Inflammatory cytokines IL-17 and TNF-α up-regulate PD-L1 expression in human prostate and colon cancer cells

Associations between immune cells signatures and osteoarthritis: An integrated analysis of bidirectional Mendelian randomization and Bayesian colocalization

BACKGROUND

Previous investigations have explored the associations between immune cell signatures and osteoarthritis (OA); however, causality remains unclear. This study employs an integrated analysis, combining bidirectional Mendelian randomization (MR) and Bayesian colocalization (Coloc), to investigate causal relationships between 731 immune cells signatures and OA, identifying shared causal variants.

METHODS

Utilizing publicly available summary data, this study primarily employs inverse variance weighting (IVW). Supplementary methods include MR-Egger regression, weighted median, weight mode, and simple mode. Various sensitivity tests, including Cochran's Q test, MR pleiotropy Residual Sum and Outlier, and leave-one-out tests, were conducted to assess the robustness of the analysis results. Coloc was employed to identify shared causal genetic variants among potential associations.

RESULTS

IVW analysis revealed 196 immune cell signatures potentially linked to OA across diverse subtypes. Reverse MR analyses indicated the causal impact of OA on the levels of 140 immune cell signatures, with subtype-specific variations. Notably, several specific associations, including CD64 on CD14-CD16 + monocyte for Hip OA (OR = 1.0593, 95 % CI: 1.0260-1.0938, P = 0.0004), HLA-DR on CD14 + CD16- monocyte (OR = 0.9664, 95 % CI: 0.9497-0.9834, P = 0.0001), HLA-DR on CD14 + monocyte (OR = 0.9680, 95 % CI: 0.9509-0.9853, P = 0.0003) in the Knee or Hip OA, PDL-1 on CD14-CD16 + monocyte by All OA (OR = 1.7091, 95 %CI:1.2494-2.3378, P = 0.0008), and herpesvirus entry mediator on effector memory CD4 + T cell by Spine OA (OR = 0.5200, 95 %CI:0.3577-0.7561, P = 0.0006) remained significant post-Bonferroni correction. Sensitivity tests validated the credibility of the IVW analysis. Additionally, Coloc revealed several potential associations among shared genetic variants, including rs115328872, rs1800973, and rs317667.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide evidence for the potential involvement of immune cell signatures in OA development, revealing avenues for early prevention and innovative therapeutic strategies.

Evaluation of the clinical application value of cytokine expression profiles in the differential diagnosis of prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

The significance of tumor-secreted cytokines in tumor development has gained substantial attention. Nevertheless, the precise role of tumor-related inflammatory cytokines in prostate cancer (PCa) remains ambiguous.

OBJECTIVES

To gain deeper insights into the inflammatory response in the process of PCa.

METHODS

A total of 233 cases were collected, including 80 cases of prostate hyperplasia as disease control, 65 cases of postoperative prostate cancer and 36 cases of prostate cancer as PCa group. Additionally, 52 patients undergoing physical examinations during the same period were collected as the healthy control. The levels of 12 inflammatory cytokines in peripheral blood samples were analyzed using flow cytometric bead array technology. The levels of total prostate-specific antigen (TPSA) and free prostate-specific antigen (FPSA) in peripheral blood samples were analyzed using electrochemiluminescence technology.

RESULTS

Our findings revealed significant increases in serum IL-8 levels in PCa group compared to the healthy control group. Additionally, IL-6, IL-10, IFN-γ and IL-12p70 levels were markedly elevated in the PCa group compared to the disease control group (all p < 0.05). Conversely, the level of IL-4, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-17A and IFN-α were lower in the PCa group compared to those in control group. Following surgery, the concentration of IL-6 decreased; whereas, the concentrations of IL-4, TNF-α, IL-17A, IL-1β, IL-12p70, and IFN-α increased, demonstrating significant differences (p < 0.05). The differential upregulation of IL-6 or downregulation of IL-17A in peripheral blood exhibited diagnostic efficacy in PCa patients. Moreover, we observed a significant increase in IL-17A levels, accompanied by decreased of IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, TNF-a, IFN-γ, IL-1β, and IL-12P70 in patients with distant metastasis.

CONCLUSION

The peripheral blood cytokines are closely associated with the occurrence and development of prostate cancer, especially the serum levels of IL-6 and IL-17A may be useful as potential predictors of PCa diagnosis.

The role of the immunosuppressive PD-1/PD-L1 checkpoint pathway in the aging process and age-related diseases

The accumulation of senescent cells within tissues is a hallmark of the aging process. Senescent cells are also commonly present in many age-related diseases and in the cancer microenvironment. The escape of abnormal cells from immune surveillance indicates that there is some defect in the function of cytotoxic immune cells, e.g., CD8+ T cells and natural killer (NK) cells. Recent studies have revealed that the expression of programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) protein is abundantly increased in senescent cells. An increase in the amount of PD-L1 protein protects senescent cells from clearance by the PD-1 checkpoint receptor in cytotoxic immune cells. In fact, the activation of the PD-1 receptor suppresses the cytotoxic properties of CD8+ T and NK cells, promoting a state of immunosenescence. The inhibitory PD-1/PD-L1 checkpoint pathway acts in cooperation with immunosuppressive cells; for example, activation of PD-1 receptor can enhance the differentiation of regulatory T cells (Treg), myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC), and M2 macrophages, whereas the cytokines secreted by immunosuppressive cells stimulate the expression of the immunosuppressive PD-L1 protein. Interestingly, many signaling pathways known to promote cellular senescence and the aging process are crucial stimulators of the expression of PD-L1 protein, e.g., epigenetic regulation, inflammatory mediators, mTOR-related signaling, cGAS-STING pathway, and AhR signaling. It seems that the inhibitory PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint axis has a crucial role in the accumulation of senescent cells and thus it promotes the aging process in tissues. Thus, the blockade of the PD-1/PD-L1 checkpoint signaling might be a potential anti-aging senolytic therapy. KEY MESSAGES: Senescent cells accumulate within tissues during aging and age-related diseases. Senescent cells are able to escape immune surveillance by cytotoxic immune cells. Expression of programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) markedly increases in senescent cells. Age-related signaling stimulates the expression of PD-L1 protein in senescent cells. Inhibitory PD-1/PD-L1 checkpoint pathway suppresses clearance of senescent cells.

Cross-Talks between Raf Kinase Inhibitor Protein and Programmed Cell Death Ligand 1 Expressions in Cancer: Role in Immune Evasion and Therapeutic Implications

Innovations in cancer immunotherapy have resulted in the development of several novel immunotherapeutic strategies that can disrupt immunosuppression. One key advancement lies in immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), which have shown significant clinical efficacy and increased survival rates in patients with various therapy-resistant cancers. This immune intervention consists of monoclonal antibodies directed against inhibitory receptors (e.g., PD-1) on cytotoxic CD8 T cells or against corresponding ligands (e.g., PD-L1/PD-L2) overexpressed on cancer cells and other cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME). However, not all cancer cells respond-there are still poor clinical responses, immune-related adverse effects, adaptive resistance, and vulnerability to ICIs in a subset of patients with cancer. This challenge showcases the heterogeneity of cancer, emphasizing the existence of additional immunoregulatory mechanisms in many patients. Therefore, it is essential to investigate PD-L1's interaction with other oncogenic genes and pathways to further advance targeted therapies and address resistance mechanisms. Accordingly, our aim was to investigate the mechanisms governing PD-L1 expression in tumor cells, given its correlation with immune evasion, to uncover novel mechanisms for decreasing PD-L1 expression and restoring anti-tumor immune responses. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the upregulation of Raf Kinase Inhibitor Protein (RKIP) in many cancers contributes to the suppression of key hyperactive pathways observed in malignant cells, alongside its broadening involvement in immune responses and the modulation of the TME. We, therefore, hypothesized that the role of PD-L1 in cancer immune surveillance may be inversely correlated with the low expression level of the tumor suppressor Raf Kinase Inhibitor Protein (RKIP) expression in cancer cells. This hypothesis was investigated and we found several signaling cross-talk pathways between the regulations of both RKIP and PD-L1 expressions. These pathways and regulatory factors include the MAPK and JAK/STAT pathways, GSK3β, cytokines IFN-γ and IL-1β, Sox2, and transcription factors YY1 and NFκB. The pathways that upregulated PD-L1 were inhibitory for RKIP expression and vice versa. Bioinformatic analyses in various human cancers demonstrated the inverse relationship between PD-L1 and RKIP expressions and their prognostic roles. Therefore, we suspect that the direct upregulation of RKIP and/or the use of targeted RKIP inducers in combination with ICIs could result in a more targeted anti-tumor immune response-addressing the therapeutic challenges related to PD-1/PD-L1 monotherapy alone.

