The Mnks are novel components in the control of TNF alpha biosynthesis and phosphorylate and regulate hnRNP A1

Mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein enhances MASLD progression through the ERK/TNFα/NFκβ pathway

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (MAVS) is a critical regulator that activates the host's innate immunity against RNA viruses, and its signaling pathway has been linked to the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. However, the actions of MAVS on inflammatory pathways during the development of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) have been little studied.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

Liver proteomic analysis of mice with genetically manipulated hepatic p63, a transcription factor that induces liver steatosis, revealed MAVS as a target downstream of p63. MAVS was thus further evaluated in liver samples from patients and in animal models with MASLD. Genetic inhibition of MAVS was performed in hepatocyte cell lines, primary hepatocytes, spheroids, and mice. MAVS expression is induced in the liver of both animal models and people with MASLD as compared with those without liver disease. Using genetic knockdown of MAVS in adult mice ameliorates diet-induced MASLD. In vitro, silencing MAVS blunts oleic and palmitic acid-induced lipid content, while its overexpression increases the lipid load in hepatocytes. Inhibiting hepatic MAVS reduces circulating levels of the proinflammatory cytokine TNFα and the hepatic expression of both TNFα and NFκβ. Moreover, the inhibition of ERK abolished the activation of TNFα induced by MAVS. The posttranslational modification O -GlcNAcylation of MAVS is required to activate inflammation and to promote the high lipid content in hepatocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

MAVS is involved in the development of steatosis, and its inhibition in previously damaged hepatocytes can ameliorate MASLD.

Discovery of D25, a Potent and Selective MNK Inhibitor for Sepsis-Associated Acute Spleen Injury

Mitogen-activated protein kinase-interacting protein kinases (MNKs) and phosphorylate eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (p-eIF4E) play a critical role in regulating mRNA translation and protein synthesis associated with the development of cancer, metabolism, and inflammation. This study undertakes the modification of a 4-(3-(piperidin-4-yl)-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)pyridine structure, leading to the discovery of 4-(3-(piperidin-4-yl)-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridine (D25) as a potent and selective MNK inhibitor. D25 demonstrated inhibitory activity, with IC50 values of 120.6 nM for MNK1 and 134.7 nM for MNK2, showing exceptional selectivity. D25 inhibited the expression of pro-inflammation cytokines in RAW264.7 cells, such as inducible NO synthase, cyclooxygenase-2, and interleukin-6 (IL-6). In the lipopolysaccharide-induced sepsis mouse model, D25 significantly reduced p-eIF4E in spleen tissue and decreased the expression of tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin-1β, and IL-6, and it also reduced the production of reactive oxygen species, resulting in improved organ injury caused by inflammation. This suggests that D25 may provide a potential treatment for sepsis and sepsis-associated acute spleen injury.

MAGOH promotes gastric cancer progression via hnRNPA1 expression inhibition-mediated RONΔ160/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway activation

BACKGROUND

Gastric cancer (GC) is associated with high mortality and heterogeneity and poses a great threat to humans. Gene therapies for the receptor tyrosine kinase RON and its spliceosomes are attracting increasing amounts of attention due to their unique characteristics. However, little is known about the mechanism involved in the formation of the RON mRNA alternative spliceosome RONΔ160.

METHODS

Fourteen human GC tissue samples and six normal gastric tissue samples were subjected to label-free relative quantitative proteomics analysis, and MAGOH was identified as a candidate protein for subsequent studies. The expression of MAGOH in clinical specimens was verified by quantitative real-time PCR and western blotting. We then determined the biological function of MAGOH in GC through in vitro and in vivo experiments. RNA pulldown, RNA sequencing and RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) were subsequently conducted to uncover the underlying mechanism by which MAGOH regulated the formation of RONΔ160.

RESULTS

Proteomic analysis revealed that MAGOH, which is located at key nodes and participates in RNA processing and mRNA splicing, was upregulated in GC tissue and GC cell lines and was associated with poor prognosis. Functional analysis showed that MAGOH promoted the proliferation, migration and invasion of GC cells in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, MAGOH inhibited the expression of hnRNPA1 and reduced the binding of hnRNPA1 to RON mRNA, thereby promoting the formation of RONΔ160 to activate the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and consequently facilitating GC progression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study revealed that MAGOH could promote the formation of RONΔ160 and activate the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway through the inhibition of hnRNPA1 expression. We elucidate a novel mechanism and potential therapeutic targets for the growth and metastasis of GC based on the MAGOH-RONΔ160 axis, and these findings have important guiding significance and clinical value for the future development of effective therapeutic strategies for GC.

MNK, mTOR or eIF4E-selecting the best anti-tumor target for blocking translation initiation

Overexpression of eIF4E is common in patients with various solid tumors and hematologic cancers. As a potential anti-cancer target, eIF4E has attracted extensive attention from researchers. At the same time, mTOR kinases inhibitors and MNK kinases inhibitors, which are directly related to regulation of eIF4E, have been rapidly developed. To explore the optimal anti-cancer targets among MNK, mTOR, and eIF4E, this review provides a detailed classification and description of the anti-cancer activities of promising compounds. In addition, the structures and activities of some dual-target inhibitors are briefly described. By analyzing the different characteristics of the inhibitors, it can be concluded that MNK1/2 and eIF4E/eIF4G interaction inhibitors are superior to mTOR inhibitors. Simultaneous inhibition of MNK and eIF4E/eIF4G interaction may be the most promising anti-cancer method for targeting translation initiation.

Thermodynamic Coupling of the tandem RRM domains of hnRNP A1 underlie its Pleiotropic RNA Binding Functions

The functional properties of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) require allosteric regulation through inter-domain communication. Despite the foundational importance of allostery to biological regulation, almost no studies have been conducted to describe the biophysical nature by which inter-domain communication manifests in RBPs. Here, we show through high-pressure studies with hnRNP A1 that inter-domain communication is vital for the unique stability of its N- terminal domain containing a tandem of RNA Recognition Motifs (RRMs). Despite high sequence similarity and nearly identical tertiary structures, the two RRMs exhibit drastically different stability under pressure. RRM2 unfolds completely under high-pressure as an individual domain, but when appended to RRM1, it remains stable. Variants in which inter-domain communication is disrupted between the tandem RRMs show a large decrease in stability under pressure. Carrying these mutations over to the full-length protein for in vivo experiments revealed that the mutations affected the ability of the disordered C-terminus to engage in protein-protein interactions and more importantly, they also influenced the RNA binding capacity. Collectively, this work reveals that thermodynamic coupling between the tandem RRMs of hnRNP A1 accounts for its allosteric regulatory functions.

