited significantly enhanced anti-MRSA activity against ten clinical isolates of MRSA strains. The augmented activity of CAM-PCL-P NPs was further tested on a MRSA-infected burn-wound animal model and achieved quicker efficacy in MRSA clearance and improved the survival rate compared with free-chloramphenicol treatment. Thus, we propose CAM-PCL-P NPs as a promising novel antimicrobial candidate that may have a good potential for preclinical applications.

Aggregate consumer exposure to UV filter ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate via personal care products

Ultraviolet (UV) filters are substances designed to protect our skin from UV-induced damage and can be found in many categories of personal care products (PCPs). The potential endocrine-disrupting effects attributed to UV filter ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate (EHMC) are being debated. We evaluated the aggregate exposure of the Swiss-German population (N=1196; ages ≤1-97years) to EHMC via the use of PCPs; thus we provide the first comprehensive information about the current EHMC exposure sources and aggregate exposure levels. In our probabilistic modeling method performed at an individual level, PCP use data obtained by a postal questionnaire were linked to concentration data on EHMC gained from chemical analyses of PCPs used by the questionnaire respondents. The modeled median and 99.9th percentile of the internal aggregate exposure for the general population were 0.012 and 0.873mgday(-1)kg(-1) and 0.008 and 0.122mgday(-1)kg(-1) for the summer/autumn and winter/spring period, respectively. The major contributors to internal aggregate exposure were sunscreen products in summer/autumn (females: 64%; males: 85%; children aged ≤12years 93%). In winter/spring, lip care dominated for females (30%) and sunscreen for males (38%) and children aged ≤12years (50%). Overall, the internal aggregate exposure estimates for the studied population are shown to be below the Derived No Effect Level (DNEL) for EHMC i.e., the level of exposure above which humans should not be exposed; however, when an intense short-term exposure via sunscreen is accounted for during a sunbathing day, at the high-end percentiles (99.9th) the predicted aggregate exposure exceeds the DNEL for thyroid-disrupting effects such as for children aged ≤4years, who might be particularly susceptible to endocrine disrupting events. It is nevertheless critical to acknowledge that quantitative data on transdermal penetration of EHMC from PCPs are currently insufficient. Since long-term effects of endocrine disruptors are not known, future studies are warranted to provide accurate quantitative data on transdermal penetration of EHMC and to determine its metabolic fate in humans.

Dithranol-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules improve the photostability and reduce the in vitro irritation potential of this drug

Dithranol is a very effective drug for the topical treatment of psoriasis. However, it has some adverse effects such as irritation and stain in the skin that make its application and patient adherence to treatment difficult. The aims of this work were to prepare and characterize dithranol-loaded nanocapsules as well as to evaluate the photostability and the irritation potential of these nanocarriers. Lipid-core nanocapsules containing dithranol (0.5 mg/mL) were prepared by interfacial deposition of preformed polymer. EDTA (0.05%) or ascorbic acid (0.02%) was used as antioxidants. After preparation, dithranol-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules showed satisfactory characteristics: drug content close to the theoretical concentration, encapsulation efficiency of about 100%, nanometric mean size (230-250 nm), polydispersity index below 0.25, negative zeta potential, and pH values from 4.3 to 5.6. In the photodegradation study against UVA light, we observed a higher stability of the dithranol-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules comparing to the solution containing the free drug (half-life times around 4 and 1h for the dithranol-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules and free drug solution containing EDTA, respectively; half-life times around 17 and 7h for the dithranol-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules and free drug solution containing ascorbic acid, respectively). Irritation test by HET-CAM method was conducted to evaluate the safety of the formulations. From the results it was found that the nanoencapsulation of the drug decreased its toxicity compared to the effects observed for the free drug.

Encapsulated curcumin results in prolonged curcumin activity in vitro and radical scavenging activity ex vivo on skin after UVB-irradiation

The phytochemical curcumin possesses antioxidant activity; however, it becomes unstable after being exposed to light or heat or loses activity during storage. This is especially important when curcumin is applied to the skin within a cosmetic or pharmaceutical formulation, since sun exposure is unavoidable. This drawback can be directly addressed by encapsulation of curcumin in photo-stable nanospheres. Therefore, curcumin was encapsulated into nanoparticles consisting of ethyl cellulose and/or methyl cellulose. Nanoparticles were subjected to processing conditions commonly used in industry, for example, temperature and pressure and thus retained their morphology. Furthermore, sun exposure resulted in the protection of curcumin by nanoparticles, whereas non-encapsulated curcumin degraded completely. Determination of the radical protection factor resulted in similar antioxidant activity of encapsulated and non-encapsulated curcumin indicating that curcumin maintains its antioxidant activity. Application of lotions containing curcumin or curcumin nanoparticles to the skin and subsequent UVB-irradiation resulted in less radical formation compared to lotion application only. Moreover, radical formation was even less after nanoparticle application compared to free curcumin. Nanoencapsulation protects curcumin from photo degradation and can therefore prolong the antioxidant activity of curcumin.