Cancer-associated fibroblasts promote enzalutamide resistance and PD-L1 expression in prostate cancer through CCL5-CCR5 paracrine axis

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) have been shown to play a key role in prostate cancer treatment resistance, but the role of CAFs in the initial course of enzalutamide therapy for prostate cancer remains unclear. Our research revealed that CAFs secrete CCL5, which promotes the upregulation of androgen receptor (AR) expression in prostate cancer cells, leading to resistance to enzalutamide therapy. Furthermore, CCL5 also enhances the expression of tumor programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), resulting in immune escape. Mechanistically, CCL5 binds to the receptor CCR5 on prostate cancer cells and activates the AKT signaling pathway, leading to the upregulation of AR and PD-L1. The CCR5 antagonist maraviroc to inhibit the CAFs mediated CCL5 signaling pathway can effectively reduce the expression of AR and PD-L1, and improve the efficacy of enzalutamide. This study highlights a promising therapeutic approach targeting the CCL5-CCR5 signaling pathway to improve the effectiveness of enzalutamide.

The role of proinflammatory cytokines and CXC chemokines (CXCL1-CXCL16) in the progression of prostate cancer: insights on their therapeutic management

Reproductive cancers are malignancies that develop in the reproductive organs. One of the leading cancers affecting the male reproductive system on a global scale is prostate cancer (PCa). The negative consequences of PCa metastases endure and are severe, significantly affecting mortality and life quality for those who are affected. The association between inflammation and PCa has captured interest for a while. Inflammatory cells, cytokines, CXC chemokines, signaling pathways, and other elements make up the tumor microenvironment (TME), which is characterized by inflammation. Inflammatory cytokines and CXC chemokines are especially crucial for PCa development and prognosis. Cytokines (interleukins) and CXC chemokines such as IL-1, IL-6, IL-7, IL-17, TGF-β, TNF-α, CXCL1-CXCL6, and CXCL8-CXCL16 are thought to be responsible for the pleiotropic effects of PCa, which include inflammation, progression, angiogenesis, leukocyte infiltration in advanced PCa, and therapeutic resistance. The inflammatory cytokine and CXC chemokines systems are also promising candidates for PCa suppression and immunotherapy. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to provide insight on how the spectra of inflammatory cytokines and CXC chemokines evolve as PCa develops and spreads. We also discussed recent developments in our awareness of the diverse molecular signaling pathways of these circulating cytokines and CXC chemokines, as well as their associated receptors, which may one day serve as PCa-targeted therapies. Moreover, the current status and potential of theranostic PCa therapies based on cytokines, CXC chemokines, and CXC receptors (CXCRs) are examined.

NFKB2 mediates colorectal cancer cell immune escape and metastasis in a STAT2/PD‐L1‐dependent manner

This study systematically analyzed the molecular mechanism and function of nuclear factor kappa B subunit 2 (NFKB2) in colorectal cancer (CRC) to investigate the potential of NFKB2 as a therapeutic target for CRC. Various experimental techniques, including RNA sequencing, proteome chip assays, and small molecule analysis, were used to obtain a deeper understanding of the regulation of NFKB2 in CRC. The results revealed that NFKB2 was upregulated in a significant proportion of patients with advanced hepatic metastasis of CRC. NFKB2 played an important role in promoting tumor growth through CD8+ T-cell exhaustion. Moreover, NFKB2 directly interacted with signal transducer and activator of transcription 2 (STAT2), leading to increased phosphorylation of STAT2 and the upregulation of programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1). Applying a small molecule inhibitor of NFKB2 (Rg5) led to a reduction in PD-L1 expression and improved response to programmed death-1 blockade-based immunotherapy. In conclusion, the facilitated NFKB2-STAT2/PD-L1 axis may suppress immune surveillance in CRC and targeting NFKB2 may enhance the efficacy of immunotherapeutic strategies. Our results provide novel insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the contribution of NFKB2 in CRC immune escape.

Inhibition of ATM promotes PD-L1 expression by activating JNK/c-Jun/TNF-α signaling axis in triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a heterogeneous subtype of breast cancer. Anti-PD-1/PD-L1 treatment for advanced TNBC is still limited to PD-L1-positive patients. Ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) is a switch molecule for homologous recombination and repair. In this study, we found a significant negative correlation between ATM and PD-L1 in 4 TNBC clinical specimens by single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), which was confirmed by immunochemical staining in 86 TNBC specimens. We then established ATM knockdown TNBC stable cell lines to perform in vitro studies and animal experiments, proving the negative regulation of PD-L1 by ATM via suppression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), which was confirmed by cytokine array analysis of TNBC cell line and analysis of clinical specimens. We further found that ATM inhibits TNF-α via inactivating JNK/c-Jun by scRNA-seq, Western blot and luciferase reporter assays. Finally, we identified a negative correlation between changes in phospho-ATMS1981 and PD-L1 levels in TNBC post- and pre-neoadjuvant therapy. This study reveals a novel mechanism by which ATM negatively regulates PD-L1 by downregulating JNK/c-Jun/TNF-α in TNBC, shedding light on the wide application of immune checkpoint blockade therapy for treating multi-line-resistant TNBC.

PD-L1 Expression in Neoplastic and Immune Cells of Thymic Epithelial Tumors: Correlations with Disease Characteristics and HDAC Expression

BACKGROUND

Programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression in neoplastic and immune cells of the tumor microenvironment determines the efficacy of antitumor immunity, while it can be regulated at the epigenetic level by various factors, including HDACs. In this study, we aim to evaluate the expression patterns of PD-L1 in thymic epithelial tumors (TETs), while we attempt the first correlation analysis between PD-L1 and histone deacetylases (HDACs) expression.

METHODS

Immunohistochemistry was used to evaluate the expression of PD-L1 in tumor and immune cells of 91 TETs with SP263 and SP142 antibody clones, as well as the expressions of HDCA1, -2, -3, -4, -5, and -6.

RESULTS

The PD-L1 tumor proportion score (TPS) was higher, while the immune cell score (IC-score) was lower in the more aggressive TET subtypes and in more advanced Masaoka-Koga stages. A positive correlation between PD-L1 and HDAC-3, -4, and -5 cytoplasmic expression was identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher PD-L1 expression in neoplastic cells and lower PD-L1 expression in immune cells of TETs characterizes more aggressive and advanced neoplasms. Correlations between PD-L1 and HDAC expression unravel the impact of epigenetic regulation on the expression of immune checkpoint molecules in TETs, with possible future applications in combined therapeutic targeting.

Effectiveness of Immunotherapy in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Patients with a Diagnosis of COPD: Is This a Hidden Prognosticator for Survival and a Risk Factor for Immune-Related Adverse Events?

The interplay between the immune system and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is complex and multifaceted. In COPD, chronic inflammation and oxidative stress can lead to immune dysfunction that can exacerbate lung damage, further worsening the respiratory symptoms. In NSCLC, immune cells can recognise and attack the cancer cells, which, however, can evade or suppress the immune response by various mechanisms, such as expressing immune checkpoint proteins or secreting immunosuppressive cytokines, thus creating an immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment that promotes cancer progression and metastasis. The interaction between COPD and NSCLC further complicates the immune response. In patients with both diseases, COPD can impair the immune response against cancer cells by reducing or suppressing the activity of immune cells, or altering their cytokine profile. Moreover, anti-cancer treatments can also affect the immune system and worsen COPD symptoms by causing lung inflammation and fibrosis. Immunotherapy itself can also cause immune-related adverse events that could worsen the respiratory symptoms in patients with COPD-compromised lungs. In the present review, we tried to understand the interplay between the two pathologies and how the efficacy of immunotherapy in NSCLC patients with COPD is affected in these patients.

Pathogenic Th17 cell-mediated liver fibrosis contributes to resistance to PD-L1 antibody immunotherapy in hepatocellular carcinoma

Understanding the mechanisms of resistance of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) to targeted therapies and immune checkpoint blockade is critical for the development of new combination therapies and improving patient survival. Here, we found that in HCC, anti-programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 (PD-L1) therapy reduces liver cancer growth, but the tumors eventually become resistant to continued therapy. Experimental analyses shows that the infiltration of pathogenic T helper 17 (pTh17) cells increases in drug-resistant HCC, and pTh17 cells secrete interleukin-17A (IL-17A), which promotes the expression of PD-L1 on the surface of HCC cells and produces resistance to anti-PD-L1 therapy. Anti-IL-17A combined with PD-L1 blockade significantly increased the infiltration of cytotoxic CD8+ T cells expressing high levels of interferon-γ and reduced treatment resistance in HCC. These results support the combination of anti-PD-L1 and anti-IL-17A as a novel strategy to induce effective T cell-mediated anti-tumor immune responses.

Macrophage: Hidden Criminal in Therapy Resistance

BACKGROUND

Although substantial efforts have been made by researchers to develop drugs, a disappointing reality is that the emergence of drug resistance is an unavoidable reality for the majority of patients. In recent years, emerging evidence suggests a connection between drug resistance and immune dysregulation.

SUMMARY

As a ubiquitously distributed, versatile innate immune cell, macrophages play essential roles in maintaining tissue homeostasis in a steady state. Nevertheless, it is becoming aware that macrophages undermine the action of therapeutic drugs across various disease types. Reprogramming macrophage function has been proven to be effective in restoring patient responsiveness to treatment. Herein, we comprehensively reviewed how macrophages respond to drugs and the mechanisms by which they contribute to treatment unresponsiveness in cancer, inflammatory diseases, and metabolic diseases. In addition, future prospects in macrophage-based combination therapy were discussed.