Medicinal chemistry approaches to target the MNK-eIF4E axis in cancer

Aberrant translation of proteins that promote cell proliferation is an essential factor that defines oncogenic processes and cancer. The process for ribosomal translation of proteins from mRNA requires an essential initiation step which is controlled by the protein eIF4E, which binds the RNA 5'-cap and forms the eIF4F complex that subsequently translates protein. Typically, eIF4E is activated by phosphorylation on Ser209 by MNK1 and MNK2 kinases. Substantial work has shown that eIF4E and MNK1/2 are dysregulated in many cancers and this axis has therefore become an active area of interest for developing new cancer therapeutics. This review summarizes and discusses recent work to develop small molecules that target different steps in the MNK-eIF4E axis as potential cancer therapeutics. The aim of this review is to cover the breadth of different molecular approaches being taken and the medicinal chemistry basis for their optimization and testing as new cancer therapeutics.

eIF4E phosphorylation recruits β-catenin to mRNA cap and promotes Wnt pathway translation in dentate gyrus LTP maintenance

The mRNA cap-binding protein, eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E), is crucial for translation and regulated by Ser209 phosphorylation. However, the biochemical and physiological role of eIF4E phosphorylation in translational control of long-term synaptic plasticity is unknown. We demonstrate that phospho-ablated Eif4e^S209A Knockin mice are profoundly impaired in dentate gyrus LTP maintenance in vivo, whereas basal perforant path-evoked transmission and LTP induction are intact. mRNA cap-pulldown assays show that phosphorylation is required for synaptic activity-induced removal of translational repressors from eIF4E, allowing initiation complex formation. Using ribosome profiling, we identified selective, phospho-eIF4E-dependent translation of the Wnt signaling pathway in LTP. Surprisingly, the canonical Wnt effector, β-catenin, was massively recruited to the eIF4E cap complex following LTP induction in wild-type, but not Eif4e^S209A, mice. These results demonstrate a critical role for activity-evoked eIF4E phosphorylation in dentate gyrus LTP maintenance, remodeling of the mRNA cap-binding complex, and specific translation of the Wnt pathway.

TNFR1 links TNF exocytosis to TNF production in allergen-activated RBL-2H3 cells

We previously reported that the maximal production of Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF or TNFα) in antigen-activated RBL-2H3 cells (a tumor analog of mucosal mast cells) requires Munc13-4, a regulator of exocytic fusion. In this study, we investigated the involvement of various fusion catalysts in TNF production. We observed a strong correlation between the total TNF level and TNF exocytosis in RBL-2H3 cells. RT-qPCR shows that TNFR1 (TNF receptor 1) is the sole TNFR expressed in these cells, and that its transcription is upregulated upon allergen-mediated activation. Importantly, the addition of soluble TNFR1 inhibits antigen-elicited TNF production in a dosage-dependent fashion. Likewise, TNF production is diminished in the presence of TACE (TNFα Converting Enzyme) inhibitor KP-457, which prevents the generation of soluble TNF (sTNF). Together, these findings indicate that sTNF and TNFR1 function as autocrine agent and receptor respectively at the mast cell surface to boost TNF proliferation during allergic inflammation.

An Aptamer against MNK1 for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Treatment

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Its late diagnosis and consequently poor survival make necessary the search for new therapeutic targets. The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-interacting kinase 1 (MNK1) is overexpressed in lung cancer and correlates with poor overall survival in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. The previously identified and optimized aptamer from our laboratory against MNK1, apMNKQ2, showed promising results as an antitumor drug in breast cancer in vitro and in vivo. Thus, the present study shows the antitumor potential of apMNKQ2 in another type of cancer where MNK1 plays a significant role, such as NSCLC. The effect of apMNKQ2 in lung cancer was studied with viability, toxicity, clonogenic, migration, invasion, and in vivo efficacy assays. Our results show that apMNKQ2 arrests the cell cycle and reduces viability, colony formation, migration, invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) processes in NSCLC cells. In addition, apMNKQ2 reduces tumor growth in an A549-cell line NSCLC xenograft model. In summary, targeting MNK1 with a specific aptamer may provide an innovative strategy for lung cancer treatment.

A small noncoding RNA links ribosome recovery and translation control to dedifferentiation during salamander limb regeneration

Building a blastema from the stump is a key step of salamander limb regeneration. Stump-derived cells temporarily suspend their identity as they contribute to the blastema by a process generally referred to as dedifferentiation. Here, we provide evidence for a mechanism that involves an active inhibition of protein synthesis during blastema formation and growth. Relieving this inhibition results in a higher number of cycling cells and enhances the pace of limb regeneration. By small RNA profiling and fate mapping of skeletal muscle progeny as a cellular model for dedifferentiation, we find that the downregulation of miR-10b-5p is critical for rebooting the translation machinery. miR-10b-5p targets ribosomal mRNAs, and its artificial upregulation causes decreased blastema cell proliferation, reduction in transcripts that encode ribosomal subunits, diminished nascent protein synthesis, and retardation of limb regeneration. Taken together, our data identify a link between miRNA regulation, ribosome biogenesis, and protein synthesis during newt limb regeneration.

A comprehensive understanding of hnRNP A1 role in cancer: new perspectives on binding with noncoding RNA

The heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1 (hnRNP A1) is the most abundant and ubiquitously expressed member of the heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins family (hnRNPs). hnRNP A1 is an RNA-binding protein associated with complexes active in diverse biological processes such as RNA splicing, transactivation of gene expression, and modulation of protein translation. It is overexpressed in several cancers, where it actively promotes the expression and translation of several key proteins and regulators associated with tumorigenesis and cancer progression. Interesting recent studies have focused on the RNA-binding property of hnRNP A1 and revealed previously under-explored functions of hnRNP A1 in the processing of miRNAs, and loading non-coding RNAs into exosomes. Here, we will report the recent advancements in our knowledge of the role of hnRNP A1 in the biological processes underlying cancer proliferation and growth, with a particular focus on metabolic reprogramming.

Using Imidazo[2,1-b][1,3,4]thiadiazol Skeleton to Design and Synthesize Novel MNK Inhibitors

Mitogen-activated protein kinase-interacting protein kinases (MNKs) phosphorylate eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) and regulate the processes of cell proliferation, cell cycle, and migration and invasion of cancer cells. Selectively inhibiting the activity of MNKs could be effective in treating cancers. In this study, we report a series of novel MNK inhibitors with an imidazo[2,1-b][1,3,4]thiadiazol scaffold, from which, compound 18 inhibited the phosphorylation of eIF4E in various cancer cell lines potently. Compound 18 was more potent against MNK2 than MNK1, and decreased the levels of cyclin-B1, cyclin-D3, and MMP-3 in A549 and MDA-MB-231 cells, impaired cell growth and colony formation, arrested the cell cycle in the G0/G1 phase, and inhibited cell migration and the secretion of TNF-α, MCP-1, and IL-8 from A549 cells. It represents a starting compound to design further inhibitors that selectively target MNKs and apply in other diseases.

MNK Proteins as Therapeutic Targets in Leukemia

In leukemia, resistance to therapy is a major concern for survival. MAPK-interacting kinases (MNKs) have been identified as important activators of oncogenic-related signaling and may be mediators of resistance. Recent studies in leukemia models, especially acute myeloid leukemia (AML), have focused on targeting MNKs together with other inhibitors or treating chemotherapy-resistant cells with MNK inhibitors. The preclinical demonstrations of the efficacy of MNK inhibitors in these combination formats would suggest a promising potential for use in clinical trials. Optimizing MNK inhibitors and testing in leukemia models is actively being pursued and may have important implications for the future. These studies are furthering the understanding of the mechanisms of MNKs in cancer which could translate to clinical studies.