Evaluation of octyl p-methoxycinnamate included in liposomes and cyclodextrins in anti-solar preparations: preparations, characterizations and in vitro penetration studies

PURPOSE

Awareness of the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation has led to the increasing use of sunscreens, thus, the development of safe and effective antisolar preparations is important. The inclusion of sunscreen molecules in different release systems, like liposomes (lipo) and cyclodextrins (CD) is therefore required.

METHODS

The in vivo sun protection factor (SPF), water resistance, and in vitro transdermal penetration test of octyl p-methoxycinnamate (OMC) in different dispersions, such as OMC encapsulated in liposomes (lipo/OMC), OMC encapsulated in β-cyclodextrins (β-CD/OMC), OMC encapsulated in both release systems (lipo/OMC and β-CD/OMC), and an OMC-free formulation were determined.

RESULTS

Although the formulation containing only the lipo/OMC system revealed high value of in vivo SPF (11.0 ± 1.3) and water resistance (SPF = 10.3 ± 2.2), the formulation containing both release systems (lipo/OMC + β-cyclodextrin/OMC) showed the best result in the in vivo SPF test (11.6 ± 1.6). In the penetration test, the formulation containing the lipo/OMC system had better performance, since a high amount of OMC in the epidermis (18.04 ± 1.17 μg) and a low amount of OMC in the dermis (9.4 ± 2.36 μg) were observed. These results suggest that liposomes interact with the cells of the stratum corneum, promoting retention of OMC in this layer.

CONCLUSION

According to our study, the lipo/OMC system is the most advantageous release system, due to its ability to both increase the amount of OMC in the epidermis and decrease the risk of percutaneous absorption.

Vitamin K1-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules: physicochemical characterization and in vitro skin permeation

BACKGROUND

The incorporation of substances in nanocarriers can modulate and/or manage their delivery profiles (immediate or sustained) and permeation through skin. Consequently, drug nanencapsulation intended for topical treatment can reduce the systemic absorption of the substance.

OBJECTIVE

To obtain and characterize vitamin K1-loaded lipid core nanocapsules as well as to determine whether the nanoencapsulation influences the skin permeation of this vitamin.

METHODS

The skin permeation study was performed by means of Franz-type diffusion cells followed by the tape stripping and retention techniques. The vitamin K1-loaded lipid core nanocapsules were obtained by the preformed polymer precipitation method and the particles were characterized.

RESULTS

The nanocapsules presented average diameter of 211 ± 2 nm, pH of 5.7 ± 0.3, zeta potential of -14.9 ± 0.6 mV and drug content of 10.2 mg/mL (102.1%). The physical stability of the nanocapsule suspension was verified using multiple light backscattering analysis. The amount of vitamin K1 in the dermis after 8 h of drug permeation was higher when the nanocapsules were applied compared to the control. Moreover, retention in the outermost skin layer and a decrease in the skin permeation to the receptor compartment due to the nanoencapsulation were observed.

CONCLUSION

Thus, nanoencapsulation can lead to the selective permeation of vitamin K1 through the skin.

Nanoparticles through the skin: managing conflicting results of inorganic and organic particles in cosmetics and pharmaceutics

Toxicity of nanoparticles is a current scientific issue because of the enhanced reactivity of nanomaterials and their possible easy penetration into the body arising from their small size. Because inorganic particles are present in sunscreen cosmetic products, attention has been focused on cutaneous penetration. But organic particles of various sizes are also used in pharmaceutical applications such as skin care and transdermal drug delivery. It appears that organic and inorganic particles penetrate the skin quite differently. The apparent discrepancy is addressed in this review focusing on skin penetration of inorganic sunscreen particles and organic particles for drug delivery. After a short description of the physicochemical properties of these particles, the skin penetration of both types is reviewed with emphasis on the mechanistic issues and the differences that could account for such conflicting results. It appears that investigations by cosmetic and pharmaceutical communities focused on the main issue, i.e., no toxicity in cosmetics and maximum activity of the drug in pharmaceutics. This leaves several fundamental issues as open questions and this does not allow a rigorous comparison between both types of material. While it is claimed that inorganic nanoparticles can only penetrate the outer layer of the skin, it appears that organic submicron particles and even microparticles reach the dermis in an in vitro cell. Besides particle size, the surface chemistry of the particles and the presence of other excipients in the formulations contribute to skin absorption.