KEY MESSAGES

Targeting macrophages is a promising strategy for overcoming drug resistance in immune disorders.

Targeting the NF-κB pathway as a potential regulator of immune checkpoints in cancer immunotherapy

Advances in cancer immunotherapy over the last decade have led to the development of several agents that affect immune checkpoints. Inhibitory receptors expressed on T cells that negatively regulate the immune response include cytotoxic T‑lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA4) and programmed cell death protein 1 (PD1), which have been studied more than similar receptors. Inhibition of these proteins and other immune checkpoints can stimulate the immune system to attack cancer cells, and prevent the tumor from escaping the immune response. However, the administration of anti-PD1 and anti-CTLA4 antibodies has been associated with adverse inflammatory responses similar to autoimmune diseases. The current review discussed the role of the NF-κB pathway as a tumor promoter, and how it can govern inflammatory responses and affect various immune checkpoints. More precise knowledge about the communication between immune checkpoints and NF-κB pathways could increase the effectiveness of immunotherapy and reduce the adverse effects of checkpoint inhibitor therapy.

Phytochemicals in regulating PD-1/PD-L1 and immune checkpoint blockade therapy

Clinical treatment and preclinical studies have highlighted the role of immune checkpoint blockade in cancer treatment. Research has been devoted to developing immune checkpoint inhibitors in combination with other drugs to achieve better efficacy or reduce adverse effects. Phytochemicals sourced from vegetables and fruits have demonstrated antiproliferative, proapoptotic, anti-migratory, and antiangiogenic effects against several cancers. Phytochemicals also modulate the tumor microenvironment such as T cells, regulatory T cells, and cytokines. Recently, several phytochemicals have been reported to modulate immune checkpoint proteins in in vivo or in vitro models. Phytochemicals decreased programmed cell death ligand-1 expression and synergized programmed cell death receptor 1 (PD-1) monoclonal antibody to suppress tumor growth. Combined administration of phytochemicals and PD-1 monoclonal antibody enhanced the tumor growth inhibition as well as CD4+ /CD8+ T-cell infiltration. In this review, we discuss immune checkpoint molecules as potential therapeutic targets of cancers. We further assess the impact of phytochemicals including carotenoids, polyphenols, saponins, and organosulfur compounds on cancer PD-1/programmed cell death ligand-1 immune checkpoint molecules and document their combination effects with immune checkpoint inhibitors on various malignancies.

Anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapy for colorectal cancer: Clinical implications and future considerations

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most prevalent cancer in the world. The PD-1/PD-L1 pathway plays a crucial role in modulating immune response to cancer, and PD-L1 expression has been observed in tumor and immune cells within the tumor microenvironment of CRC. Thus, immunotherapy drugs, specifically checkpoint inhibitors, have been developed to target the PD-1/PD-L1 signaling pathway, thereby inhibiting the interaction between PD-1 and PD-L1 and restoring T-cell function in cancer cells. However, the emergence of resistance mechanisms can reduce the efficacy of these treatments. To counter this, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have been used to improve the efficacy of CRC treatments. mAbs such as nivolumab and pembrolizumab are currently approved for CRC treatment. These antibodies impede immune checkpoint receptors, including PD-1/PD-L1, and their combination therapy shows promise in the treatment of advanced CRC. This review presents a concise overview of the use of the PD-1/PD-L1 blockade as a therapeutic strategy for CRC using monoclonal antibodies and combination therapies. Additionally, this article outlines the function of PD-1/PD-L1 as an immune response suppressor in the CRC microenvironment as well as the potential advantages of administering inflammatory agents for CRC treatment. Finally, this review analyzes the outcomes of clinical trials to examine the challenges of anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapeutic resistance.

The Qi Yin San Liang San decoction enhances anti-CD19 CAR-T cell function in the treatment of B-cell lymphomas

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Adoptive T-cell therapy with anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-expressing T cells is a new approach for treating advanced B-cell malignancies. However, CAR-Tcell therapies for tumors are challenging due to tumor heterogeneity, cytokine release syndrome (CRS), and CAR-T cell exhaustion. The Qi Yin San Liang San (SLS) decoction has a significant curative effect in treating tumors and can improve clinical efficacy when combined with tumor immunotherapy. However, there has been no in vitro or in vivo pharmacodynamic evaluation of SLS in combination with immunotherapy, and the underlying immunological mechanism remains unclear.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The study objective was to determine the auxiliary effect and potential mechanism of SLS as an adjuvant treatment with anti-CD19 CAR-T cells for B-cell lymphomas.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Network pharmacology analyses, in vitro and in vivo studies, and transcriptome sequencing analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Forty-two components were detected in SLS by HPLC. Sixteen pharmacologically active ingredients were analyzed by searching the TCMSP database. The predicted targets included IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, CASP7, and CASP9. In vitro studies revealed that SLS can dose-dependently promote the killing effect of unmodified T and anti-CD19 CAR-T cells against Raji cell lines. Meanwhile, SLS inhibited unmodified T and anti-CD19 CAR-T cell exhaustion, promoted anti-CD19 CAR-T cell proliferation, reduced the levels of IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α, and increased granzyme B levels. In vivo studies, SLS effectively improved the anti-tumor function of anti-CD19 CAR-T cells, prolonged the survival of the mice, and reduced the levels of IL-6, GM-CSF, and IL-17. Subsequently, the transcriptomic analysis showed that SLS inhibited the IL-17 signaling pathway and the apoptosis signaling pathway of T cells. In addition, SLS downregulated the expression of IL-17A, IL-6, TNF-α, GM-CSF, S100A8, CASP 7, CASP 9, and CASP 10 in anti-CD19 CAR-T cells. SLS regulated the IL-17 signaling pathway and apoptosis signaling pathway in anti-CD19 CAR-T cells.

CONCLUSION

SLS plays a potential auxiliary role in enhancing the function of anti-CD19 CAR T cells in the treatment of B-cell lymphoma, improving the killing ability of these cells, reducing the potential risk associated with inflammation, and providing synergistic and attenuating effects. The mechanism of SLS is partially mediated by the apoptosis and IL-17 signaling pathways (such as IL-17A, IL-6, TNF-α, GM-CSF, and Granzyme B).

Hyperthermia in Combination with Emerging Targeted and Immunotherapies as a New Approach in Cancer Treatment

Despite significant advancements in the development of novel therapies, cancer continues to stand as a prominent global cause of death. In many cases, the cornerstone of standard-of-care therapy consists of chemotherapy (CT), radiotherapy (RT), or a combination of both. Notably, hyperthermia (HT), which has been in clinical use in the last four decades, has proven to enhance the effectiveness of CT and RT, owing to its recognized potency as a sensitizer. Furthermore, HT exerts effects on all steps of the cancer-immunity cycle and exerts a significant impact on key oncogenic pathways. Most recently, there has been a noticeable expansion of cancer research related to treatment options involving immunotherapy (IT) and targeted therapy (TT), a trend also visible in the research and development pipelines of pharmaceutical companies. However, the potential results arising from the combination of these innovative therapeutic approaches with HT remain largely unexplored. Therefore, this review aims to explore the oncology pipelines of major pharmaceutical companies, with the primary objective of identifying the principal targets of forthcoming therapies that have the potential to be advantageous for patients by specifically targeting molecular pathways involved in HT. The ultimate goal of this review is to pave the way for future research initiatives and clinical trials that harness the synergy between emerging IT and TT medications when used in conjunction with HT.

Network pharmacology prediction and molecular docking-based strategy to explore the potential mechanism of Radix Astragali against hypopharyngeal carcinoma

To explore the anti-tumor effects of Radix Astragali on hypopharyngeal carcinoma and its mechanism. We have bioinformatically analyzed the potential targets of Radix Astragali and predicted the molecular mechanism of Radix Astragali treating of hypopharyngeal carcinoma. The binding process of the hub targets that could prolong the survival time of hypopharyngeal cancer patients with Radix Astragali was simulated by molecular docking. The results showed that 17 out of 36 hub targets could effectively improve the 5-year survival rate of hypopharyngeal cancer patients. Radix Astragali acts on hypopharyngeal carcinoma by regulating a signaling network formed by hub targets connecting multiple signaling pathways and is expected to become a drug for treating and prolonging hypopharyngeal carcinoma patients' survival time.

Overexpression of LINC00853 enhances tumorigenesis and metastasis of gastric cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) is a rising global health issue, with increasing incidence and mortality rates. The pathogenesis of GC is highly complex and involves a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Therefore, identifying new genes and pathways that contribute to the development and progression of GC is essential for improving diagnosis and treatment outcomes. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have recently emerged as a promising area of research in understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying various cancers, including GC. These RNA molecules are longer than 200 nucleotides and do not code proteins. Although initially considered "junk DNA", lncRNAs have been demonstrated to play significant roles in various biological processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis, as well as in the pathogenesis of various cancers. In this study, we screened clinical specimens for a novel lncRNA, LINC00853, which showed high expression in GC tissues and promoted the proliferation, migration, and invasion of GC cells. Furthermore, in vivo experiments confirmed its ability to facilitate the growth and metastasis of GC. These results suggest that LINC00853 plays a crucial role in the development and progression of GC.