MAPK-interacting kinase 1 regulates platelet production, activation, and thrombosis

The MAPK-interacting kinase (Mnk) family includes Mnk1 and Mnk2, which are phosphorylated and activated in response to extracellular stimuli. Mnk1 contributes to cellular responses by regulating messenger RNA (mRNA) translation, and mRNA translation influences platelet production and function. However, the role of Mnk1 in megakaryocytes and platelets has not previously been studied. The present study investigated Mnk1 in megakaryocytes and platelets using both pharmacological and genetic approaches. We demonstrate that Mnk1, but not Mnk2, is expressed and active in human and murine megakaryocytes and platelets. Stimulating human and murine megakaryocytes and platelets induced Mnk1 activation and phosphorylation of eIF4E, a downstream target of activated Mnk1 that triggers mRNA translation. Mnk1 inhibition or deletion significantly diminished protein synthesis in megakaryocytes as measured by polysome profiling and [35S]-methionine incorporation assays. Depletion of Mnk1 also reduced megakaryocyte ploidy and proplatelet forming megakaryocytes in vitro and resulted in thrombocytopenia. However, Mnk1 deletion did not affect the half-life of circulating platelets. Platelets from Mnk1 knockout mice exhibited reduced platelet aggregation, α granule secretion, and integrin αIIbβ3 activation. Ribosomal footprint sequencing indicated that Mnk1 regulates the translation of Pla2g4a mRNA (which encodes cPLA2) in megakaryocytes. Consistent with this, Mnk1 ablation reduced cPLA2 activity and thromboxane generation in platelets and megakaryocytes. In vivo, Mnk1 ablation protected against platelet-dependent thromboembolism. These results provide previously unrecognized evidence that Mnk1 regulates mRNA translation and cellular activation in platelets and megakaryocytes, endomitosis and thrombopoiesis, and thrombosis.

Exosomes Released by Influenza-Virus-Infected Cells Carry Factors Capable of Suppressing Immune Defense Genes in Naïve Cells

Background: Exosomes are involved in intercellular communication and can transfer regulatory molecules between cells. Consequently, they can participate in host immune response regulation. For the influenza A virus (IAV), there is very limited information on changes in exosome composition during cell infection shedding light on the potential role of these extracellular membrane vesicles. Thus, the aim of our work was to study changes in exosomal composition following IAV infection of cells, as well as to evaluate their effect on uninfected cells. Methods: To characterize changes in the composition of cellular miRNAs and mRNAs of exosomes during IAV infection of A549 cells, NGS was used, as well as PCR to identify viral genes. Naïve A549 cells were stimulated with infected-cell-secreted exosomes for studying their activity. Changes in the expression of genes associated with the cell's immune response were shown using PCR. The effect of exosomes on IAV replication was shown in MDCK cells using In-Cell ELISA and PCR of the supernatants. Results: A change in the miRNA composition (miR-21-3p, miR-26a-5p, miR-23a-5p, miR-548c-5p) and mRNA composition (RPL13A, MKNK2, TRIB3) of exosomes under the influence of the IAV was shown. Many RNAs were involved in the regulation of the immune response of the cell, mainly by suppressing it. After exosome stimulation of naïve cells, a significant decrease in the expression of genes involved in the immune response was shown (RIG1, IFIT1, MDA5, COX2, NFκB, AnxA1, PKR, IL6, IL18). When infecting MDCK cells, a significant decrease in nucleoprotein levels was observed in the presence of exosomes secreted by mock-infected cells. Viral levels in supernatants also decreased. Conclusions: Exosomes secreted by IAV-infected cells could reduce the immune response of neighboring intact cells, leading to more effective IAV replication. This may be associated both with regulatory functions of cellular miRNAs and mRNAs carried by exosomes, or with the presence of viral mRNAs encoding proteins with an immunosuppressive function.

BRAF-V600E utilizes posttranscriptional mechanisms to amplify LPS-induced TNFα production in dendritic cells in a mouse model of Langerhans cell histiocytosis

Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) is an inflammatory disease characterized by abnormal dendritic cells (DCs) with hyperactive ERK signaling, called "LCH cells." Since DCs rely on ERK signaling to produce inflammatory molecules in response to pathogenic cues, we hypothesized that hyperactive ERK enhances DCs inflammatory responses. We specifically investigated TLR4-induced TNFα production in LCH cells by utilizing the BRAF-V600Efl/+ :CD11c-Cre mouse model of LCH, which hyperactivates ERK in DCs. We measured LPS-induced TNFα production both in vivo and in vitro using splenic CD11c+ cells and bone marrow-derived DCs with or without pharmacologic BRAFV600E inhibition. We observed a reversible increase in secreted TNFα and a partially reversible increase in TNFα protein per cell, despite a decrease in TLR4 signaling and Tnfa transcripts compared with controls. We examined ERK-driven, posttranscriptional mechanisms that contribute to TNFα production and secretion using biochemical and cellular assays. We identified a reversible increase in TACE activation, the enzyme required for TNFα secretion, and most strikingly, an increase in protein translation, including TNFα. Defining the translatome through polysome-bound RNA sequencing revealed up-regulated translation of the LPS-response program. These data suggest hyperactive ERK signaling utilizes multiple posttranscriptional mechanisms to amplify inflammatory responses in DCs, advancing our understanding of LCH and basic DC biology.

AMPK-related protein kinase ARK5 regulates subcellular localization of RNA-binding protein hnRNP A1 during hypertonic stress

The heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein hnRNP A1 is a nucleocytoplasmic-shuttling RNA-binding protein that plays an important role in nucleic acid metabolism and gene expression regulation. The function of hnRNP A1 is determined in part by its specific location within the cell. Although some work has been done to elucidate the signaling pathways that regulate the cellular localization of hnRNP A1, the precise mechanism(s), including physiological and pathophysiological conditions that alter hnRNP A1 localization, are not known. We previously conducted an unbiased RNAi-based kinome-wide screen to identify kinases that regulate hnRNP A1 localization during hypertonic stress. One of the hits from this screen is AMPK-related protein kinase 5 (ARK5). Here, we validate ARK5 as the kinase responsible for controlling hnRNP A1 subcellular localization in response to hypertonic stress. We find using immunoprecipitation and in vitro kinase assay methods that ARK5 directly interacts with and phosphorylates hnRNP A1 on serine residues within the F-peptide region. We further show that the M9 motif of hnRNP A1 is essential for the ARK5-hnRNP A1 interaction and subsequent phosphorylation. In addition, the silencing of ARK5 increases the expression of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-xL and consequently delays caspase activation during hypertonic stress. Our results indicate that ARK5 phosphorylates hnRNP A1 and regulates its subcellular localization during hypertonic stress.