The expression mechanism of programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 and its role in immunomodulatory ability of mesenchymal stem cells

Programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 (PD-L1) is an important immunosuppressive molecule, which inhibits the function of T cells and other immune cells by binding to the receptor programmed cell death-1. The PD-L1 expression disorder plays an important role in the occurrence, development, and treatment of sepsis or other inflammatory diseases, and has become an important target for the treatment of these diseases. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a kind of pluripotent stem cells with multiple differentiation potential. In recent years, MSCs have been found to have a strong immunosuppressive ability and are used to treat various inflammatory insults caused by hyperimmune diseases. Moreover, PD-L1 is deeply involved in the immunosuppressive events of MSCs and plays an important role in the treatment of various diseases. In this review, we will summarize the main regulatory mechanism of PD-L1 expression, and discuss various biological functions of PD-L1 in the immune regulation of MSCs.

Interplay between inflammasomes and PD-1/PD-L1 and their implications in cancer immunotherapy

The inflammasomes play crucial roles in inflammation and cancer development, while the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway is critical for immune suppression in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Recent research indicates a reciprocal regulatory relationship between inflammasomes and PD-1/PD-L1 signaling in cancer development and PD-1 blockade treatment. By activating in diverse cells in tumor tissues, inflammasome upregulates PD-L1 level in the TME. Moreover, the regulation of PD-1/PD-L1 activity by inflammasome activation involves natural killer cells, tumor-associated macrophages and myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Conversely, PD-1 blockade can activate the inflammasome, potentially influencing treatment outcomes. The interplay between inflammasomes and PD-1/PD-L1 has profound and intricate effects on cancer development and treatment. In this review, we discuss the crosstalk between inflammasomes and PD-1/PD-L1 in cancers, exploring their implications for tumorigenesis, metastasis and immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) resistance. The combined therapeutic strategies targeting both inflammasomes and checkpoint molecules hold promising potential as treatments for cancer.

Correlation of MR-Based Metabolomics and Molecular Profiling in the Tumor Microenvironment of Temozolomide-Treated Orthotopic GL261 Glioblastoma in Mice

The tumor microenvironment in glioblastoma (GB) is considered to be "cold", i.e., the fraction of cytotoxic T cells, for instance, is low. Instead, macrophages are the major immune cell population in GB, which stem either from tissue response (resident microglia) or recruitment of macrophages from the periphery, thereby undergoing tumor-dependent "imprinting" mechanisms by which macrophages can adapt a tumor-supportive phenotype. In this regard, it is important to describe the nature of macrophages associated with GB, in particular under therapy conditions using the gold standard chemotherapy drug temozolomide (TMZ). Here, we explored the suitability of combining information from in vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopic (MRS) approaches (metabolomics) with in vitro molecular analyses to assess therapy response and characterize macrophage populations in mouse GB using an isogenic GL261 model. For macrophage profiling, expression levels of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and A disintegrin and metalloproteinases (ADAMs) were determined, since their gene products affect macrophage-tumor cell communication by extensive cleavage of immunomodulatory membrane proteins, such as PD-L1. In tumor mice with an overall therapy response, expression of genes encoding the proteases ADAM8, ADAM10, and ADAM17 was increased and might contribute to the immunosuppressive phenotype of GB and immune cells. In tumors responding to therapy, expression levels of ADAM8 were upregulated by TMZ, and higher levels of PD-L1 were correlated significantly. Using a CRISPR/Cas9 knockout of ADAM8 in GL261 cells, we demonstrated that soluble PD-L1 (sPD-L1) is only generated in the presence of ADAM8. Moreover, primary macrophages from WT and ADAM8-deficient mice showed ADAM8-dependent release of sPD-L1, independent of the macrophage polarization state. Since ADAM8 expression is induced in responding tumors and PD-L1 shedding is likely to decrease the anti-tumor activities of T-cells, we conclude that immunotherapy resistance is caused, at least in part, by the increased presence of proteases, such as ADAM8.

Inhibitory checkpoint molecule mRNA expression in canine soft tissue sarcoma

Canine soft tissue sarcomas (STS) are common neoplasms and considered immune deserts. Tumour infiltrating lymphocytes are sparse in STS and, when present, tend to organize around blood vessels or at the periphery of the neoplasm. This pattern is associated with an immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment linked to overexpression of molecules of the PD-axis. PD-1, PD-L1 and PD-L2 expression correlates with malignancy and poor prognosis in other neoplasms in humans and dogs, but little is known about their role in canine STS, their relationship to tumour grade, and how different therapies affect expression. The objective of this study was to evaluate the expression of checkpoint molecules across STS tumour grades and after tumour ablation treatment. Gene expression analysis was performed by reverse-transcriptase real-time quantitative PCR in soft tissue sarcomas that underwent histotripsy and from histologic specimens of STS from the Virginia Tech Animal Laboratory Services archives. The expression of PD-1, PD-L1 and PD-L2 was detected in untreated STS tissue representing grades 1, 2, and 3. Numerically decreased expression of all markers was observed in tissue sampled from the treatment interface relative to untreated areas of the tumour. The relatively lower expression of these checkpoint molecules at the periphery of the treated area may be related to liquefactive necrosis induced by the histotripsy treatment, and would potentially allow TILs to infiltrate the tumour. Relative increases of these checkpoint molecules in tumours of a higher grade and alongside immune cell infiltration are consistent with previous reports that associate their expression with malignancy.

Causal relationships between circulating inflammatory cytokines and diffuse large B cell lymphoma: a bidirectional Mendelian randomization study

Diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Studies indicated that inflammatory cytokines involved in the occurrence and progression of DLBCL and it is challenging to discern causality from the effects due to the presence of feedback loops. We conducted a bidirectional Mendelian randomization (MR) study to investigate the potential causal relationship between DLBCL and inflammatory cytokines. The genetic variants associated with inflammatory cytokines were obtained from a genome-wide association study (GWAS) involving 8293 European participants, and the data on 1010 individuals with DLBCL were sourced from the FinnGen consortium. The primary method employed in this study was the inverse-variance weighted (IVW) method, with supplementary analyses conducted using the MR-Egger, weighted median, and MR-PRESSO approaches. Based on the IVW method, genetically predicted that increasing level of Monokine induced by interferon gamma (MIG/CXC chemokine ligand 9, CXCL9) [OR: 1.31; 95% CI: 1.05-1.62; P = 0.01] and interferon gamma-induced protein 10(IP-10/CXC chemokine ligand 10, CXCL10) [OR: 1.30; 95% CI: 1.02-1.66; P = 0.03] showed suggestive associations with DLBCL risk. DLBCL may increase the level of macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) [OR: 1.12; 95% CI: 1.01-1.2; P = 0.03], tumor necrosis factor beta (TNF-β) [OR: 1.16; 95% CI: 1.02-1.31; P = 0.02] and TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) [OR: 1.07; 95% CI: 1.01-1.13; P = 0.02]. This study presents evidence supporting a causal relationship between inflammation cytokines and DLBCL. Specifically, MIG/CXCL9 and IP-10/CXCL10 were identified as indicators of upstream causes of DLBCL; while, DLBCL itself was found to elevate the levels of M-CSF, TNF-β, and TRAIL. These findings suggest that targeting specific inflammatory factors through regulation and intervention could serve as a potential approach for the treatment and prevention of DLBCL.

Opaganib (ABC294640) Induces Immunogenic Tumor Cell Death and Enhances Checkpoint Antibody Therapy

Antibody-based cancer drugs that target the checkpoint proteins CTLA-4, PD-1 and PD-L1 provide marked improvement in some patients with deadly diseases such as lung cancer and melanoma. However, most patients are either unresponsive or relapse following an initial response, underscoring the need for further improvement in immunotherapy. Certain drugs induce immunogenic cell death (ICD) in tumor cells in which the dying cells promote immunologic responses in the host that may enhance the in vivo activity of checkpoint antibodies. Sphingolipid metabolism is a key pathway in cancer biology, in which ceramides and sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) regulate tumor cell death, proliferation and drug resistance, as well as host inflammation and immunity. In particular, sphingosine kinases are key sites for manipulation of the ceramide/S1P balance that regulates tumor cell proliferation and sensitivity to radiation and chemotherapy. We and others have demonstrated that inhibition of sphingosine kinase-2 by the small-molecule investigational drug opaganib (formerly ABC294640) kills tumor cells and increases their sensitivities to other drugs and radiation. Because sphingolipids have been shown to regulate ICD, opaganib may induce ICD and improve the efficacy of checkpoint antibodies for cancer therapy. This was demonstrated by showing that in vitro treatment with opaganib increases the surface expression of the ICD marker calreticulin on a variety of tumor cell types. In vivo confirmation was achieved using the gold standard immunization assay in which B16 melanoma, Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) or Neuro-2a neuroblastoma cells were treated with opaganib in vitro and then injected subcutaneously into syngeneic mice, followed by implantation of untreated tumor cells 7 days later. In all cases, immunization with opaganib-treated cells strongly suppressed the growth of subsequently injected tumor cells. Interestingly, opaganib treatment induced crossover immunity in that opaganib-treated B16 cells suppressed the growth of both untreated B16 and LLC cells and opaganib-treated LLC cells inhibited the growth of both untreated LLC and B16 cells. Next, the effects of opaganib in combination with a checkpoint antibody on tumor growth in vivo were assessed. Opaganib and anti-PD-1 antibody each slowed the growth of B16 tumors and improved mouse survival, while the combination of opaganib plus anti-PD-1 strongly suppressed tumor growth and improved survival (p < 0.0001). Individually, opaganib and anti-CTLA-4 antibody had modest effects on the growth of LLC tumors and mouse survival, whereas the combination of opaganib with anti-CTLA-4 substantially inhibited tumor growth and increased survival (p < 0.001). Finally, the survival of mice bearing B16 tumors was only marginally improved by opaganib or anti-PD-L1 antibody alone but was nearly doubled by the drugs in combination (p < 0.005). Overall, these studies demonstrate the ability of opaganib to induce ICD in tumor cells, which improves the antitumor activity of checkpoint antibodies.

Killer instincts: natural killer cells as multifactorial cancer immunotherapy

Natural killer (NK) cells integrate heterogeneous signals for activation and inhibition using germline-encoded receptors. These receptors are stochastically co-expressed, and their concurrent engagement and signaling can adjust the sensitivity of individual cells to putative targets. Against cancers, which mutate and evolve under therapeutic and immunologic pressure, the diversity for recognition provided by NK cells may be key to comprehensive cancer control. NK cells are already being trialled as adoptive cell therapy and targets for immunotherapeutic agents. However, strategies to leverage their naturally occurring diversity and agility have not yet been developed. In this review, we discuss the receptors and signaling pathways through which signals for activation or inhibition are generated in NK cells, focusing on their roles in cancer and potential as targets for immunotherapies. Finally, we consider the impacts of receptor co-expression and the potential to engage multiple pathways of NK cell reactivity to maximize the scope and strength of antitumor activities.

Inflammation in Prostate Cancer: Exploring the Promising Role of Phenolic Compounds as an Innovative Therapeutic Approach

Prostate cancer (PCa) remains a significant global health concern, being a major cause of cancer morbidity and mortality worldwide. Furthermore, profound understanding of the disease is needed. Prostate inflammation caused by external or genetic factors is a central player in prostate carcinogenesis. However, the mechanisms underlying inflammation-driven PCa remain poorly understood. This review dissects the diagnosis methods for PCa and the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the disease, clarifying the dynamic interplay between inflammation and leukocytes in promoting tumour development and spread. It provides updates on recent advances in elucidating and treating prostate carcinogenesis, and opens new insights for the use of bioactive compounds in PCa. Polyphenols, with their noteworthy antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, along with their synergistic potential when combined with conventional treatments, offer promising prospects for innovative therapeutic strategies. Evidence from the use of polyphenols and polyphenol-based nanoparticles in PCa revealed their positive effects in controlling tumour growth, proliferation, and metastasis. By consolidating the diverse features of PCa research, this review aims to contribute to increased understanding of the disease and stimulate further research into the role of polyphenols and polyphenol-based nanoparticles in its management.

Inhibitory Effects of Urolithins, Bioactive Gut Metabolites from Natural Polyphenols, against Glioblastoma Progression

We previously reported that proinflammatory cytokines, particularly tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, promoted tumor migration, invasion, and proliferation, thus worsening the prognosis of glioblastoma (GBM). Urolithins, the potent metabolites produced by the gut from pomegranate polyphenols, have anticancer properties. To develop an effective therapy for GBM, this study aimed to study the effects of urolithins against GBM. Urolithin A and B significantly reduced GBM migration, reduced epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and inhibited tumor growth. Moreover, urolithin A and B inhibited TNF-α-induced vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 and programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression, thereby reducing human monocyte (HM) binding to GBM cells. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) level had higher expression in patients with glioma than in healthy individuals. Urolithins are considered pharmacological antagonists of AhR. We demonstrated that the inhibition of AhR reduced TNF-α-stimulated VCAM-1 and PD-L1 expression. Furthermore, human macrophage condition medium enhanced expression of PD-L1 in human GBM cells. Administration of the AhR antagonist attenuated the enhancement of PD-L1, indicating the AhR modulation in GBM progression. The modulatory effects of urolithins in GBM involve inhibiting the Akt and epidermal growth factor receptor pathways. The present study suggests that urolithins can inhibit GBM progression and provide valuable information for anti-GBM strategy.

Network pharmacology-based research on the effect of Scutellaria baicalensis on osteosarcoma and the underlying mechanism

To explore the anti-tumor effects of Scutellaria baicalensis on osteosarcoma and its mechanism. Network pharmacology and molecular docking techniques were applied to investigate the effect and mechanism of Scutellaria baicalensis on osteosarcoma (OS). We analyzed the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network for potential targets of Scutellaria baicalensis for treating osteosarcoma and identified hub targets. We used KM curves to screen for hub targets that could effectively prolong the survival time of OS patients. We systematically performed gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis of the Scutellaria baicalensis potential targets and predicted the Scutellaria baicalensis molecular mechanism and function in treating osteosarcoma. Through molecular docking, the binding process between the hub targets, which could prolong the survival time of sarcoma patients, and Scutellaria baicalensis was simulated. PPI network analysis of potential therapeutic targets discriminated 12 hub targets. The KM curves of the hub targets showed that upregulation of RXRA, RELA, ESR1, TNF, IL6, IL1B, and RB1 expression, and downregulation of MAPK1, VEGFA, MAPK14, CDK1, and PPARG expression were effective in improving the 5-year survival rate of OS patients. GO and KEGG enrichment demonstrated that Scutellaria baicalensis regulated multiple signaling pathways of OS. Molecular docking results indicated that Scutellaria baicalensis could bind freely to the above hub target, which could prolong the survival time of sarcoma patients. Scutellaria baicalensis acted on osteosarcoma by regulating a signaling network formed by hub targets connecting multiple signaling pathways. Scutellaria baicalensis appears to have the potential to serve as a therapeutic drug for osteosarcoma and to prolong the survival of OS patients.

Mechanism underlying the effect of Pulsatilla decoction in hepatocellular carcinoma treatment: a network pharmacology and in vitro analysis

BACKGROUND

Currently, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is associated with a poor prognosis. Moreover, there exist limited strategies for treating HCC. Pulsatilla decoction (PD), a traditional Chinese medicine formula, has been used to treat inflammatory bowel disease and several cancer types. Accordingly, we explored the mechanism of PD in HCC treatment via network pharmacology and in vitro experiments.

METHODS

Online databases were searched for gene data, active components, and potential target genes associated with HCC development. Subsequently, bioinformatics analysis was performed using protein-protein interaction and Network Construction and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) to screen for potential anticancer components and therapeutic targets of PD. Finally, the effect of PD on HCC was further verified by in vitro experiments.

RESULTS

Network pharmacological analysis revealed that 65 compounds and 180 possible target genes were associated with the effect of PD on HCC. These included PI3K, AKT, NF-κB, FOS, and NFKBIA. KEGG analysis demonstrated that PD exerted its effect on HCC mainly via the PI3K-AKT, IL-17, and TNF signaling pathways. Cell viability and cell cycle experiments revealed that PD could significantly inhibit cancer cell proliferation and kill HCC cells by inducing apoptosis. Furthermore, western blotting confirmed that apoptosis was mediated primarily via the PI3K-AKT, IL-17, and TNF signaling pathways.

CONCLUSION

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to elucidate the molecular mechanism and potential targets of PD in the treatment of HCC using network pharmacology.

Radiation-associated secondary malignancies: a novel opportunity for applying immunotherapies

Radiation is commonly used as a treatment intended to cure or palliate cancer patients. Despite remarkable advances in the precision of radiotherapy delivery, even the most advanced forms inevitably expose some healthy tissues surrounding the target site to radiation. On rare occasions, this results in the development of radiation-associated secondary malignancies (RASM). RASM are typically high-grade and carry a poorer prognosis than their non-radiated counterparts. RASM are characterized by a high mutation burden, increased T cell infiltration, and a microenvironment that bears unique inflammatory signatures of prior radiation, including increased expression of various cytokines (e.g., TGF-β, TNF-α, IL4, and IL10). Interestingly, these cytokines have been shown to up-regulate the expression of PD-1 and/or PD-L1-an immune checkpoint receptor/ligand pair that is commonly targeted by immune checkpoint blocking immunotherapies. Here, we review the current understanding of the tumor-immune interactions in RASM, highlight the distinct clinical and molecular characteristics of RASM that may render them immunologically "hot," and propose a rationale for the formal testing of immune checkpoint blockade as a treatment approach for patients with RASM.

A potential novel biomarker: comprehensive analysis of prognostic value and immune implication of CES3 in colonic adenocarcinoma

PURPOSE

Colon cancer is the most common malignant tumor in the intestine. Abnormal Carboxylesterases 3 (CES3) expression had been reported to be correlated to multiple tumor progression. However, the association among CES3 expression and prognostic value and immune effects in colonic adenocarcinoma (COAD) were unclear.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The transcription and expression data of CES3 and corresponding clinical information was downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). The CES3 protein expression and the prognostic value were verified based on tissue microarray data. The Cancer immune group Atlas (TCIA), Tumor Immune Dysfunction and Exclusion (TIDE) algorithm and the GSE78220 immunotherapy cohort were used to forecast immunotherapy efficacy. Finally, a prognostic immune signature was constructed and verified.