Oncology Drug Repurposing for Sepsis Treatment

Sepsis involves life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection. Despite three decades of efforts and multiple clinical trials, no treatment, except antibiotics and supportive care, has been approved for this devastating syndrome. Simultaneously, numerous preclinical studies have shown the effectiveness of oncology-indicated drugs in ameliorating sepsis. Here we focus on cataloging these efforts with both oncology-approved and under-development drugs that have been repositioned to treat bacterial-induced sepsis models. In this context, we also envision the exciting prospect for further standard and oncology drug combination testing that could ultimately improve clinical outcomes in sepsis.

Update on the Development of MNK Inhibitors as Therapeutic Agents

Mitogen-activated protein kinase-interacting kinases 1 and 2 (MNK1/2) represent a central class of enzymes that are activated by extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) or p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases. MNK1 and MNK2 coordinate cellular signaling, control production of inflammatory chemokines, and regulate cell proliferation and survival. MNK1/2 are referred to as serine/threonine kinases as they phosphorylate serine or threonine residues on their substrates. Upon activation, MNK1/2 phosphorylate eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) at Ser209, which in turn initiates ribosome assembly and protein translation. Deleterious overexpression of MNK1/2 and/or eIF4E have been reported in several diseases including cancers, neurological disorders, autism, and inflammation. Recently, there have been intense efforts toward the development of potent and selective inhibitors of MNK1/2 in both academia and industry. Herein, we review the current understanding of the structural and biological aspects of MNK1/2 and provide an update of pharmacological inhibitors of MNK1/2 including candidates in clinical trials.

hnRNP A/B Proteins: An Encyclopedic Assessment of Their Roles in Homeostasis and Disease

The hnRNP A/B family of proteins is canonically central to cellular RNA metabolism, but due to their highly conserved nature, the functional differences between hnRNP A1, A2/B1, A0, and A3 are often overlooked. In this review, we explore and identify the shared and disparate homeostatic and disease-related functions of the hnRNP A/B family proteins, highlighting areas where the proteins have not been clearly differentiated. Herein, we provide a comprehensive assembly of the literature on these proteins. We find that there are critical gaps in our grasp of A/B proteins' alternative splice isoforms, structures, regulation, and tissue and cell-type-specific functions, and propose that future mechanistic research integrating multiple A/B proteins will significantly improve our understanding of how this essential protein family contributes to cell homeostasis and disease.

Inhibitory effects of Tomivosertib in acute myeloid leukemia

The MAPK-interacting kinases 1 and 2 (MNK1/2) have generated increasing interest as therapeutic targets for acute myeloid leukemia (AML). We evaluated the therapeutic potential of the highly-selective MNK1/2 inhibitor Tomivosertib on AML cells. Tomivosertib was highly effective at blocking eIF4E phosphorylation on serine 209 in AML cells. Such inhibitory effects correlated with dose-dependent suppression of cellular viability and leukemic progenitor colony formation. Moreover, combination of Tomivosertib and Venetoclax resulted in synergistic anti-leukemic responses in AML cell lines. Mass spectrometry studies identified novel putative MNK1/2 interactors, while in parallel studies we demonstrated that MNK2 - RAPTOR - mTOR complexes are not disrupted by Tomivosertib. Overall, these findings demonstrate that Tomivosertib exhibits potent anti-leukemic properties on AML cells and support the development of clinical translational efforts involving the use of this drug, alone or in combination with other therapies for the treatment of AML.

MNK Inhibition Sensitizes KRAS-Mutant Colorectal Cancer to mTORC1 Inhibition by Reducing eIF4E Phosphorylation and c-MYC Expression

KRAS-mutant colorectal cancers are resistant to therapeutics, presenting a significant problem for ∼40% of cases. Rapalogs, which inhibit mTORC1 and thus protein synthesis, are significantly less potent in KRAS-mutant colorectal cancer. Using Kras-mutant mouse models and mouse- and patient-derived organoids, we demonstrate that KRAS with G12D mutation fundamentally rewires translation to increase both bulk and mRNA-specific translation initiation. This occurs via the MNK/eIF4E pathway culminating in sustained expression of c-MYC. By genetic and small-molecule targeting of this pathway, we acutely sensitize KRASG12D models to rapamycin via suppression of c-MYC. We show that 45% of colorectal cancers have high signaling through mTORC1 and the MNKs, with this signature correlating with a 3.5-year shorter cancer-specific survival in a subset of patients. This work provides a c-MYC-dependent cotargeting strategy with remarkable potency in multiple Kras-mutant mouse models and metastatic human organoids and identifies a patient population that may benefit from its clinical application. SIGNIFICANCE: KRAS mutation and elevated c-MYC are widespread in many tumors but remain predominantly untargetable. We find that mutant KRAS modulates translation, culminating in increased expression of c-MYC. We describe an effective strategy targeting mTORC1 and MNK in KRAS-mutant mouse and human models, pathways that are also commonly co-upregulated in colorectal cancer.This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 995.

A Comprehensive Analysis of the Role of hnRNP A1 Function and Dysfunction in the Pathogenesis of Neurodegenerative Disease

Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1 (hnRNP A1) is a member of the hnRNP family of conserved proteins that is involved in RNA transcription, pre-mRNA splicing, mRNA transport, protein translation, microRNA processing, telomere maintenance and the regulation of transcription factor activity. HnRNP A1 is ubiquitously, yet differentially, expressed in many cell types, and due to post-translational modifications, can vary in its molecular function. While a plethora of knowledge is known about the function and dysfunction of hnRNP A1 in diseases other than neurodegenerative disease (e.g., cancer), numerous studies in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal lobar degeneration, multiple sclerosis, spinal muscular atrophy, Alzheimer’s disease, and Huntington’s disease have found that the dysregulation of hnRNP A1 may contribute to disease pathogenesis. How hnRNP A1 mechanistically contributes to these diseases, and whether mutations and/or altered post-translational modifications contribute to pathogenesis, however, is currently under investigation. The aim of this comprehensive review is to first describe the background of hnRNP A1, including its structure, biological functions in RNA metabolism and the post-translational modifications known to modify its function. With this knowledge, the review then describes the influence of hnRNP A1 in neurodegenerative disease, and how its dysfunction may contribute the pathogenesis.

Progress in developing MNK inhibitors

The MNKs (mitogen-activated protein kinase-interacting protein kinases) phosphorylate eIF4E (eukaryotic initiation factor 4 E) at serine 209; eIF4E plays an important role in the translation of cytoplasmic mRNAs, all of which possess a 5' 'cap' structure to which eIF4E binds. Elevated levels of eIF4E, p-eIF4E and/or the MNK protein kinases have been found in many types of cancer, including solid tumors and leukemia. MNKs also play a role in metabolic disease. Regulation of the activities of MNKs (MNK1 and MNK2), control the phosphorylation of eIF4E, which in turn has a close relationship with the processes of tumor development, cell migration and invasion, and energy metabolism. MNK knock-out mice display no adverse effects on normal cells or phenotypes suggesting that MNK may be a potentially safe targets for the treatment of various cancers. Several MNK inhibitors or 'degraders' have been identified. Initially, some of the inhibitors were developed from natural products or based on other protein kinase inhibitors which inhibit multiple kinases. Subsequently, more potent and selective inhibitors for MNK1/2 have been designed and synthesized. Currently, three inhibitors (BAY1143269, eFT508 and ETC-206) are in various stages of clinical trials for the treatment of solid cancers or leukemia, either alone or combined with inhibitors of other protein kinase. In this review, we summarize the diverse MNK inhibitors that have been reported in patents and other literature, including those with activities in vitro and/or in vivo.