RESULTS

Compared with normal colon tissues, the expression of mRNA and protein levels of CES3 were downregulated in tumor tissues. CES3 expression was associated with TIICs. Hihg-CES3 COAD patients had better efficacy of concurrent immunotherapy. CES3-related immune genes (CRIs) were identified and were then used to construct prognostic immune signature and had been successfully verified in GES39582.

CONCLUSION

CES3 might be a potential immune-related gene and promising prognostic biomarker in COAD.

Molecular characterization of ferroptosis in soft tissue sarcoma constructs a prognostic and immunotherapeutic signature through experimental and bioinformatics analyses

Ferroptosis regulators have been found to affect tumor progression. However, studies focusing on ferroptosis and soft tissue sarcoma (STS) are rare. Somatic mutation, copy number variation, reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) analysis, consensus clustering, differentially expressed genes analysis (DEGs), principal component analysis (PCA) and gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) were used to identify and explore different ferroptosis modifications in STS. A nomogram was constructed to predict the prognosis of STS. Moreover, three immunotherapy datasets were used to assess the Fescore. Western blotting, siRNA transfection, EdU assay and reactive oxygen species (ROS) measurement were performed. 16 prognostic ferroptosis regulators were screened and significant differences were observed in somatic mutation, copy number variation (CNV) and RT-qPCR among these ferroptosis regulators. 2 different ferroptosis modification patterns were found (Fe cluster A and B). Fe cluster A with higher Fescore was correlated with p53 pathway and had better prognosis of STS (p = 0.002) while Fe cluster B with lower Fescore was correlated with angiogenesis and MYC pathway and showed a poorer outcome. Besides, the nomogram effectively predicted the outcome of STS and the Fescore could also well predict the prognosis of other 16 tumors and immunotherapy response. Downregulation of LOX also inhibited growth and increased ROS production in sarcoma cells. The molecular characterization of ferroptosis regulators in STS was explored and an Fescore was constructed. The Fescore quantified ferroptosis modification in STS patients and effectively predicted the prognosis of a variety of tumors, providing novel insights for precision medicine.

IL-17A functions and the therapeutic use of IL-17A and IL-17RA targeted antibodies for cancer treatment

Interleukin 17A (IL-17A) is a major member of the IL-17 cytokine family and is produced mainly by T helper 17 (Th17) cells. Other cells such as CD8+ T cells, γδ T cells, natural killer T cells and innate lymphoid-like cells can also produce IL-17A. In healthy individuals, IL-17A has a host-protective capacity, but excessive elevation of IL-17A is associated with the development of autoimmune diseases and cancer. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) targeting IL-17A (e.g., ixekizumab and secukinumab) or IL-17A receptor (IL-17RA) (e.g., brodalumab) would be investigated as potential treatments for these diseases. Currently, the application of IL-17A-targeted drugs in autoimmune diseases will provide new ideas for the treatment of tumors, and its combined application with immune checkpoint inhibitors has become a research hotspot. This article reviews the mechanism of action of IL-17A and the application of anti-IL-17A antibodies, focusing on the research progress on the mechanism of action and therapeutic blockade of IL-17A in various tumors such as colorectal cancer (CRC), lung cancer, gastric cancer and breast cancer. Moreover, we also include the results of therapeutic blockade in the field of cancer as well as recent advances in the regulation of IL-17A signaling.

Effects of Lactobacilli acidophilus and/or spiramycin as an adjunct in toxoplasmosis infection challenged with diabetes

The current study assessed the anti-parasitic impact of probiotics on Toxoplasma gondii infection either solely or challenged with diabetes in Swiss albino mice. The study design encompassed group-A (diabetic), group-B (non-diabetic), and healthy controls (C). Each group was divided into infected-untreated (subgroup-1); infected and spiramycin-treated (subgroup-2); infected and probiotic-treated (subgroup-3); infected and spiramycin+ probiotic-treated (subgroup-4). Diabetic-untreated animals exhibited acute toxoplasmosis and higher cerebral parasite load. Overall, various treatments reduced intestinal pathology, improved body weight, and decreased mortalities; nevertheless, probiotic + spiramycin exhibited significant differences. On day 7 post-infection both PD-1 and IL-17A demonstrated higher scores in the intestine of diabetic-untreated mice compared with non-diabetics and healthy control; whereas, claudin-1 revealed worsening expression. Likewise, on day 104 post-infection cerebral PD-1 and IL-17A showed increased expressions in diabetic animals. Overall, treatment modalities revealed lower scores of PD-1 and IL-17A in non-diabetic subgroups compared with diabetics. Intestinal and cerebral expressions of IL-17A and PD-1 demonstrated positive correlations with cerebral parasite load. In conclusion, toxoplasmosis when challenged with diabetes showed massive pathological features and higher parasite load in the cerebral tissues. Probiotics are a promising adjunct to spiramycin by ameliorating IL-17A and PD-1 in the intestinal and cerebral tissues, improving the intestinal expression of claudin-1, and efficiently reducing the cerebral parasite load.

Predictive Value of Modified Glasgow Prognostic Score and Persistent Inflammation among Patients with Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Treated with Durvalumab Consolidation after Chemoradiotherapy: A Multicenter Retrospective Study

BACKGROUND

Durvalumab consolidation after chemoradiotherapy (CRT) is a standard treatment for locally advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, studies on immunological and nutritional markers to predict progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) are inadequate. Systemic inflammation causes cancer cachexia and negatively affects immunotherapy efficacy, which also reflects survival outcomes.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We retrospectively investigated 126 patients from seven institutes in Japan.

RESULTS

The modified Glasgow Prognostic Score (mGPS) values, before and after CRT, were the essential predictors among the evaluated indices. A systemic inflammation-based prognostic risk classification was created by combining mGPS values before CRT, and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels after CRT, to distinguish tumor-derived inflammation from CRT-induced inflammation. Patients were classified into high-risk (n = 31) and low-risk (n = 95) groups, and the high-risk group had a significantly shorter median PFS of 7.2 months and an OS of 19.6 months compared with the low-risk group. The hazard ratios for PFS and OS were 2.47 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.46-4.19, p < 0.001) and 3.62 (95% CI: 1.79-7.33, p < 0.001), respectively. This association was also observed in the subgroup with programmed cell death ligand 1 expression of ≥50%, but not in the <50% subgroup. Furthermore, durvalumab discontinuation was observed more frequently in the high-risk group than in the low-risk group.

CONCLUSION

Combining pre-CRT mGPS values with post-CRT CRP levels in patients with locally advanced NSCLC helps to predict the PFS and OS of durvalumab consolidation after CRT.

Mechanistic Insights into the Roles of the IL-17/IL-17R Families in Pancreatic Cancer

The members of the cytokine interleukin 17 (IL-17) family, along with their receptors (IL-17R), are vital players in a range of inflammatory diseases and cancer. Although generally regarded as proinflammatory, the effects they exhibit on cancer progression are a double-edged sword, with both antitumor and protumor activities being discovered. There is growing evidence that the IL-17 signaling pathways have significant impacts on the tumor microenvironment (TME), immune response, and inflammation in various types of cancer, including pancreatic cancer. However, the detailed mechanistic functions of the IL-17/IL-17R families in pancreatic cancer were rarely systematically elucidated. This review considers the role of the IL-17/IL-17R families in inflammation and tumor immunity and elaborates on the mechanistic functions and correlations of these members with pathogenesis, progression, and chemoresistance in pancreatic cancer. By summarizing the advanced findings on the role of IL-17/IL17R family members and IL-17 signaling pathways at the molecular level, cellular level, and disease level in pancreatic cancer, this review provides an in-depth discussion on the potential of IL-17/IL-17R as prognostic markers and therapeutic targets in pancreatic cancer.

Prognostic role of different PD-L1 expression patterns and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in high-grade serous ovarian cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

The prognostic value of programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) in high-grade serous ovarian cancer (HGSOC) remains a controversial topic in the research field. To comprehensively assess the importance of PD-L1 and TILs in this particular subtype of ovarian cancer, we performed a meta-analysis.

Methods

We conducted a comprehensive search of PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library databases up to December 25, 2022. The association between PD-L1, TILs, and survival outcomes was evaluated using the combined hazard ratios (HRs) and their corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

Results

This meta-analysis comprised 11 trials involving a total of 1746 cases. The results revealed no significant association between PD-L1 expression in tumor cells (TCs) and overall survival (OS, HR = 0.76, 95% CI: 0.52-1.09, p = 0.136) or progression-free survival (PFS, HR = 0.71, 95% CI: 0.4 -1.24, p = 0.230). Nevertheless, a correlation was observed between PD-L1 expression in immune cells (ICs) and OS (HR = 0.73, 95% CI: 0.55-0.97, p = 0.031). Furthermore, the presence of CD8+ and PD-1+ TILs was found to significantly enhance OS (HR = 0.70, 95% CI = 0.55-0.87, p = 0.002; HR = 0.57, 95% CI = 0.40-0.80, p = 0.001, respectively) and PFS (HR = 0.62, 95% CI = 0.41-0.92, p = 0.019; HR = 0.52, 95% CI = 0.35-0.78, p = 0.002, respectively), whereas the presence of CD3+ and CD4+ TILs was positively associated with OS (HR = 0.50, 95% CI = 0.29-0.87, p = 0.014; HR = 0.55, 95% CI = 0.34-0.91, p = 0.020, respectively).

Conclusion

This study indicates a positive correlation between ICs-derived PD-L1 and survival, while no significant correlation was observed between TCs-derived PD-L1 and prognosis. These results highlight the importance of studying PD-L1 expression in ICs as a prognostic predictor. In addition, the presence of TILs was found to significantly improve patient survival, suggesting that TILs may be a valuable prognostic biomarker.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/, identifier CRD42022366411.

Relationship between SUVmax on 18F-FDG PET and PD-L1 expression in hepatocellular carcinoma

PURPOSE

Our study was to investigate the correlation between 18F-FDG uptake in HCC and tumor PD-L1 expression in HCC, and assess the value of 18F-FDG PET/CT imaging for predicting PD-L1 expression in HCC.

METHODS

A total of 102 patients with confirmed HCC were included in this retrospective study. The PD-L1 expression and immune cell infiltrating of tumors were determined through immunohistochemistry staining. The SUVmax of HCC lesions were assessed using 18F-FDG PET/CT. The correlation between PD-L1 expression and the clinicopathological were evaluated by the Cox proportional hazards model and the Kaplan-Meier survival analysis.

RESULTS

The SUVmax of HCC primary tumors was higher in patients with poorly differentiated HCC, large tumor size, portal vein tumor thrombus, lymph node and distant metastases, and death. The SUVmax of HCC are correlated with the PD-L1 expression and the number of cytotoxic T cells and M2 macrophage infiltration. PD-L1 expression was significantly correlated with tumor SUVmax, tumor differentiation, tumor size, portal vein tumor thrombosis, and patient survival status and infiltrating M2 macrophages. Further, our results confirmed that SUVmax, portal vein tumor thrombosis, and the number of infiltrating M2 macrophages were closely related to PD-L1 expression and were independent risk factors by multivariate analysis. The combined assessment of SUVmax values and the presence of portal vein tumor thrombosis by 18F-FDG PET/CT imaging can help determine PD-L1 expression in HCC.

CONCLUSIONS

FDG uptake in HCC was positively correlated with the PD-L1 expression and the number of cytotoxic T cells and M2 macrophage infiltration. The combined use of SUVmax and portal vein tumor thrombosis by PET/CT imaging assess the PD-L1 expression better in HCC. These findings also provide a basis for clinical studies to assess the immune status of tumors by PET/CT.

Molecular mechanisms of immunotherapy resistance in triple-negative breast cancer

The emergence of immunotherapy has profoundly changed the treatment model for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). But the heterogeneity of this disease resulted in significant differences in immunotherapy efficacy, and only some patients are able to benefit from this therapeutic modality. With the recent explosion in studies on the mechanism of cancer immunotherapy drug resistance, this article will focus on the processes of the immune response; summarize the immune evasion mechanisms in TNBC into three categories: loss of tumor-specific antigen, antigen presentation deficiency, and failure to initiate an immune response; together with the aberrant activation of a series of immune-critical signaling pathways, we will discuss how these activities jointly shape the immunosuppressive landscape within the tumor microenvironment. This review will attempt to elucidate the molecular mechanism of drug resistance in TNBC, identify potential targets that may assist in reversing drug resistance, and lay a foundation for research on identifying biomarkers for predicting immune efficacy and selection of breast cancer populations that may benefit from immunotherapy.

Traditional Chinese medicine inhibits PD-1/PD-L1 axis to sensitize cancer immunotherapy: a literature review

The Programmed death-1 (PD-1) and its programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) comprise the PD-1/PD-L1 axis and maintain tumor immune evasion. Cancer immunotherapy based on anti-PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies is the most promising anti-tumor treatment available but is currently facing the thorny problem of unsatisfactory outcomes. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), with its rich heritage of Chinese medicine monomers, herbal formulas, and physical therapies like acupuncture, moxibustion, and catgut implantation, is a multi-component and multi-target system of medicine known for enhancing immunity and preventing the spread of disease. TCM is often used as an adjuvant therapy for cancer in clinical practices, and recent studies have demonstrated the synergistic effects of combining TCM with cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we examined the PD-1/PD-L1 axis and its role in tumor immune escape while exploring how TCM therapies can modulate the PD-1/PD-L1 axis to improve the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. Our findings suggest that TCM therapy can enhance cancer immunotherapy by reducing the expression of PD-1 and PD-L1, regulating T-cell function, improving the tumor immune microenvironment, and regulating intestinal flora. We hope this review may serve as a valuable resource for future studies on the sensitization of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) therapy.

Vista of the Future: Novel Immunotherapy Based on the Human V-Set Immunoregulatory Receptor for Digestive System Tumors

While gastrointestinal tumors remain a multifactorial and prevalent group of malignancies commonly treated surgically in combination with chemotherapy and radiotherapy, advancements regarding immunotherapeutic approaches continue to occur. Entering a new era of immunotherapy focused on overcoming resistance to preceding therapies caused the emergence of new therapeutic strategies. A promising solution surfaces with a V-domain Ig suppressor of T-cell activation (VISTA), a negative regulator of a T-cell function expressed in hematopoietic cells. Due to VISTA's ability to act as both a ligand and a receptor, several therapeutic approaches can be potentially developed. A broad expression of VISTA was discovered on various tumor-growth-controlling cells, which proved to increase in specific tumor microenvironment (TME) conditions, thus serving as a rationale behind the development of new VISTA-targeting. Nevertheless, VISTA's ligands and signaling pathways are still not fully understood. The uncertain results of clinical trials suggest the need for future examining inhibitor agents for VISTA and implicating a double immunotherapeutic blockade. However, more research is needed before the breakthrough can be achieved. This review discusses perspectives and novel approaches presented in the current literature. Based on the results of the ongoing studies, VISTA might be considered a potential target in combined therapy, especially for treating gastrointestinal malignancies.

Transcriptional control of pancreatic cancer immunosuppression by metabolic enzyme CD73 in a tumor-autonomous and -autocrine manner

Cancer cell metabolism contributes to the establishment of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Aberrant expression of CD73, a critical enzyme in ATP metabolism, on the cell surface results in the extracellular accumulation of adenosine, which exhibits direct inhibitory effects on tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. However, little is known about the influence of CD73 on negative immune regulation-associated signaling molecules and transduction pathways inside tumor cells. This study aims to demonstrate the moonlighting functions of CD73 in immunosuppression in pancreatic cancer, an ideal model characterized by complex crosstalk among cancer metabolism, immune microenvironment, and immunotherapeutic resistance. The synergistic effect of CD73-specific drugs in combination with immune checkpoint blockade is observed in multiple pancreatic cancer models. Cytometry by time-of-flight analysis shows that CD73 inhibition reduces tumor-infiltrating Tregs in pancreatic cancer. Tumor cell-autonomous CD73 is found to facilitate Treg recruitment, in which CCL5 is identified as a significant downstream effector of CD73 using integrated proteomic and transcriptomic analyses. CD73 transcriptionally upregulates CCL5 through tumor cell-autocrine adenosine-Adora2a signaling-mediated activation of the p38-STAT1 axis, recruiting Tregs to pancreatic tumors and causing an immunosuppressive microenvironment. Together, this study highlights that CD73-adenosine metabolism transcriptionally controls pancreatic cancer immunosuppression in a tumor-autonomous and -autocrine manner.

The significance of PD-1/PD-L1 imbalance in ulcerative colitis

Objectives

To investigate the expression and significance of programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) and programmed cell death ligand-1 (PD-L1) in the mucosal tissues and peripheral blood of patients with ulcerative colitis (UC).

Methods

Eighty patients with UC were recruited from January 2021 to August 2022 from the Shanxi Province People's Hospital. PD-1 and PD-L1 expression was assessed by immunohistochemistry in mucosal tissues. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to measure soluble PD-1 and PD-L1 levels in peripheral blood serum, and the membrane-bound forms of PD-1 (mPD-1), (T-helper cell) Th1 and Th17, in peripheral blood were determined by flow cytometry.