Mnk inhibitors: a patent review

The alteration of mRNA translation has a crucial role in defining the changes in cellular proteome. The phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 4E by mitogen-activated protein kinase-interacting kinases (Mnks) leads to the release and translation of mRNAs of specific oncogenic proteins. In recent years, the efforts made by the pharmaceutical industry to develop novel chemical skeletons to create potent and selective Mnk inhibitors have been fruitful. The pyridone-aminal scaffold has been utilized to generate several series of Mnk inhibitors presented in multiple patent applications and research articles. Tomivosertib (eFT508) is one of the molecules with such scaffold. It is one of the first two Mnk inhibitors that entered clinical trials, and has displayed momentous activity against several solid and hematological cancers. The present compilation provides a succinct review of the current state of development of pyridone-aminal-derived Mnk inhibitors through the analysis of relevant patent applications filed in the last 5 years.

MNK1 and MNK2 enforce expression of E2F1, FOXM1, and WEE1 to drive soft tissue sarcoma

Soft tissue sarcoma (STS) is a heterogeneous disease that arises from connective tissues. Clinical outcome of patients with advanced tumors especially de-differentiated liposarcoma and uterine leiomyosarcoma remains unsatisfactory, despite intensive treatment regimens including maximal surgical resection, radiation, and chemotherapy. MAP kinase-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 and 2 (MNK1/2) have been shown to contribute to oncogenic translation via phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E). However, little is known about the role of MNK1/2 and their downstream targets in STS. In this study, we show that depletion of either MNK1 or MNK2 suppresses cell viability, anchorage-independent growth, and tumorigenicity of STS cells. We also identify a compelling antiproliferative efficacy of a novel, selective MNK inhibitor ETC-168. Cellular responsiveness of STS cells to ETC-168 correlates positively with that of phosphorylated ribosomal protein S6 (RPS6). Mirroring MNK1/2 silencing, ETC-168 treatment strongly blocks eIF4E phosphorylation and represses expression of sarcoma-driving onco-proteins including E2F1, FOXM1, and WEE1. Moreover, combination of ETC-168 and MCL1 inhibitor S63845 exerts a synergistic antiproliferative activity against STS cells. In summary, our study reveals crucial roles of MNK1/2 and their downstream targets in STS tumorigenesis. Our data encourage further clinical translation of MNK inhibitors for STS treatment.

Identification of hnRNP-A1 as a pharmacodynamic biomarker of type I PRMT inhibition in blood and tumor tissues

Arginine methylation has been recognized as a post-translational modification with pleiotropic effects that span from regulation of transcription to metabolic processes that contribute to aberrant cell proliferation and tumorigenesis. This has brought significant attention to the development of therapeutic strategies aimed at blocking the activity of protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs), which catalyze the formation of various methylated arginine products on a wide variety of cellular substrates. GSK3368715 is a small molecule inhibitor of type I PRMTs currently in clinical development. Here, we evaluate the effect of type I PRMT inhibition on arginine methylation in normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and utilize a broad proteomic approach to identify type I PRMT substrates. This work identified heterogenous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1 (hnRNP-A1) as a pharmacodynamic biomarker of type I PRMT inhibition. Utilizing targeted mass spectrometry (MS), methods were developed to detect and quantitate changes in methylation of specific arginine residues on hnRNP-A1. This resulted in the development and validation of novel MS and immune assays useful for the assessment of GSK3368715 induced pharmacodynamic effects in blood and tumors that can be applied to GSK3368715 clinical trials.

Endogenous antisense RNA curbs CD39 expression in Crohn's disease

CD39 is an ectonucleotidase that initiates conversion of extracellular nucleotides into immunosuppressive adenosine. CD39 is expressed by regulatory T (Treg)-cells, where it mediates immunosuppression, and by a subset of T-helper (Th) 17-cells, where it limits pathogenicity. CD39 is regulated via single-nucleotide-polymorphisms and upon activation of aryl-hydrocarbon-receptor and oxygen-mediated pathways. Here we report a mechanism of CD39 regulation that relies on the presence of an endogenous antisense RNA, transcribed from the 3′-end of the human CD39/ENTPD1 gene. CD39-specific antisense is increased in Treg and Th17-cells of Crohn’s disease patients over controls. It largely localizes in the cell nucleus and regulates CD39 by interacting with nucleolin and heterogeneous-nuclear-ribonucleoprotein-A1. Antisense silencing results in CD39 upregulation in vitro and amelioration of disease activity in a trinitro-benzene-sulfonic-acid model of colitis in humanized NOD/scid/gamma mice. Inhibition/blockade of antisense might represent a therapeutic strategy to restore CD39 along with immunohomeostasis in Crohn’s disease.

CD39 is an ectonucleotidase associated with immunoregulatory function. Here authors show regulation of CD39 expression by an endogenous antisense RNA moiety transcribed from the 3‘ end of CD39/ENTPD1 which when itself is silenced results in amelioration of pathology in an animal model of colitis.

Infection by the Protozoan Parasite Toxoplasma gondii Inhibits Host MNK1/2-eIF4E Axis to Promote Its Survival

The obligate intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii reprograms host gene expression through multiple mechanisms that promote infection, including the up-regulation of mTOR-dependent host mRNA translation. In addition to the mTOR-4E-BP1/2 axis, MAPK-interacting kinases 1 and 2 (MNK1/2) control the activity of the mRNA cap-binding protein eIF4E. Herein, we show that T. gondii inhibits the phosphorylation of MNK1/2 and their downstream target eIF4E in murine and human macrophages. Exposure to soluble T. gondii antigens (STAg) failed to fully recapitulate this phenotype indicating the requirement of live infection. Treatment with okadaic acid, a potent phosphatase inhibitor, restored phosphorylation of MNK1/2 and eIF4E regardless of infection. T. gondii replication was higher in macrophages isolated from mice mutated at the residue where eIF4E is phosphorylated (eIF4E S209A knock-in) than in wild-type (WT) control cells despite no differences in infection rates. Similarly, parasitemia in the mesenteric lymph nodes and spleen, as well as brain cyst burden were significantly augmented in infected eIF4E S209A knock-in mice compared to their WT counterparts. Of note, mutant mice were more susceptible to acute toxoplasmosis and displayed exacerbated levels of IFNγ. In all, these data suggest that the MNK1/2-eIF4E axis is required to control T. gondii infection and that its inactivation represents a strategy exploited by the parasite to promote its survival.

Controlling TIME: How MNK Kinases Function to Shape Tumor Immunity

A number of studies have clearly established the oncogenic role for MAPK-interacting protein kinases (MNK) in human malignancies. Modulation of MNK activity affects translation of mRNAs involved in cancer development, progression, and resistance to therapies. As a result, there are ongoing efforts to develop and evaluate MNK inhibitors for cancer treatment. However, it is important to recognize that MNK activity also plays an important role in regulating the innate and adaptive immune systems. A better understanding of the role of MNK kinases and MNK-mediated signals in regulating the immune system could help mitigate undesired side effects while maximizing therapeutic efficacy of MNK inhibitors. Here, we provide a systematic review on the function of MNK kinases and their substrates in immune cells.

The MNK1/2-eIF4E Axis as a Potential Therapeutic Target in Melanoma

: Melanoma is a type of skin cancer that originates in the pigment-producing cells of the body known as melanocytes. Most genetic aberrations in melanoma result in hyperactivation of the mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) pathways. We and others have shown that a specific protein synthesis pathway known as the MNK1/2-eIF4E axis is often dysregulated in cancer. The MNK1/2-eIF4E axis is a point of convergence for these signaling pathways that are commonly constitutively activated in melanoma. In this review we consider the functional implications of aberrant mRNA translation in melanoma and other malignancies. Moreover, we discuss the consequences of inhibiting the MNK1/2-eIF4E axis on the tumor and tumor-associated cells, and we provide important avenues for the utilization of this treatment modality in combination with other targeted and immune-based therapies. The past decade has seen the increased development of selective inhibitors to block the action of the MNK1/2-eIF4E pathway, which are predicted to be an effective therapy regardless of the melanoma subtype (e.g., cutaneous, acral, and mucosal).

Deeping in the Role of the MAP-Kinases Interacting Kinases (MNKs) in Cancer

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-interacting kinases (MNKs) are involved in oncogenic transformation and can promote metastasis and tumor progression. In human cells, there are four MNKs isoforms (MNK1a/b and MNK2a/b), derived from two genes by alternative splicing. These kinases play an important role controlling the expression of specific proteins involved in cell cycle, cell survival and cell motility via eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) regulation, but also through other substrates such as heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1, polypyrimidine tract-binding protein-associated splicing factor and Sprouty 2. In this review, we provide an overview of the role of MNK in human cancers, describing the studies conducted to date to elucidate the mechanism involved in the action of MNKs, as well as the development of MNK inhibitors in different hematological cancers and solid tumors.

Quercetin Enhances the Anti-Tumor Effects of BET Inhibitors by Suppressing hnRNPA1

Bromodomain and extraterminal domain (BET) proteins, which are important epigenetic readers, are often dysregulated in cancer. While a number of BET inhibitors are currently in early phase clinical trials, BET inhibitors show limited single-agent activity. The purpose of this study is to determine if Quercetin, a naturally occurring polyphenolic flavonoid often found abundant in fruits and vegetables, can enhance the anti-tumor effects of BET inhibitors. The efficacy of the combination was evaluated in vitro and in a xenograft model of pancreatic cancer. Co-treatment with BET inhibitors and Quercetin promoted apoptosis, decreased sphere-forming ability by cancer cells, and decreased cell proliferation. We found that hnRNPA1, a nuclear protein known to control mRNA export and mRNA translation of anti-apoptotic proteins, mediates some anti-tumor effects by Quercetin. Additionally, we show that combining BET inhibitors with Quercetin or hnRNPA1 knockdown decreased the anti-apoptotic protein Survivin. Significantly, Quercetin decreased hnRNPA1 in vivo and enhanced the effects of BET inhibitors at suppressing tumor growth. Together, these results demonstrate that Quercetin enhances the efficacy of BET inhibitors by suppressing hnRNPA1, and identify combination therapy with Quercetin and BET inhibitors for the treatment of cancer patients.

Phosphorylation and Signal Transduction Pathways in Translational Control

Protein synthesis, including the translation of specific messenger RNAs (mRNAs), is regulated by extracellular stimuli such as hormones and by the levels of certain nutrients within cells. This control involves several well-understood signaling pathways and protein kinases, which regulate the phosphorylation of proteins that control the translational machinery. These pathways include the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), its downstream effectors, and the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase (extracellular ligand-regulated kinase [ERK]) signaling pathway. This review describes the regulatory mechanisms that control translation initiation and elongation factors, in particular the effects of phosphorylation on their interactions or activities. It also discusses current knowledge concerning the impact of these control systems on the translation of specific mRNAs or subsets of mRNAs, both in physiological processes and in diseases such as cancer.

Translational repression of Ccl5 and Cxcl10 by 4E-BP1 and 4E-BP2 restrains the ability of mouse macrophages to induce migration of activated T cells

Signaling through the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) is a major regulatory node of pro-inflammatory mediator production by macrophages (MΦs). However, it is still unclear whether such regulation relies on selective translational control by two of the main mTORC1 effectors, the eIF4E-binding proteins 1 and 2 (4E-BP1/2). By comparing translational efficiencies of immune-related transcripts of MΦs from WT and 4E-BP1/2 double-KO (DKO) mice, we found that translation of mRNAs encoding the pro-inflammatory chemokines CCL5 and CXCL10 is controlled by 4E-BP1/2. Macrophages deficient in 4E-BP1/2 produced higher levels of CCL5 and CXCL10 upon LPS stimulation, which enhanced chemoattraction of activated T cells. Consistent with this, treatment of WT cells with mTORC1 inhibitors promoted the activation of 4E-BP1/2 and reduced CCL5 and CXCL10 secretion. In contrast, the phosphorylation status of eIF4E did not affect the synthesis of these chemokines since MΦs derived from mice harboring a non-phosphorylatable form of the protein produced similar levels of CCL5 and CXCL10 to WT counterparts. These data provide evidence that the mTORC1-4E-BP1/2 axis contributes to regulate the production of chemoattractants by MΦs by limiting translation efficiency of Ccl5 and Cxcl10 mRNAs, and suggest that 4E-BP1/2 act as immunological safeguards by fine-tuning inflammatory responses in MΦs.

Targeting the immunity protein kinases for immuno-oncology

With the rise of immuno-oncology, small-molecule modulators targeting immune system and inflammatory processes are becoming a research hotspot. This work mainly focuses on key kinases acting as central nodes in immune signaling pathways. Although over thirty small-molecule kinase inhibitors have been approved by FDA for the treatment of various cancers, only a few are associated with immuno-oncology. With the going deep of the research work, more and more immunity protein kinase inhibitors are approved for clinical trials to treat solid tumors and hematologic malignancies by FDA, which remain good prospects. Meanwhile, in-depth understanding of biological function of immunity protein kinases in immune system is pushing the field forward. This article focuses on the development of safe and effective small-molecule immunity protein kinase inhibitors and further work needs to keep the promises of these inhibitors for patients' welfare.