Result

PD-1 expression was observed only in the monocytes of the mucosal lamina propria of UC patients, while PD-L1 was mainly located in both epithelial cells and monocytes on the cell membrane. The expression level of PD-1/PD-L1 in the monocytes and epithelial cells of mucosal lamina propria increased with disease activity (P < 0.05). The percentages of PD-1/T and PD-1/CD4+T in the peripheral blood of moderate UC patients (PD-1/T 12.83 ± 6.15% and PD-1/CD4+T 19.67 ± 9.95%) and severe UC patients (PD-1/T 14.29 ± 5.71% and PD-1/CD4+T 21.63 ± 11.44%) were higher than in mild UC patients (PD-1/T 8.17 ± 2.80% and PD-1/CD4+T 12.44 ± 4.73%; P < 0.05). There were no significant differences in PD-1/CD8+T cells between mild and severe UC patients (P > 0.05). There was a statistically significant difference in the expression level of sPD-L1 between the UC groups and healthy controls, and the expression level of sPD-L1 increased with disease severity (P < 0.05); however, there was no statistically significant difference in sPD-1 expression levels between the UC groups and healthy controls (P > 0.05). The correlation coefficients between Th1 and sPD-L1, PD-1/T, PD-1/CD4+T and PD-1/CD8+T were 0.427, 0.589, 0.486, and 0.329, respectively (P < 0.001). The correlation coefficients between Th17 and sPD-L1, PD-1/T, PD-1/CD4+T and PD-1/CD8+T were 0.323, 0.452, 0.320, and 0.250, respectively (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

The expression level of PD-1/PD-L1 was correlated with UC disease activity, and two forms of PD-1 and PD-L1 may be used as a potential marker for predicting UC and assessing disease progression in UC patients. PD-1/PD-L1 imbalance was a significant phenomenon of UC immune dysfunction. Future research should focus on two forms of PD-1/PD-L1 signaling molecules to better understand the pathogenesis of UC and to identify potential drug therapies.

Contribution of Mesenchymal Stem Cells from Obese Adipose Tissue to PD-L1 Over-Expression and Breast Cancer Progression through Pathogenic Th17 Cell Activation

BACKGROUND

Obesity is a well-known risk factor for cancer. We have previously reported the role of adipose-tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells from obese individuals (ob-ASC) in the promotion of pathogenic Th17 cells and immune check point (ICP) upregulation. Thus, we postulated herein that this mechanism could contribute to breast cancer (BC) aggressiveness.

METHODS

Conditioning medium (CM) from mitogen-activated ob-ASC and immune cell co-cultures were added to two human breast cancer cell line (BCCL) cultures. Expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines, angiogenesis markers, metalloproteinases, and PD-L1 (a major ICP) were measured at the mRNA and/or protein levels. BCCL migration was explored in wound healing assays. Anti-cytokine neutralizing antibodies (Ab) were added to co-cultures.

RESULTS

CM from ob-ASC/MNC co-cultures increased IL-1β, IL-8, IL-6, VEGF-A, MMP-9, and PD-L1 expressions in both BCCLs and accelerated their migration. The use of Abs demonstrated differential effects for IL-17A and IFNγ on BCCL pro-inflammatory cytokine over-expression or PD-L1 upregulation, respectively, but potentiating effects on BCCL migration. Finally, co-cultures with ob-ASC, but not lean ASC, enhanced PD-L1 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate increased inflammation and ICP markers and accelerated BCCL migration following the activation of pathogenic Th17 cells by ob-ASC, which could represent a new mechanism linking obesity with BC progression.

Donkey Oil-Based Ketogenic Diet Prevents Tumor Progression by Regulating Intratumor Inflammation, Metastasis and Angiogenesis in CT26 Tumor-Bearing Mice

Colon cancer is one of the typical malignant tumors, and its prevalence has increased yearly. The ketogenic diet (KD) is a low-carbohydrate and high-fat dietary regimen that inhibits tumor growth. Donkey oil (DO) is a product with a high nutrient content and a high bioavailability of unsaturated fatty acids. Current research investigated the impact of the DO-based KD (DOKD) on CT26 colon cancer in vivo. Our findings revealed that DOKD administration significantly lowered CT26⁺ tumor cell growth in mice, and the blood β-hydroxybutyrate levels in the DOKD group was significantly higher than those in the natural diet group. Western blot results showed that DOKD significantly down-regulated Src, hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), extracellular signal-related kinases 1 and 2 (Erk1/2), snail, neural cadherin (N-cadherin), vimentin, matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA), and it significantly up-regulated the expressions of Sirt3, S100a9, interleukin (IL)-17, nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) p65, Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), MyD88, and tumor necrosis factor-α. Meanwhile, in vitro validation results showed that LW6 (a HIF-1α inhibitor) significantly down-regulated the expressions of HIF-1α, N-cadherin, vimentin, MMP9, and VEGFA, which supported those of the in vivo findings. Furthermore, we found that DOKD inhibited CT26⁺ tumor cell growth by regulating inflammation, metastasis, and angiogenesis by activating the IL-17/TLR4/NF-κB p65 pathway and inhibiting the activation of the Src/HIF-1α/Erk1/2/Snail/N-cadherin/Vimentin/MMP9 and Erk1/2/HIF-1α/STAT3/VEGFA pathways. Our findings suggest that DOKD may suppress colon cancer progression and help prevent colon cancer cachexia.

Copper in cancer: From pathogenesis to therapy

One of the basic trace elements for the structure and metabolism of human tissue is copper. However, as a heavy metal, excessive intake or abnormal accumulation of copper in the body can cause inevitable damage to the organism because copper can result in direct injury to various cell components or disruption of the redox balance, eventually leading to cell death. Interestingly, a growing body of research reports that diverse cancers have raised serum and tumor copper levels. Tumor cells depend on more copper for their metabolism than normal cells, and a decrease in copper or copper overload can have a detrimental effect on tumor cells. New modalities for identifying and characterizing copper-dependent signals offer translational opportunities for tumor therapy, but their mechanisms remain unclear. Therefore, this article summarizes what we currently know about the correlation between copper and cancer and describes the characteristics of copper metabolism in tumor cells and the prospective application of copper-derived therapeutics.

HIF1α-dependent and independent pathways regulate the expression of PD-L1 in prostate cancer

PD-L1/PD-1 pathway is a major pathway exploited by human cancer types, which is a target for current immunotherapy. We investigated tumor microenvironmental factors involved in PD-L1 induction in prostate cancer (PC). We studied the expression of PD-L1 in a series of 66 PCs, in parallel with the expression of hypoxia- and acidity-related immunohistochemical markers (Hypoxia-inducible factor HIF1α, and lactate dehydrogenase LDHA) and tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte TIL density. Experiments with three PC cell lines, the 22Rv1, DU145, and PC3 were conducted focusing on the inducibility of PD-L1 by hypoxia, acidity, lymphocyte interactions, and radiation. In tissues, PD-L1 expression by cancer cells was directly related to PD-L1 expression by  TILs and macrophages (p < 0.05), and the overexpression of HIF1α and LDH5 (p < 0.05). TIL density was inversely related to ΗΙF1α (p = 0.02). Exposure of PC cell lines to hypoxia strongly induced PD-L1 and protein and mRNA levels, directly controlled by HIF1α function (p < 0.001). Irradiation with 20 Gy had no apparent effect on PD-L1 expression. Culturing PC cell lines with culture medium (CM) from PBMCs strongly induced PD-L1 at protein and mRNA levels, independently from HIF1α, which was also confirmed when cells were incubated with Interferon-γ (p < 0.001). It is concluded that the combination of anti-PD-L1/PD-1 immunotherapy with hypoxia/HIF-targeting may be important in the treatment of specific subgroups of PC patients.

Ginsenosides from Panax ginseng as Key Modulators of NF-κB Signaling Are Powerful Anti-Inflammatory and Anticancer Agents

Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathways progress inflammation and immune cell differentiation in the host immune response; however, the uncontrollable stimulation of NF-κB signaling is responsible for several inflammatory illnesses regardless of whether the conditions are acute or chronic. Innate immune cells, such as macrophages, microglia, and Kupffer cells, secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, via the activation of NF-κB subunits, which may lead to the damage of normal cells, including neurons, cardiomyocytes, hepatocytes, and alveolar cells. This results in the occurrence of neurodegenerative disorders, cardiac infarction, or liver injury, which may eventually lead to systemic inflammation or cancer. Recently, ginsenosides from Panax ginseng, a historical herbal plant used in East Asia, have been used as possible options for curing inflammatory diseases. All of the ginsenosides tested target different steps of the NF-κB signaling pathway, ameliorating the symptoms of severe illnesses. Moreover, ginsenosides inhibit the NF-κB-mediated activation of cancer metastasis and immune resistance, significantly attenuating the expression of MMPs, Snail, Slug, TWIST1, and PD-L1. This review introduces current studies on the therapeutic efficacy of ginsenosides in alleviating NF-κB responses and emphasizes the critical role of ginsenosides in severe inflammatory diseases as well as cancers.

Role of regulation of PD-1 and PD-L1 expression in sepsis

Long term immunosuppression is problematic during sepsis. The PD-1 and PD-L1 immune checkpoint proteins have potent immunosuppressive functions. Recent studies have revealed several features of PD-1 and PD-L1 and their roles in sepsis. Here, we summarize the overall findings of PD-1 and PD-L1 by first reviewing the biological features of PD-1 and PD-L1 and then discussing the mechanisms that control the expression of PD-1 and PD-L1. We then review the functions of PD-1 and PD-L1 in physiological settings and further discuss PD-1 and PD-L1 in sepsis, including their involvement in several sepsis-related processes and their potential therapeutic relevance in sepsis. In general, PD-1 and PD-L1 have critical roles in sepsis, indicating that their regulation may be a potential therapeutic target for sepsis.