Tributyltin stimulates synthesis of interferon gamma and tumor necrosis factor alpha in human lymphocytes

Tributyltin (TBT) is found in human blood and other tissues and thus is of considerable concern as to its effects on human health. Previous studies have demonstrated that TBT has detrimental effects on immune function. Recently, we found that exposures to TBT caused increased secretion of two important proinflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and interferon gamma (IFNγ). Elevation of either of these cytokines has the potential to cause chronic inflammation, which is an important factor in a number of diseases including cancer. The current study examined the mechanism of TBT-induced elevations of TNFα and IFNγ secretion and found that the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway was essential to the ability of TBT to stimulate secretion. Additionally, this study demonstrated that increased secretion of these cytokines was due to TBT-induced increases in their overall synthesis, rather than simply being due to an increase in the release of already formed proteins. The TBT-induced increases in synthesis were evident within 6 hours of exposure. The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway is also necessary for the TBT-induced increases in both TNFα and IFNγ synthesis. The role of increased transcription of TNFα and IFNγ mRNA in response to TBT exposures as a possible explanation for the increased synthesis of these cytokines was also examined. It was found that increased mRNA levels did not appear to explain fully the increases in either TNFα or IFNγ synthesis. Thus, TBT is able to increase secretion of two important proinflammatory cytokines by increasing their synthesis.

A Blood Pact: the Significance and Implications of eIF4E on Lymphocytic Leukemia

Elevated levels of eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) are implicated in neoplasia, with cumulative evidence pointing to its role in the etiopathogenesis of hematological diseases. As a node of convergence for several oncogenic signaling pathways, eIF4E has attracted a great deal of interest from biologists and clinicians whose efforts have been targeting this translation factor and its biological circuits in the battle against leukemia. The role of eIF4E in myeloid leukemia has been ascertained and drugs targeting its functions have found their place in clinical trials. Little is known, however, about the pertinence of eIF4E to the biology of lymphocytic leukemia and a paucity of literature is available in this regard that prospectively evaluates the topic to guide practice in hematological cancer. A comprehensive analysis on the significance of eIF4E translation factor in the clinical picture of leukemia arises, therefore, as a compelling need. This review presents aspects of eIF4E involvement in the realm of the lymphoblastic leukemia status; translational control of immunological function via eIF4E and the state-of-the-art in drugs will also be outlined.

Optimization of Selective Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Interacting Kinases 1 and 2 Inhibitors for the Treatment of Blast Crisis Leukemia

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is a myeloproliferative disease caused by bcr-abl1, a constitutively active tyrosine kinase fusion gene responsible for an abnormal proliferation of leukemic stem cells (LSCs). Inhibition of BCR-ABL1 kinase activity offers long-term relief to CML patients. However, for a proportion of them, BCR-ABL1 inhibition will become ineffective at treating the disease, and CML will progress to blast crisis (BC) CML with poor prognosis. BC-CML is often associated with excessive phosphorylated eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E), which renders LSCs capable of proliferating via self-renewal, oblivious to BCR-ABL1 inhibition. In vivo, eIF4E is exclusively phosphorylated on Ser209 by MNK1/2. Consequently, a selective inhibitor of MNK1/2 should reduce the level of phosphorylated eIF4E and re-sensitize LSCs to BCR-ABL1 inhibition, thus hindering the proliferation of BC LSCs. We report herein the structure-activity relationships and pharmacokinetic properties of a selective MNK1/2 inhibitor clinical candidate, ETC-206, which in combination with dasatinib prevents BC-CML LSC self-renewal in vitro and enhances dasatinib antitumor activity in vivo.

Oncogenic MNK signalling regulates the metastasis suppressor NDRG1

The protein N-myc down-regulated gene 1 (NDRG1) represses tumour metastasis. It is phosphorylated at several sites by serum and glucocorticoid-regulated kinase 1 (SGK1). Here we show that NDRG1 is also regulated by the oncogenic MAP kinase-interacting kinase (MNK) pathway, a target for cancer therapy.Inhibiting MNKs increases the expression of NDRG1 protein and mRNA in breast cancer cells. MNK inhibition also decreases the phosphorylation of NDRG1. Phosphorylation of NDRG1 is reduced in cells lacking MNK1, but not MNK2-knockout cells, indicating that NDRG1 phosphorylation is a specific target for MNK1. However, MNK1 cannot directly phosphorylate NDRG1 in vitro, indicating that additional signalling connections are involved. Taken together, our data indicate that MNK signaling regulates NDRG1 at transcriptional and post-translational levels.We show that SGK1 phosphorylates MNK1 at a conserved site, which represses its activity. NDRG1, SGK1 and the MNKs are implicated in cell migration and metastasis. As expected, knocking-down NDRG1 promoted cell migration. However, whereas MNK inhibition impairs these processes irrespective of NDRG1 levels, SGK inhibition only did so in NDRG1-depleted cells. Thus, MNKs and SGK affect migration/invasion through distinct mechanisms.Our data reveal several novel connections between signalling pathways important for tumour biology.

Structure-based Design of Pyridone-Aminal eFT508 Targeting Dysregulated Translation by Selective Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase Interacting Kinases 1 and 2 (MNK1/2) Inhibition

Dysregulated translation of mRNA plays a major role in tumorigenesis. Mitogen-activated protein kinase interacting kinases (MNK)1/2 are key regulators of mRNA translation integrating signals from oncogenic and immune signaling pathways through phosphorylation of eIF4E and other mRNA binding proteins. Modulation of these key effector proteins regulates mRNA, which controls tumor/stromal cell signaling. Compound 23 (eFT508), an exquisitely selective, potent dual MNK1/2 inhibitor, was designed to assess the potential for control of oncogene signaling at the level of mRNA translation. The crystal structure-guided design leverages stereoelectronic interactions unique to MNK culminating in a novel pyridone-aminal structure described for the first time in the kinase literature. Compound 23 has potent in vivo antitumor activity in models of diffuse large cell B-cell lymphoma and solid tumors, suggesting that controlling dysregulated translation has real therapeutic potential. Compound 23 is currently being evaluated in Phase 2 clinical trials in solid tumors and lymphoma. Compound 23 is the first highly selective dual MNK inhibitor targeting dysregulated translation being assessed clinically.

Translational control of aberrant stress responses as a hallmark of cancer

Altered mRNA translational control is emerging as a critical factor in cancer development and progression. Targeting specific elements of the translational machinery, such as mTORC1 or eIF4E, is emerging as a new strategy for innovative cancer therapy. While translation of most mRNAs takes place through cap-dependent mechanisms, a sub-population of cellular mRNA species, particularly stress-inducible mRNAs with highly structured 5'-UTR regions, are primarily translated through cap-independent mechanisms. Intriguingly, many of these mRNAs encode proteins that are involved in tumour cell adaptation to microenvironmental stress, and thus linked to aggressive behaviour including tumour invasion and metastasis. This necessitates a rigorous search for links between microenvironmental stress and aggressive tumour phenotypes. Under stress, cells block global protein synthesis to preserve energy while maintaining selective synthesis of proteins that support cell survival. One highly conserved mechanism to regulate protein synthesis under cell stress is to sequester mRNAs into cytosolic aggregates called stress granules (SGs), where their translation is silenced. SGs confer survival advantages and chemotherapeutic resistance to tumour cells under stress. Recently, it has been shown that genetically blocking SG formation dramatically reduces tumour invasive and metastatic capacity in vivo. Therefore, targeting SG formation might represent a potential treatment strategy to block cancer metastasis. Here, we present the critical link between selective mRNA translation, stress adaptation, SGs, and tumour progression. Further, we also explain how deciphering mechanisms of selective mRNA translation occurs under cell stress holds great promise for the identification of new targets in the treatment of cancer. Copyright © 2018 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Circulating soluble RAGE isoforms are attenuated in obese, impaired-glucose-tolerant individuals and are associated with the development of type 2 diabetes

The soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products (sRAGE) may be protective against inflammation associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2DM). The aim of this study was to determine the distribution of sRAGE isoforms and whether sRAGE isoforms are associated with risk of T2DM development in subjects spanning the glucose tolerance continuum. In this retrospective analysis, circulating total sRAGE and endogenous secretory RAGE (esRAGE) were quantified via ELISA, and cleaved RAGE (cRAGE) was calculated in 274 individuals stratified by glucose tolerance status (GTS) and obesity. Group differences were probed by ANOVA, and multivariate ordinal logistic regression was used to test the association between sRAGE isoform concentrations and the proportional odds of developing diabetes, vs. normal glucose tolerance (NGT) or impaired glucose tolerance (IGT). When stratified by GTS, total sRAGE, cRAGE, and esRAGE were all lower with IGT and T2DM, while the ratio of cRAGE to esRAGE (cRAGE:esRAGE) was only lower (P < 0.01) with T2DM compared with NGT. When stratified by GTS and obesity, cRAGE:esRAGE was higher with obesity and lower with IGT (P < 0.0001) compared with lean, NGT. In ordinal logistic regression models, greater total sRAGE (odds ratio, 0.91; P < 0.01) and cRAGE (odds ratio, 0.84; P < 0.01) were associated with lower proportional odds of developing T2DM. Reduced values of sRAGE isoforms observed with both obesity and IGT are independently associated with greater proportional odds of developing T2DM. The mechanisms by which each respective isoform contributes to obesity and insulin resistance may reveal novel treatment strategies for diabetes.

Significance of MNK1 in prognostic prediction and chemotherapy development of epithelial ovarian cancer

BACKGROUND

Ovarian cancer is the most lethal gynecologic malignancy worldwide with surgery as the only curative treatment. Long-term overall survival (OS) of ovarian cancer is far from satisfactory, even though significant improvement has been made in post-operative chemotherapy. One of the most important death cause is the chemoresistance due to consecutive chemotherapy. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in ovarian cancer development and identification of novel therapeutic targets are urgently required.

METHODS

Immunohistochemical (IHC) staining was used to explore the expression pattern of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-interacting kinase 1 (MNK1) in tumor tissues from 138 epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) patients. Clinicopathological data were subjected to Kaplan-Meier survival and Cox multivariate analyses to evaluate the prognostic value of MNK1 in EOC. Overexpression and silencing procedures were performed on OVCAR-5 cells to investigate the mechanisms of MNK1 in regulating EOC development. The anti-tumor effects of CGP57380, a specific MNK inhibitor, were examined by cell viability assay.

RESULTS

Higher MNK1 expression showed significant relationship with advanced FIGO stage and positive lymph node metastasis of EOC. Univariate and multivariate analyses revealed that MNK1 was an independent prognostic factor for OS of EOC patients. In vitro study demonstrated that MNK1 can promote cell proliferation through regulating the phosphorylation level of eukaryotic initiation factor 4E. In addition, inhibition of MNK1 by CGP57380 significantly down-regulated the OVCAR-5 cell viability.

CONCLUSION

High MNK1 expression in EOC tissues indicates poor clinical outcomes, and MNK1 can act as a potential target for novel chemotherapy development towards EOC.

The Role of the p38-MNK-eIF4E Signaling Axis in TNF Production Downstream of the NOD1 Receptor

Activation of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD) 1 and NOD2 by muropeptides triggers a complex transcriptional program in innate immune cells. However, little is known about posttranscriptional regulation of NOD1- and NOD2-dependent responses. When stimulated with a prototypic NOD1 agonist, N-acetylglucosaminyl-N-acetylmuramyl-l-alanyl-d-isoglutamyl-meso-diaminopimelic acid (GM-triDAP), human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) produced an order of magnitude more TNF, IL-6, and pro-IL-1β than did monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MDDC), despite similar NOD1 expression, similar cytokine mRNA kinetics, and comparable responses to LPS. TNF production by GM-triDAP-activated MDM was independent of autocrine IL-1. However, GM-triDAP-activated MDM translated TNF mRNA more efficiently than did MDDC. As an underlying mechanism, NOD1 triggering in MDM caused a more potent and long-lasting activation of the signaling axis involving p38 MAPK, MAPK-interacting kinase (MNK), and eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E, which is a critical regulator of translation. Furthermore, MNK controlled TNF mRNA abundance in MDDC and MDM upon NOD1 triggering. NOD1-dependent responses were more sensitive to MNK inhibition than were TLR4-dependent responses. These results demonstrate the importance of the p38-MNK-eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E axis in TNF production downstream of NOD1.

Flavivirus Infection Uncouples Translation Suppression from Cellular Stress Responses

As obligate parasites, viruses strictly depend on host cell translation for the production of new progeny, yet infected cells also synthesize antiviral proteins to limit virus infection. Modulation of host cell translation therefore represents a frequent strategy by which viruses optimize their replication and spread. Here we sought to define how host cell translation is regulated during infection of human cells with dengue virus (DENV) and Zika virus (ZIKV), two positive-strand RNA flaviviruses. Polysome profiling and analysis of de novo protein synthesis revealed that flavivirus infection causes potent repression of host cell translation, while synthesis of viral proteins remains efficient. Selective repression of host cell translation was mediated by the DENV polyprotein at the level of translation initiation. In addition, DENV and ZIKV infection suppressed host cell stress responses such as the formation of stress granules and phosphorylation of the translation initiation factor eIF2α (α subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2). Mechanistic analyses revealed that translation repression was uncoupled from the disruption of stress granule formation and eIF2α signaling. Rather, DENV infection induced p38-Mnk1 signaling that resulted in the phosphorylation of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor eIF4E and was essential for the efficient production of virus particles. Together, these results identify the uncoupling of translation suppression from the cellular stress responses as a conserved strategy by which flaviviruses ensure efficient replication in human cells.

For efficient production of new progeny, viruses need to balance their dependency on the host cell translation machinery with potentially adverse effects of antiviral proteins produced by the infected cell. To achieve this, many viruses evolved mechanisms to manipulate host cell translation. Here we find that infection of human cells with two major human pathogens, dengue virus (DENV) and Zika virus (ZIKV), leads to the potent repression of host cell translation initiation, while the synthesis of viral protein remains unaffected. Unlike other RNA viruses, these flaviviruses concomitantly suppress host cell stress responses, thereby uncoupling translation suppression from stress granule formation. We identified that the p38-Mnk1 cascade regulating phosphorylation of eIF4E is a target of DENV infection and plays an important role in virus production. Our results define several molecular interfaces by which flaviviruses hijack host cell translation and interfere with stress responses to optimize the production of new virus particles.